LECTURE 10: THE LANGUAGE IN COMMUNICATION II
VERBAL MESSAGE BARRIERS AND THEIR CORRECTION
Polarisation
 the tendency to view the world in terms of opposites, and to describe it in extremes (good vs.
bad, positive vs. negative, intelligent vs. stupid etc.)
 Correcting polarisation: we must realise and understand that most people have qualities that
fall somewhere between extremes on a continuum (See Appendix II, particularly at the
'relativity principle)
Intensional Orientation
 the tendency to look at people, objects, and events in a way they are talked about and the way
they are labelled. In other words, we act as though labels are more important than the things
they represent e.g. "Peter is dull and boring".
 cultural identifiers used by one group of people on another may be viewed as racist and
derogatory by the latter e.g. Most African American prefer African American to black, or
worse, Negro.
 Correcting intensional orientation: we must be prepared to 'extensionalise' and see people,
objects and events as they are and not in terms of convenient labels that we or other people
have placed on them; if cultural identifiers are used, then these must be acceptable to those
people or events on whom/which they are used
Fact-Inference Confusion


referring to inferential statements as though they were facts e.g. "This university is the best in
the country" is an inferential statement
correcting fact-inference confusion: Inferential statements are those which are often made
tentatively in that they are open to possible alternative viewpoints, or they may be proved
wrong
Bypassing
 a pattern of misevaluation in which people fail to communicate their intended meanings; the
sender says one thing but the receiver 'understands' something else- a pattern of
miscommunication e.g. a woman says "I like you" to a man (friendship or love/permanent
relationship?)
 correcting bypassing: Look for meanings in people, not in words because different words can
denote the same thing while the same word can connote different things depending on who is
saying what and to whom; also the listener should constantly seek feedback about what is
said to avoid miscommunication
Allness
 the wrong belief that we know all that needs to be known about a person or group; no one
can ever know all about everything because the world is a very complex place (remember the
six blind men and the elephant?)
 Correcting allness: end all statements with an et cetera (etc.) whether verbally or mentally to
remind yourself that there is more to what you have just said (again, perhaps we should take
heed of the famous Shakespearean quote: "There are more things in heaven and earth,
Horatio, than are dreamt of in your philosophy" …)
Static Evaluation
 a verbal evaluation statement about an event, person, or object that remains unchanging
(static) although the original object or person changes greatly over time
 correcting static evaluation: we must always try to date our statements and especially our
evaluations of ourselves, other people, events and objects e.g. Ahmad's academic
performance in 2000 need not be the same in 2001 (because he could have worked harder or,
unfortunately, grown lazy
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Indiscrimination
 focus on classes of people, objects, or events and failure to see that each is unique and needs
to be looked at individually; such misevaluation can occur as stereotypes and ethnocentric
perspectives
 stereotyping - forming a fixed mental picture of some group that is applied to each individual
of the group without regard to his or her unique individual qualities
 ethnocentrism - the tendency to see other and their behaviours through one's own cultural
filters; to evaluate the values, beliefs, and behaviours of one's own culture as being more
positive, logical, and natural than those of other cultures
 Correcting indiscrimination: we must see uniqueness in individuals regardless of prevailing
labels and stereotypes to avoid discriminating against people on racial, religious, cultural,
and national basis; use an index (verbal or mental subscript) to identify and relate to people
as unique individuals e.g. Urban Chinese1 is NOT equal to Urban Chinese2, and Malay
Muslim1 is NOT the same as Malay Muslim2, and so on.
CONFIRMATION AND DISCONFIRMATION
As DeVito (1999) suggests on page 98, before reading on perhaps you should try the self-test on page 99
to search yourself about your confirming orientation. See how you score on the test.
Confirmation is, of course, those set of behaviours that acknowledge and accept the presence of the other
person(s) with whom we come into contact. It is the opposite of disconfirmation.
Disconfirmation is a communication pattern in which we ignore someone's presence as well as his or her
communications. This is the kind of behaviour signified by the lower/lowest scores in the self-test
mentioned above. However, as the author reminds, we must keep an open mind about situations that call
for confirmation and the premature conclusion that "only insensitive people are disconfirming" (p. 99).
Sexism
Sexism refers to any conscious or subconscious attempt to use language in a way that places the members
of one sex in an inferior position. Thus it can affect men as well as women, and even women against
women, or men against men. From the late 1960s onwards, language researchers (mainly belonging to
feminist movements) have argued that language use is basically sexist in that it reflects a bias towards
women. This bias not only affects the way men treat women but also the way women regard themselves.
hence, many reforms have followed, mainly aimed at improving the perceived lower status of women and
removing connotations that treat women as sex objects.
Sexist language is language used to reproduce or represent a sexist stance that already exists in society in
the following ways:
1. Generic Man: common terms used to reproduce this include man, mankind, the common
man, and cavemen.
