1
INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION
Lecture 4
Nonverbal communication
[SLIDE 1 – Title]
[SLIDE 2 – Key Ideas]
Key Ideas

Definition of nonverbal communication

How much of communication is nonverbal

Kinesics

Proxemics

Factors affecting nonverbal communication

Artifactual communication

Concepts of time
What is nonverbal communication?
[SLIDE 3 – Nonverbal communication]
Definition of nonverbal communication
Nonverbal communication is communication by means other than words.
Nonverbal communication is a multi - channelled process that is usually performed
spontaneously.
It typically involves a subtle set of nonlinguistic behaviours that are often enacted
subconsciously. (Lustig & Koestler, 1996, pg.187)
Nonverbal behaviour is multifaceted as it includes:

our body movements
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
where we choose to stand in relation to someone else

whether we choose to touch them

our dress

the way we speak and even

our attitude to time
More than anything else, nonverbal communication is influenced by our
culture.
[SLIDE 4 – Nonverbal messages]
How large a part of communication is nonverbal?
It is agreed that over half of any message is conveyed nonverbally.
However researchers differ on exact percentages.
On one hand, Mehrabian believed as much as 93% of all social meaning was
conveyed nonverbally. 55% body language, 38 % intonation and 7% words.
His work focused particularly on trust and believability e.g. Think of a used car
salesman or politician – we are aware that their key objective is to persuade us.
By contrast, Birdwhistell suggested that 65% of interpretation of meaning is based
on nonverbal elements.
What is crucial to remember is that verbal and nonverbal communication systems
are inseparably linked thus we are able to learn most about nonverbal
communication systems by studying them in relation to the verbal.
[SLIDE 5 – Functions]
Nonverbal messages function in one of three ways.
They can:

replace
 reinforce
or
 contradict verbal messages
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Problems interpreting meaning arise when nonverbal messages contradict verbal
messages.
Research suggests that when a receiver senses an inconsistency between verbal
and nonverbal messages, in general, the unspoken or nonverbal one carries more
weight.
Nonverbal messages are the ones we believe
We have to be very careful about reading nonverbal signals (especially postures) in
isolation because they are part of a package of signals.
Alan Pease talks about reading clusters of behaviour
e.g. does arms folded show defensive behaviour or are you simply cold?
The tone of your voice and facial expression would help us understand the true
message.
Only when a cluster of behaviours occurs can nonverbal signals be interpreted with
any degree of certainty.
Look at slide 5 and you will see a range of unusual nonverbal communication clearly
serving a particular cultural purpose
[SLIDE 6 – Maori haka]
Culture
Culture has a considerable influence over our nonverbal communication. It cannot be
assumed that messages conveyed by nonverbal communication can be transferred
to other cultures.
Most forms of nonverbal communication are culture specific.
They can be interpreted only within the framework of the culture in which they
occur.
Yet, even within a culture, nonverbal behaviour may be misread.
Theorists have developed a language for us to talk about nonverbal communication
in an effort to clarify meaning
For example, Ray Birdwhistell, introduced the term kinesics to refer to the study of
body movements in communication. This will be our first point of study.
[SLIDE 7 – Kinesics]
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Kinesics = The study of body movement, gesture, and
posture
Body movements is used in a broad sense and refers also to movements of the
head.
Birdwhistell estimated that there are over 700,000 possible physical signs that can be
transmitted via body movement.
Body Movements
One useful classification of body movement identifies five types: (Ekman & Friesen in
DeVito p 165 - 167)
1. Emblems are symbols selected by members of a culture to convey
intended meanings.
They substitute for words, or directly translate into words e.g. nonverbal signs
for ‘OK’, ’peace’, hitchhiking sign.
These emblems are learnt in same way that we learn words, through imitation.
They are as arbitrary as words in that they are specific to age groups, and
cultures.
Your culture’s emblems are not necessarily the same as the emblems of other
cultures
This can cause misunderstanding in intercultural communication because
shared meanings for an emblem in one culture may be different from the
shared meaning of the same emblem in another culture.
For example, the gesture made by joining thumb and forefinger to form a circle
signals cheery agreement to most of us but has a less positive meaning in
other parts of the world. It means “You’re worth zero” in France and Belgium
and “money” in Japan. (Adler & Rodman).
[SLIDE 8 – Illustrators]
2. Illustrators accompany and literally illustrate what you are talking about.
They make your communication more vivid and help to maintain your listener’s
attention.
They can also help to clarify and intensify your verbal message or
complement the verbal message, making it easier to understand e.g. “The fish
was this big” where meaning is shown by how far apart the hands are placed.
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Most of the time we are only partially aware of the illustrators we use.
Illustrators are more natural and more universal that emblems.
[SLIDE 9 – Affect displays]
3. Affect Displays (affect = emotion) show feeling.
They include facial movements that convey emotional meaning – for example
expressions on the face that show anger and fear, happiness and surprise.
Facial cues are the single most important source of nonverbal
communication.
We can consciously control affect displays as actors do when they play a
role and they can be used to mislead.
Many affect displays may be universally recognised. Paul Ekman and
colleagues’ research indicates that, regardless of culture, the primary
emotional states are the same.
He classes these primary emotional states as:

happiness

sadness

anger

fear

surprise

disgust

contempt and

interest.
However cultural norms often affect both the kind and amount of affect
displays shown.
[SLIDE 10 – Regulators]
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4. Regulators are the cues listeners give to encourage a speaker, stop a
speaker, check a point or get a turn to speak.
These are nonverbal behaviours that monitor, maintain, or control the
speaking of another individual.
When listening, we are not passive.
Nonverbal behaviour may include nodding your head, frowning, and making
sounds such as, mm-mm, aha etc.
They tell the speaker what you expect or want them to do as they are talking
e.g. “keep going”,
Regulators are culture specific. Each culture develops its own rules for
regulating conversation. These again may easily be misinterpreted.
Most people nod their heads to agree and shake their heads to disagree but
Bulgarians shake their head to agree.
[SLIDE 11 – Adaptors]
5. Adaptors are personal body movements that occur as a reaction to a
person’s physical or psychological state
They are designed to satisfy some need
This need may be physical e.g. we scratch to relieve an itch or push our hair
out of our eyes so that we can see better.
The need may be psychological, as some people bite their lips when they
are anxious while some women play with their hair
When performed in private they occur in their entirety e.g. you would scratch
your head until the itch is gone.
But in public, these adaptors usually occur in abbreviated form. For example,
when people are watching us, we might place our fingers on our head and
move them around a bit but probably not scratch with the same vigour as
when in private.
Adaptors also seem to be more frequent under conditions of stress,
impatience enthusiasm or nervousness.
The face, and particularly the eyes, is the most noticed part of the body
and their impact is powerful.
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Research has shown that smiling waitresses earn larger tips than unsmiling
ones, and smiling nuns collect larger donations than ones with glum
expressions. (Adler and Rodman)
[SLIDE 12 – Proxemics]
Proxemics
Proxemics (Tubbs & Moss, DeVito & Knapp & Hall) is the study of the use of
space and what this communicates.
It refers primarily to the distance between people as they interact but can also refer to
organisation of space in homes and offices.
How we use space can dramatically affect our ability to achieve desired
communication goals.
This field of study was pioneered by anthropologist Edward Hall. Hall believes space
speaks just as loudly as words.
However, most spatial interpretation is outside our awareness.
We learn the dos and don’ts by observation of others rather than through
systematic instruction.
It is interesting to note, however, that most people are unable to state the cultural
norms that dictate their proxemic behaviour.
In Oman, how close is it appropriate to stand to someone you don’t know?
How close would you stand to someone you know very well?
How close would you stand to someone of the same sex?
How close would you stand to someone of the opposite sex?
It usually takes an outside observer to identify our unquestioned cultural practices
which can be the source of many difficulties in intercultural communication.
Spatial Distances
Hall developed proxemic zones or distances categorised as:

intimate

personal

social and
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
public.
However, his research was based on a small group of friends who were uppermiddle-class professionals, so they are not necessarily able to be generalised and
will certainly change in different cultures.
[SLIDE 13 –Spatial distances]
Intimate Distance
Intimate distance = 0 to 45 cm (18 inches or less)
This begins with skin contact & ranges to 18 inches.
This space is reserved for those we feel emotionally close to. Allowing someone to
enter this space is a sign of trust. At this distance not only touch but smell, body
temperature & feel of breath can be part of what we experience
In the close phase it is used for lovemaking, wrestling, for comforting and protecting.
Here, communication is primarily nonverbal. Any subject discussed is usually top
secret.
The far phase still allows people to touch each other and is often used for discussing
confidential matters, with the voice usually kept to a whisper.
Eye contact is awkward at this distance so eyes seldom meet. In European culture
intimate distance is generally reserved for our partner, child, or best friend.
Is this also true in Oman?
When forced into intimate distance with strangers in an elevator for example, we use
nonverbal cues to establish separateness i.e. we avoid eye contact, fold our arms or
have our bag in front of our body etc.
Personal Distance
This is the distance (45 cm to about 1.2 m or 18 inches to about 4 feet) preferred by
most conversation partners in a public setting.
Touch is still possible but limited to brief pats for emphasis or reassurance. The finer
details of others’ skin, eyes & teeth are visible but we can’t discern body temperature
or feel the breath.
Hall says that people also have boundaries that mark their personal space. It is as if
we walk around in an invisible bubble of personal space that we like to keep between
ourselves and other people.
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Your personal bubble keeps you protected and untouched by others. Invasion by
others causes distress. When personal space is invaded, we often feel awkward,
become uncomfortable and tense.
This area of personal space differs from culture to culture. For Americans it is
the distance from 0.5 metres to 1.3 metres (from 1½ to 4 feet). The close phase is a
distance reserved for very close relationships. The far phase is a comfortable
distance for conversing with friends.
People from colder climates typically use large physical distances when they
communicate, whereas those from warm-weather climates prefer close
distances.
The personal space bubbles for northern Europeans are large, and others are
expected to keep their distance. The personal space bubbles for Europeans gets
smaller and smaller as you travel south towards the Mediterranean.
The distance that is regarded as intimate in Germany, Scandinavia and England
overlaps with what is regarded as normal conversational distance in France and the
Mediterranean countries of Italy, Greece, and Spain.
Often northern Europeans think their southern counterparts get “too close for
comfort,” whereas the southern Europeans regard their northern neighbours as “too
distant and aloof.”
Social Distance
Social distance ranges from 1.2 to 3.6 metres (4 to 12 feet)
More impersonal business is carried out at this distance. Sales people and
customers are normally happy with this distance. 5 to 7 feet away says “I’m here to
help but I don’t want to be pushy.”
This is also the appropriate distance for communicating with people we don’t know
very well.
The close phase is suitable for conversations at social gatherings.
The far phase is suitable for business meetings where eye contact is essential,
the voice is generally louder than normal and impersonal information is exchanged.
Public Distance
This is commonly used by managers or instructors addressing work groups and
ranges from 3.6 to 7.5 metres or even more (12 feet to 25 feet or more). A more
formal style of language and a louder voice are required.
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Experienced public speakers exaggerate body movements, gestures, enunciation,
and volume while reducing their rate of speech.
If you want to test this concept of proxemics, the next time you converse with
someone, keep inching toward him or her. See how close you can get before the
other person starts backing away.
[SLIDE 14 - Factors affecting distance]
Factors Affecting Spatial Distances
The specific distances you would maintain between yourself and another person
depend on a wide variety of factors. (See DeVito)
1. Culture
Culture is a huge influencing factor.
A study looked at the use of interpersonal distance by Venezuelans (high
contact), North Americans (moderate contact), and Japanese (low contact).
The researchers found that in speaking their own language, Venezuelans sit
closest to each other, North Americans maintain an intermediate distance, and
Japanese sit farthest from each other.
When they use English rather than their native language, people maintain
interpersonal distances closer to North American norms.
This indicates that when we speak in a foreign language, we tend to approximate
the distance norms of that country. (Tubbs and Moss)
We don’t consciously calculate these differences while communicating, however.
A sense of what distance is natural is so deeply ingrained in us by our culture that
we automatically make spatial adjustments and interpret spatial cues.
Most people don’t think about personal distance as something that is culturally
patterned. However, the misinterpretation of foreign spatial cues can lead to
bad feelings which are projected onto the people from the other culture in a
personal way.
When a foreigner appears to be aggressive and pushy, or remote and cold, it may
mean only that their personal distance is different from yours. (Lustig & Koester,
1999, p 220)
2. Status
Research shows that people of equal status maintain a shorter distance
between themselves than people of unequal status.
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A manager is able to stand close to his employees but not the other way round.
The greater the status difference, the greater the space.
It is OK for the boss to get close to an employee but not OK for a lower status
person to get closer to a higher status person.
3. Context
Context is determined by:

