Lessons 21: Of Measures Metrical, Judicial, and Corporeal
Lesson Objectives:
 Establish social, cultural, and historical contexts of Shakespeare’s Measure for Measure.
 Examine allusion and intertextuality with a brief discussion of Tennyson’s “Mariana.”
 Examine in close detail the elements of drama.
 Continue discussion of critical issues, themes, and motifs to focus cadet reading of
Measure for Measure.
Handouts: Identify handouts sent to cadet email accounts/posted on course website:
 An Introduction to Drama - Handout
Pedagogical Intent: This lesson begins our examination of Shakespeare as a playwright,
establishing a textual and cultural foundation for our study of Measure for Measure. After
answering questions about the “Introduction to Drama” handout and highlighting critical points,
we will move to a more general discussion about Measure for Measure, identifying what was
going on in England circa 1604, establishing social and political contexts, and identifying
specific conceits, motifs, and dramatic elements to focus our subsequent close reading.
Scheme of Maneuver:
 Discuss “An Introduction to Drama.”
o First answer any questions cadets have.
o Note the differences between a “play” and “drama.”
o Note the differences between “seeing” a play and “reading” it.
o Examine how drama shares characteristics with both poetry and prose:
 Like poetry, drama is meant to be “heard.” As such, it often integrates the
aural qualities of rhythm, poetic diction, imagery, and other techniques of
versification.
 Drama also manipulates many of the elements of prose. Aristotle
identified the following six basic elements of drama:
 Setting
 Character
 Plot
 Language
 Theme
 Music
 Despite the similarities, however, dram is NEITHER prose nor poetry, as
it differs in the elements of point of view, time, and structure.
 Characters speak directly to one another.
 A play takes place in the perpetual present tense.
 The audience watches the action unfold without (usually) the
benefit of an omniscient narrator.
o Identify the elements of drama: plot, character, theme, setting
 Plot:
 Five structural elements – similar to fiction:
o Exposition
o Complication
o Crisis
o Falling action
o Resolution/Denouement
 Dialogue and action drive a play’s plot.
o Dramatic dialogue: Provides significant information with
respect to plot, characterization, and theme.
o Action
 Generally – two types of plots;
o Unfolding – tightly knit plot in which the action unfolds or
develops over a short period of time, often a single day.
o Episodic – A plot that develops through a chronological
series of episodes (or incidents).
o Which is Measure for Measure? (Episodic)
 Character:
 Playwrights develop characters through a character’s:
o Name
o Physical appearance / characteristics
o Actions
o Asides/soliloquies
o Response to / comparisons with other characters or
incidents
 Dramatis personae: cast of characters
 Protagonist: play’s central character or “hero”
o In a tragedy, called a “tragic hero”
 Antagonist: Character or force in direct opposition to the
protagonist.
 Confidant/confidante: The character to whom the protagonist
confides his or her secrets, private thoughts, etc.
 Foil: A minor character whose contrasting personality in some
ways clarifies that of a major character.
 Caricature: A character with a habit or trait carried to a ridiculous
extreme.
 Can we identify in Measure for Measure:
o A protagonist? Multiple protagonists?
o An antagonist?
o Foil?
o Caricature?
o Revisit this question periodically between Lessons 22-26.
 Setting:
 Theme: As in fiction, a play’s plot, characters, and setting inform/reveal
its themes.
o Two major sub-genres of drama: tragedy and comedy.
 As Measure for Measure is, ostensibly, a comedy, we will focus on
comedy here.
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Comedy:
 Meant primarily to amuse.
 Usually, however, “informs” / “educates” while amusing.
 Just because a comedy is humorous does NOT mean that the
subject matter is not very serious; as with Measure for Measure,
comedies often tackle quite serious subjects.
 Comic plots are often quite convoluted.
o As in Measure for Measure….
 Many different “types” of comedies:
o Is Measure for Measure a comedy of manners? Or a
comedy of morals?
o Comedy of Manners: A type of realistic, often satiric,
comedy concerned with the behavior of men and women
who violate the manners, norms, and conventions of polite,
sophisticated upper-class society.
o Comedy of Morals: A type of comedy that exposes and
ridicules moral posturing.
o See handout for definitions of other types of comedies.
 Comedy of Humours
 Comedy of Situation
 Romantic Comedy
 Farce
o Discuss the basic structure of a play:
 Act – Scene – Line
 Act: Major unit of development in a play.
 Scene: A new scene is needed whenever there is a change of
setting or time or with the entrance or exit of a major character.
 See LBH, 650 for how to cite parenthetically a play:
o Basically – by Act, Scene, and Line. (3.4.121-124).
 In Works Cited:
Shakespeare: William. “Measure for Measure.” The Norton Shakespeare. Ed. Stephen
Greenblatt, et. al. 2nd ed. New York and London: W.W. Norton and Company, 2008.
2039-2108. Print.

See LBH 750-751 for a sample of a student essay on drama. Please
note the format is not IAW DAW.
o Discuss the illusion of reality / verisimilitude in drama.
o Talk the Talk: You must be conversant with and able to apply the following
terms:
 Catharsis: a psychological state through which the emotions of pity and
fear are purged, allowing the audience to leave a particular performance
relieved, or even exalted, rather than depressed.