2. Generic He and His: these refer to the so-called neutral gender that has been used by many
speakers and writers, including women. What ways does the author suggest to make text
containing such expressions gender-free?
3. Words with positive connotation for men: confident forceful, strong, etc.
4. Words with negative connotation to describe women: fickle, frivolous, timid, etc.
5. Feminine markers used to derive labels for women from men's labels: waitress, actress,
mistress, etc.
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6. Different metaphors to refer to men and women: 'power' animal metaphors for men e.g. lion,
tiger, wolf, etc.; lower status food metaphors and baby animal names for women e.g. sugar,
honey, tomato, cookie, piece of cake, chick, kitty, etc.
7. Connotations of women as objects of sexual conquest: pussycat, baby, sweetie, skirt, etc.
In sum, it is men who have the power to name things, people, and events and language serves to assert
their dominance over women. How can the above naming expressions be substituted to reflect a more
democratic orientation that views female and male as equal?
Sex-Role Stereotyping
Are doctors always male, and nurses always female? Are kindergarten teachers always female, and
firemen male? If you really believe so, then you are sexist and display a sex role bias. What corrective
measures may be taken?
Heterosexism
According to DeVito (1999, p. 104), heterosexism as a 'close relative of sexism' "refers to language used
to disparage gay men and lesbians", and that heterosexism engenders or brings about heterosexist
language (just as sexism is reproduced as sexist language). However, before we can even begin to
understand DeVito's views about 'homophobic language' (and those of numerous others writing within a
North American/Western context), we must first look at the terms involved: who is a heterosexual? A
homosexual? A lesbian? DeVito says that perhaps the most difficult aspect of heterosexism to come to
terms with is the presumption of heterosexuality as the norm (collective identity) and that this "denies the
lesbian and gay identity a certain legitimacy" (p. 104). Is this also a norm in Asian cultures, and more
specifically in Malaysian culture(s) (there might be a multitude of norms depending on the number of
primary cultures we have in the country)?
Now go on and read about instances of homophobic language usage related by the author (p. 105). Again,
what is DeVito's underlying argument the use of such language? Do you think this argument and the
examples he provides are compatible on a global scale, that is with all cultures?
Racism
Racism is any conscious or subconscious attempt at using language that places a particular racial or
ethnic group in an inferior position. How does this definition compare with Andrea Rich's (1974)
definition in DeVito (1999)?
Racial language is like sexist language in that it reflects and perpetuates racist attitudes in the same way
that sexist language does for sexist attitudes. What do racist attitudes emphasise, and what are sociopolitical effects of such attitudes in multiracial, multicultural societies?
Racism is not only about speakers, that is, the produces of racist language. It is also about the listeners
who hold racist attitudes. What does the author have to say about this? (Read the 'Listen to This' box on
page 107.) More importantly, how can we develop racist-free speech communication practices?
Ŧ Task 7.2
1.
Say which of the following statements are FACTUAL and which are INFERENTIAL:
a.
May be made by anyone
b.
May be made at any time
c.
Are limited to what has been observed
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d.
Involve varying degrees of probability
e.
Are subject to verifiable standards
f.
May be made only by the observer
2.
Read about Thinking with E-Prime in DeVito (1999, p. 116), and rewrite the following
statements without using the verb to be in any of its forms - is, are, was, were, and will be.
1.
I'm a lazy student.
2.
They are poor learners of English.
3.
What is meaningful communication?
4.
Today was a bad day at the office.
5.
The lessons were not enlightening.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5,
______________________________________________
______________________________________________
______________________________________________
______________________________________________
______________________________________________
What does the author mean by 'thinking in E-prime'?
3.
Why is sexist language so offensive to some people? Is the use of sexist language a part of sexual
harassment?
4.
Explain the statement "Meanings are in people, not in words." How does this statement relate to
bypassing?
5.
Why do you think some people use racist, or sexist language? Give an example for each of these
types of disconfirmation?
® Reflection
1.
Think about this: how do you integrate or put together your verbal and non-verbal messages in
the making of the following statements? Hint: try reading aloud and acting it out, remembering
to note whatever non-verbal signals you use.
a.
b.
c.
d.
2.
I agree with all that you say.
Hurry up! We're half an hour late already.
I'm feeling rather sick; I'm going to have to throw up.
You look really depressed. What happened?
Can you Distinguish Fact from Inference? (slightly adapted from DeVito, J., 1997, p. 146)
Carefully read the following report, modelled on one developed by William Haney (1973), and
the list of observations based on it. Indicate whether you think the observations are true, false, or
doubtful on the basis of the information presented in the report. Write T if the observation is
definitely true, F if the observation is definitely false, and ? if the observation may be either true
or false. Judge each observation in order. Do not reread the observations after you have indicated
your judgement, and do not change any of your answers.