the level of formality

purpose of the interaction

availability of space.
Every situation is individual and specific.
In general, the more formal the situation is, the greater the space that is
maintained.
Talking about personal matters or sharing secrets requires a shorter distance
while talking about impersonal matters may be done in a larger space.
Generally, the larger the physical space you are in, the smaller the interpersonal
space. For example, the space between two people talking will be smaller in the
street than the space between two people talking in a house.
The larger the space the more you seem to need to close it off to make immediate
communication manageable.
4. Gender
Research findings show that women choose to stand closer to the person they
are interacting with than men do and that people approach women more closely
that they approach men.
5. Age
Distance also increases with age. Children stand closer together than adults.
Interaction distance seems to expand gradually from about six to early
adolescence when adult distances are used.
This indicates that maintained distance is a learned behaviour.
6. Personality
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Introverts and highly anxious people maintain greater distances than extroverts
and people with high self-concept.
7. Territoriality or the need to protect or defend a particular spatial area.
This is a set of behaviours people display to show that they own or have the right
to control a particular geographic area e.g. a library space marked by personal
possessions.
Territoriality is a possessive reaction to an area or to particular objects which
relates closely to any discussion of the relationship between space and human
behaviour. Through territorial behaviour we signal ownership and status.
[SLIDE 15 – Haptics]
Touch (Haptics)
Touch or haptics refers to moving into another’s space & making body contact
It is the most basic form of human communication and one of the most important
means of communicating nonverbally.
[SLIDE 16 – Haptics (Touch)]
Touch is essential for psychological and physical development in children and
emotional well-being in adults.
Touch is used to convey five major meanings (in DeVito):

Touch expresses positive and negative feelings and emotions.
Protection, reassurance, love, dislike, disapproval are all conveyed through
touch. Hugging, stroking, kissing, hitting, and kicking are all ways in which
these messages can be conveyed.

Touch can be a sign of playfulness e.g. it can be used to signal that the
other’s behaviour shouldn’t be taken seriously.

Touch is a means to control the other person. “Move over,” “stay here,”
and similar messages are communicated through touch e.g. when we stop a
child walking across a road when a car is coming. Touching to control may
communicate social dominance.
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In most Western countries higher status individuals are more likely to touch
than be touched, whereas low-status individuals are likely to receive touching
behaviours from their superiors.

Ritualistic touching centres on greetings and departures. Shaking hands
to say hello or goodbye is the clearest example of ritualistic touching. You
might also hug, kiss or put an arm around a shoulder. Ritualistic touching
varies according to culture e.g. in New Zealand Maori culture on formal
occasions a “hongi” or touching noses together is used as a greeting.