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Primarily a term used with respect to tragedy – however, Measure
for Measure, as we will see, is a “problem play”
 Comic relief: A comic scene introduced into an otherwise serious or tragic
play, usually to relieve, if only momentarily, the tension of the plot. It
often heightens, by contrast, the emotional intensity of the play.
 Satire: Casts a critical eye on vices and follies by holding them up to
ridicule – usually to point out an absurdity so that it can be avoided or
corrected.
 Aside: A speech by a character, delivered solely to (and for) the audience.
 Soliloquy: A speech delivered by a character alone on stage. It usually
reveals what the character is thinking.
 High comedy: Revolves around verbal wit and intellectual wordplay.
 Low comedy: Revolves around physical comedy and is usually much less
intellectual.
o Draw specific attention to the “Writing Critically about Drama” section of the
handout.
Historical and Social Contexts:
o Historically – the late 16th and early 17th centuries were a period of relative calm
between two of the most tumultuous periods in English history:
 War of the Roses (1455-1485) – Leads to the Tudor Period (14571603)
o After disputed succession to the throne after the death of
Richard II, civil war in England between Houses of
Lancaster and York.
 Henry IV (Lancaster)
 Henry V (Lancaster)
 Henry VI (Lancaster) – 9 months old when he came
to the throne – series of unpopular and ineffective
regents/advisors. Henry VI himself was a weak and
ineffective king. Led to war.
 Edward IV (York)
 Richard III (York)
 Henry VII (Lancaster) married Elizabeth of York –
thus “unifying” the two families – established the
Tudor dynasty.
o Eventually Henry Tudor defeated Richard III, establishing
the House of Tudor.
o Significant – Henry VIII – English Reformation, break
between the Church of England and the Catholic Church.
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o The Tudor period was a long period of relative prosperity
and optimism, especially during the reign of Elizabeth I
(1558-1603).
o Reign of Elizabeth seen as the “Golden Age” of England –
roughly coinciding with the English Renaissance.
 Significant events:
 War with Spain – 1585-1604
 Defeat of Spanish Armada – 1588
 Colonization and expansion of British trade
 English Civil War (1642-1651)
 Charles I – son of James I. Absolute monarch – believed in the
divine right of Kings. Weak Parliament.
 War between Royalists (who supported Charles I) and the
Parliamentarians
 Charles overthrown and executed.
 Protectorate. Parliament, under Cromwell, ruled England under the
Protectorate. Cromwell died; his son replaced him. Anarchy
loomed.
 Restoration. Charles II returned from exile and resumed the
monarchy.
 Parliament, though, retained much more significant power. No
longer an absolute monarchy.
o Shakespeare’s England: Shakespeare lived 1564-1614
 Relatively prosperous
 Relatively free of famine – two famines – 1555-1557 and 1596-1598.
 Bubonic plague outbreaks closed the theaters 1593-1594.
 War with Ireland (1594-1603)
 Elizabeth’s death and ascension of King James VI (of Scotland) to King
James I of England (1603-1625).
 Elizabeth had died without an heir.
 James VI of Scotland assumed throne of England on 24 March
1603.
 James believed strongly in the divine right of kings.
 Increasingly fractious relations with Parliament.
 Contentious relationship with Catholics and Puritans – especially
the latter.
“Mariana” – Alfred, Lord Tennyson
o Published in 1830.
o Themes: Despondence, isolation, unrequited love, longing, melancholy, self-pity.
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o Differs from Measure for Measure in that “Angelo” – the presumed lover – never
appears.
o Seems an amalgamated form – with elements of:
 Lyric verse
 Narrative verse
 Ballad.
o Rhyme scheme: abab cddc efef
o Heavily repetitive in the refrain, which consistently reinforces the poem’s themes.
o Relies upon a narrative conceit – of a narrator who sees and hears Mariana, and
adds his own knowledge independent of Mariana, as well.
o Lush, but stagnant/immobile visual imagery recurs throughout.
o Recurring aural imagery, as well.
o The “beauty” of nature merely reinforces her loneliness.
o Consider, as we read Measure for Measure, in what ways Tennyson’s “Mariana”
remind us of Shakespeare’s. Note also the differences.
Preparing for a close reading of “Measure for Measure”:
o “The theater in Shakespeare’s time, then, is intimately bound up with all three
crucial cultural formations: the market society, the theater state, and the Church”
(TNS 54).
o Patronage was very important to Elizabethan theater; Shakespeare associated with
the Lord Chamberlain’s Men and, later, the King’s Men. By the time Measure for
Measure was performed at Whitehall on St. Stephens Night (26 December 1604)
– the only recorded / referenced performance – Shakespeare’s company was the
King’s Men.
 Not only “protected” the companies and their productions, but had an
impact on what they could/could not perform.
 How so?
 Why, for example, does Shakespeare set Measure for Measure in
Vienna?”
o Published first in the First Folio (1623).
o Problem plays/dark comedies – ostensibly written between 1601-1604 – Troilus
and Cressida, All’s Well That Ends Well, and Measure for Measure.