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A well-liked college teacher had just completed making up the final examination questions and
was turning off the lights in the office. Just then a tall, broad figure appeared and demanded the
examination paper. The professor walked to the drawer. Everything in the drawer was picked up
and the individual ran down the corridor. The dean was notified immediately.
_______
_______
_______
_______
_______
_______
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
_______
_______
_______
_______
7.
8.
9.
10.
The thief was tall and broad.
The professor turned off the lights.
A tall figure demanded the examination paper.
The examination paper was picked up by the someone.
The examination paper was picked up by the professor.
A tall figure appeared after the professor turned off the
lights in the office.
The man who opened the drawer was the professor.
The professor ran down the corridor.
The drawer was never actually opened.
Three persons are referred to in this report.
Thinking critically about facts and inferences. This test was designed to trap you into making
inferences and treating them as facts. Statement 3 is true (it is in the report) and statement 9 is
false (the drawer was opened). All the other statements, however, are inferences and should have
been marked? Review these 8 statements to see why you cannot be certain that any of them are
either true or false. try designing your own fact-inference test; it will help you highlight some of
the reasons inferences are often confused with facts.
3.
4.
5,
For each of the verbal message barriers listed below, think of an example of a situation when you
have used it. How would you correct the communication problem caused by its use?
1. polarisation
2. intensional Orientation
3. fact-inference Confusion
4. bypassing
5. allness
6. static Evaluation
7. stereotyping
8. ethnocentrism
Do you think people consciously use the six verbal message barriers or do you think these
communication approaches are all subconscious?
Which reason(s) for lying do you think people use the most?
6.
When is lying unethical? (adapted from DeVito, 1997, p. 129)
Each of the following situations presents an occasion for a lie. For purposes of this exercise let's define a
lie as a deliberate misstatement intended to mislead another person. How would you rate in terms of its
ethicality, suing the scale that follows? Note that many of the situations will lead you to look for more
specific information before making your decision. For example, you may want to know how old the child
in No. 8 is before making your decision or you may want to know the kind of lie that will be used to get
the person in No. 6 to do something good. you therefore might want to give more than one response for
each statement, depending upon the specific of the situation.
1 = definitely ethical
2 = probably ethical
3 = not sure; need to think more about this one
4 = probably unethical
5 = definitely unethical
1
2
To lie to a child to protect a fantasy belief, for example, to protect
the child's belief in Santa Claus or the Tooth Fairy
To lie to achieve some greater good, for example, to lie to someone
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3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
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to prevent him or her from committing suicide or from getting
depressed or to lie to prevent a burglary or theft
To lie in an employment interview in answer to a question that is
overly personal (and irrelevant) and illegal
To lie to protect the reputation of your family, or some specific
family member
To lie to enable the other person to save face, for example, to voice
agreement with an idea you find foolish, to say you enjoyed meeting
the person when you didn't, or to compliment the other person when
it is totally undeserved
To get someone to do something in his or her own best interest, for
example, to diet, to stop smoking, or to study harder
To lie to get what you deserve but can't get any other way, for
example, a well-earned promotion or raise or another chance with
your relationship partner
To lie to protect your child from going to jail or facing charges of
theft, drug dealing, or murder (though the child is guilty)
To lie to the Internal Revenue Service (Income Tax) office in order
to lower your tax bill
To lie to keep hidden information about yourself that you simply
don't want to reveal to anyone, for example, your love life, your
financial situation, or your religious beliefs
To lie to your husband or wife to avoid a fight
To lie to get out of an unpleasant situation, for example, to get out of
a date with someone you don't quite fancy, extra office work, or a
boring conversation
Thinking Critically about Lying and Ethics. Each of these situations will be responded to differently by
different people, depending on the culture in which they were raised, their beliefs about lying, and their
own ethical codes. Do you think there can be universal agreement among people on any one of the
situations? What cultural beliefs influence the ways in which lying and ethics are looked at? Can you
identify situations for which a lie is always unethical? Are there situations in which truth telling would be
unethical and lying would be ethical instead?
The present unit of the module has extended the ideas introduced in the previous unit about verbal
messages. It has considered verbal message principles in terms of different kinds of talk and how these
relate to criticism, praise, and appraisal. The unit has also identified various barriers to effective speech
together with suggested corrective action. Finally, we looked at the concept of disconfirmation and its
connection with sexism, heterosexism, and racism.
____________________________
The late Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., Civil Rights Activist of “I have a Dream” speech fame:
“When we let freedom ring, we let it ring from every village and every hamlet, from every state and every
city, we will be able to speed up the day when all of God’s children, black men and white men, Jews and
gentiles, Protestants and Catholics, will be able to join hands and sing in the words of the old Negro
spiritual, “Free at last! Free at last! Thank God Almighty, we are free at last!”
(Lincoln Memorial, Washington, D. C., August 28, 1963)
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