Task related touching is associated with the performance of some
functions e.g. by professionals such as doctors or nurses.
[SLIDE 17 – Touch behaviour]
Cultural Differences in Touch Behaviour
Cultures differ in the overall amount of touching they prefer.
High-contact cultures e.g. Middle East, Latin America, and southern Europe touch
each other in social conversations much more than people from non-contact cultures
such as Asia and northern Europe.
In one study, of college students in Japan and in the United States, students from the
United States reported being touched twice as much as the Japanese students.
In Japan, there is a strong taboo against strangers touching, and the Japanese are
therefore especially careful to maintain sufficient distance. (Barnlund 1975 in DeVito).
Another research study looked at the number of times couples touched each other in
cafes in different cities.
a) San Juan, Puerto Rico
180 times per hour
b) Paris, France
110 times per hour
c) London, England
0 times per hour
(in O’Sullivan 1994 p62)
Cultures also differ in where people can be touched. In Thailand and Malaysia and
amongst Maori and Pacific Islanders for instance, the head should not be touched
because it is considered to be sacred. (Lustig & Koester)
Artifactual Communication
Artifactual communication refers to messages conveyed by objects made by
human hands.
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Colour, clothing, jewellery, and the way we decorate our spaces are all part of
artifactual communication.
We make enormous assumptions about people based on these and based on
clothing in particular.
Clothing serves as a cultural display as it communicates your cultural and
subcultural affiliations.
People make inferences about who you are by the way you dress.
Whether accurate or inaccurate, these inferences influence what people think of
you and how they react to you e.g.

your social class

your seriousness

your attitudes

your concern for convention and

your sense of style
will all be judged partly from the way you dress.
“Clothes we select for ourselves are a better indicator of who we think we are
than our faces or our bodies. They can be a mirror of what’s inside or a veneer
of camouflage against the world that judges quickly on surfaces or a map to
display your aspirations”.
(Ehrlich p.137)
[SLIDE 18 – Paralanguage]
Paralanguage
Paralanguage is a term used to refer to all the sounds around the words we use
Para - Greek for beside or around.
The impact of paralanguage is strong. Research shows that, when asked to
determine a speaker’s attitudes, listeners pay more attention to the vocal
messages than to the words that are spoken.
When vocal factors contradict a verbal message, listeners judge the speaker’s
intention from the paralanguage, not from the words themselves. (Adler and
Rodman)
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Paralanguage includes voice qualities such as:
1
Tone of voice e.g. sarcasm.
Misunderstanding sarcasm is a very common problem in interpreting vocal
cues.
This is especially true for children, people with poor listening skills, and people
from non English speaking backgrounds.
2
Speech rate (pace)
New Zealanders speak quite fast - 130-170 words a minute while the average
speaking rate is between 125 and 150 words per minute.
Do Omanis speak above or below this average speaking rate per minute?
Speech rate is highly stable for individuals and for this reason, a faster rate
with shorter comments & more frequent pauses is linked to fear or anger so it
is a valuable clue.
A slower rate of speech is linked to grief and depression i.e. because you are
used to the normal rate of your friend’s speech, you pick up on the difference
from normal.
If you speak too slowly, you’ll be seen as boring, tired or incompetent.
Research on rate of speech shows that people who talk fast are more
persuasive and are evaluated more highly that those who talk at or below
normal speeds. (MacLachlan 1979 in DeVito)
In one experiment (DeVito) subjects listened to taped messages and then
indicated their level of agreement with the message and their opinion of the
speaker’s intelligence and objectivity (MacLachlan 1979).
Experimenters used speaking rates of 111, 140 (the average speaking rate)
and 191 words per minute.
Subjects agreed most with the fastest speech and least with the slowest
speech.
They rated the fastest speaker as the most intelligent and objective.
They rated the slowest speaker as the least intelligent and objective.
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Fluency
The fluency of our speech is closely related to rate but can be a function of
intelligence and confidence i.e. the more knowledgeable we are about a
subject, the more likely we are to be able to speak fluently on that subject.
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4
Volume
Volume can reinforce or enhance a person’s power base and convey a
sense of confidence. Appropriate sound level varies considerably from one
culture to another.
According to Hall,
“An American voice is softer than Arab, Spanish and Indian voices, and
a Russian voice is louder than English upper class, Southeast Asian
and Japanese”
(p121)
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Pitch
Pitch is the frequency level (high or low) of the voice. Pitch is an important
element in people’s judgements about a speaker.
Vocal cues are sometimes the basis for our inferences about personality traits.
If people increase their loudness, pitch & rate of speech, we perceive them as
more dynamic& active.
On the other hand, we use a low pitch to project authority and confidentiality.
A lower pitch is interpreted as authoritative and influential. It is hard to
think of any successful professional persuaders with high-pitched voices.
George Bush Senior nearly destroyed his 1988 presidential campaign by
speaking at a high, strained pitch. Until he had vocal training he was labelled
a “wimp”.
Margaret Thatcher took voice lessons to lower her pitch in an effort to sound
more authoritative.
Broadcasters are trained to complete sentences with a slight downward
inflection. In general, downward inflections communicate confidence,
authority and certainty while upward inflections suggest doubt and uncertainty.
Paralanguage also includes vocalisations or noises without linguistic
structure such as crying, whispering, moaning, belching, yawning and
yelling.
So a whole range of nonverbal clues is intimately associated with perception
too.
[SLIDE 19 – Silence]
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Effect of Silence
“Silence communicates just as intensely as anything you verbalise”
(Jaworski 1993 in DeVito)
Like words and gestures, silence too, serves important communication functions.
Silence allows the speaker time to think as well as time to formulate and organise
their verbal communication.
Some people use silence as a weapon to hurt others. After a conflict, for example,
one or both individuals might remain silent as a kind of punishment.
Silence used to hurt others may also take the form of refusing to acknowledge the
presence of another person.
Silence can be used to communicate emotional responses. Sometimes silence
communicates a determination to be uncooperative or defiant. By refusing to engage
in verbal communication, you defy the authority or the legitimacy of the other
person’s position.
The communicative functions of silence are not universal. Americans and Europeans,
for example, often interpret silence negatively.
Perhaps the silent member wasn’t listening, has nothing interesting to add, doesn’t
understand the issues, or is too self-absorbed to focus on the messages of others.
Other cultures view silence more positively. Respectful silence in front of elders and
teachers is common in Pacific Island cultures. Also silence is sometimes used to
avoid being seen to disagree with someone of higher status.
How is silence used in Oman?
[SLIDE 20 – Time]
Time (Chronemics)
Study of temporal communication (chronemics) focuses on the use of time,
how you organise it, how you react to it, and the messages it communicates.
Different cultures make different assumptions about how time should be used or
experienced.
How time is used is a widely held and consistently imposed view of the proper or
appropriate way to conduct oneself as a competent member of the culture. (Lustig &
Koester)
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Concepts of Time
Different theorists have devised different ways of categorising time
Hall distinguishes between monochronic and polychronic conceptions of time.
Monochronic concept of time:

Things should be done one at a time

Time is segmented into precise, small units

Time is viewed as a commodity; it is scheduled, managed, and arranged

People are very time driven

Making appointments and meeting deadlines is highly valued

An event is regarded as separate and distinct from all others and should
receive the exclusive focus of attention it deserves.
Examples of monochronic cultures include the USA, Germany, Scandinavia and
Switzerland.
Polychronic concept of time:

Many things go on at once

Relationships are far more important than schedules

There is no great surprise or concern when delays or interruptions occur

Appointments will be quickly broken, schedules readily set aside, deadlines
not met when friends or family members require attention

Multiple appointments are often scheduled simultaneously
Examples of polychronic cultures include Latin America, Mediterranean people and
Arabs.
In one study, researchers examined the accuracy of the clocks in six different
cultures and found considerable variation. (Levine & Bartlett 1984).
Clocks in Japan were the most accurate, while clocks in Indonesia were the least
accurate. Clocks in the USA, Taiwan, England, and Italy, fell between the two
extremes (in that order).
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Not surprisingly, when the speed of pedestrians in these cultures was measured, the
researchers found that the Japanese walked the fastest and the Indonesians the
slowest.
Such differences reflect the various ways in which cultures treat time and their
general attitude towards the importance of time in their everyday lives.
Psychological time - importance placed on the past,
present, or future.
Some cultures are predominantly past-orientated, others present-orientated and
others have a future-orientation. Every child learns a time perspective appropriate to
the values and needs of their society. (Gonsalez & Zimbardo in DeVito & Hecht)
1
Past–oriented cultures

Previous experiences and events are most important

Primary emphasis is placed on tradition, and the wisdom passed down from
older generations

Deference and respect is shown for parents and other elders, who are the
links to these past sources of knowledge

Events are circular, as important patterns perpetually recur in the present, so
that the wisdom of yesterday is applicable also to today.
2
Present-oriented cultures

Current experiences are most important

A major emphasis is placed on spontaneity and immediacy and on
experiencing each moment as fully as possible

People don’t participate in particular events or experiences because of some
potential future gain. They participate because of the immediate pleasure the
activity provides

Present-oriented cultures typically believe that unseen and unknown outside
forces, such as fate or luck, control their lives.
Cultures such as those in the Philippines and many Central and South
American countries are usually present-oriented. They have found ways to
encourage a rich appreciation for the simple pleasures that arise in daily
activities
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3
Future-oriented cultures

These cultures believe that tomorrow, or some other moment in the future, is
most important

Current activities are not accomplished and appreciated for their own sake but
for the potential future benefits that might be obtained.

Examples of such behaviour include saving today, working hard at university
and denying yourself certain enjoyments and luxuries all because you are
preparing for the future

People from future-oriented cultures believe that their fate is at least partially
in their own hands and that they can control the consequences of their
actions.
[SLIDE 21 – Reading for tutorials]
Reading for tutorials
Read DeVito, chapter 8, pg 162 – 192
Summary
In this lecture we have looked at:

Defining nonverbal communication

Understanding how often it is used and what happens when verbal and
nonverbal messages disagree

Defining the elements of kinesics or body movements especially:
o
Emblems
o
Illustrators
o
Affect Displays
o
Regulators
o
Adaptors

Understanding proxemics or how distance is used in intimate, personal,
social and public settings

The factors influencing spatial distances.
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o
Culture
o
Status
o
Context
o
Gender
o
Age
o
Personality
o
Territoriality

Haptics or touch and the factors affecting it.

Artifactual communication and the conclusions others make about us
based on how we dress or the artifacts we use

Paralanguage and the 5 factors associated with it
1
Tone of voice e.g. sarcasm.
2
Speech rate (pace)
3
Fluency
4
Volume
5
Pitch

The ways in which different cultures use silence and finally

The ways in which different cultures use time including monochronic and
polychronic time and the difference between past-, present- and futureorientated cultures.
Conclusion
Our nonverbal communication indicates to other people what we might be feeling but
it is very easy to be wrong in our interpretations of nonverbal communication.
It must be seen as a series of signals and we need to read this package of signals as
a whole.
Most forms of nonverbal communication are culture specific. They can be interpreted
only within the framework of the culture in which they occur.
22
Cultures have an extremely powerful and complex influence on every aspect of our
perceptions and behaviour.
We cannot assume that our way is the right way.
References:
DeVito, J. (2007). The interpersonal communication book. International edition (11th
edition). USA: Pearson.
DeVito, J. & Hecht, M. L., eds. (1990). The Nonverbal Communication Reader.
Prospect Heights IL : Waveland Press
DeVito, J., O’Rourke, S. & O’Neill, L. (2000). Human communication: the New
Zealand edition. New Zealand: Pearson
Knapp, M. & Hall, J. (1992). Nonverbal behaviour in Human interaction, 3rd ed. New
York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
LeVine, R. & Bartlett, K. (1984). Pace of life, Punctuality and Coronary Heart Disease
in Six Countries. Journal of Cross Cultural Psychology, 15:233-255
Lustig, M. W. & Koestler, J. (1996). Intercultural competence: Interpersonal
Communication across Cultures, 2nd ed. New York: HarperCollins
Mehrabian, A. (1978). How we Communicate feelings nonverbally (a Psychology
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