 Sharper tone
 Less clearly identifiable as a “comedy”
 Question values/mores of society
 Ambiguous endings
o No such thing as a “master text” of Measure for Measure. Like a movie – plays
are often collaborative, mediated texts. Shakespeare’s plays are no exception.
o Sources:
 Giovanni Battista Giraldi Cinthio, Hecatommithi or Ecatomiti (1565)
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“The Story of Epitia”
Whetstone’s Promos and Cassandra is an adaptation of Cinthio’s
tale.
 Shakespeare’s tale ends differently. In Cinthio’s “original” – the
female protagonist (ie. – Isabella) sleeps with the antagonist (ie –
Angelo) but her brother is still killed.
George Whetstone, Promos and Cassandra (1578) – 10 act play.
 Whetstone transforms Cinthio’s tragedy into a comedy.
King James I, Basilicon Doron (1599/1603).
 Reflects James’s thoughts about government/kingship.
 Reflected in speeches made by the Duke (1.1.67-72) and (2.4.2030.)
Bible:
 Matthew 7:2: “For in the same way you judge others, you will be
judged, and with the measure you use, it will be measured to you.”
o Jesus’s “Sermon on the Mount.”
 Many other biblical references to “measure” in this context:
o Exodus 21:23-25.
o Leviticus 24:17-20.
o Luke 6:35-38.
o Major characters:
 The Duke – Duke of Vienna, disguises himself as a Friar
 Angelo – The Duke appoints Angelo his deputy when he “departs”
 Escalus – The Duke’s trusted friend and advisor, appointed Angelo’s
deputy
 Isabella – Novice nun; Claudio’s sister; Angelo lusts after her.
 Claudio – Isabella’s brother; arrested for fornication and impregnating
Juliet. He is sentenced to die.
 Juliet – Claudio’s fiancée. Pregnant. Publicly humiliated but spared death.
 Lucio – A debauched gentleman. Will offend the duke.
 Provost – In charge of the prison; helps the Duke (in his disguise as the
friar) carry out his plot.
 Mistress Overdone – An infamous madam/prostitute.
 Pompey – Her “tapster”; also accused of being a “bawd” or pimp.
 Elbow – Constable.
 Mariana – One time fiancée of Angelo, longs to be married to Angelo.
o The Story: Basically, the Duke “leaves” Vienna in the charge of Angelo, a fellow
nobleman known to be “precise” in his judgments. Though they are “betrothed” to
be married (and, thus, legally already married), Claudio and Juliet are arrested for
fornication. Angelo sentences Claudio to death. Lucio, a “friend” of Claudio sees
him being taken to prison and asks him what’s wrong. Claudio tells him and asks
Lucio to find his sister, Isabella, to plead his case. Isabella is a novice nun. Lucio
finds Isabella and she agrees to try and persuade Angelo. Isabella meets with
Angelo. Angelo lusts after Isabella and makes an indecent proposal. If she will
sleep with him, he will free Claudio. Isabella is mortified. She refuses. She goes
to the prison and tells Claudio he had better prepare for death because she will not
sleep with Angelo. Claudio initially understands – but then, realizing he will
certainly be executed, asks her to reconsider. Isabella is even more mortified. She
feels her mortal soul will be irrevocably tainted by the act. She refuses to act in
such a sinful manner on Claudio’s behalf. The duke, in the guise of the friar,
concocts an elaborate plan to save Claudio and punish Angelo. Angelo had been
betrothed to Mariana – but Mariana’s brother had been killed at sea; thus, she had
lost her dowry. Angelo subsequently refuses to marry Mariana, leaving her
devastated. The duke has Isabella agree to sleep with Angelo but to set a number
of conditions. It must be dark. He must not talk. She will not talk. Ultimately,
Mariana, not Isabella, has sex with Angelo. In the eyes of the law, now, Angelo is
no better than Claudio. Angelo, though, thinks he has had sex with Isabella. He
orders Claudio killed anyway. He demands the Provost bring Claudio’s head. The
duke arranges for a murderer, Barnardine, to be executed and his head brought to
Angelo instead. Barnardine is drunk and refuses to be executed. Another prisoner,
Ragusine, has just died. The provost sends his head instead. Thus, unknown to
everyone, Claudio is still alive. The duke returns to Vienna to “test” Angelo.
Isabella and Mariana both testify about Angelo’s misdeeds, which he denies. The
truth eventually comes out. Angelo is pardoned, but must marry Mariana. Claudio
and Juliet marry. Lucio is forced to marry a prostitute with whom he had a son.
o Prominent themes:
 Justice
 Common
 Ecclesiastical
 Virtue
 Public morals – seeming vs.
 Private virtue - being
 Chastity:
 Does self denial make us better/more virtuous people?
 Love
 Lust
 Marriage.
 What does it mean to be “engaged”?
 What “responsibility” does each “partner” have in a marriage?
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Is marriage a contract of love…or economics…or convenience?
o Contrast Claudio-Juliet with Angelo-Mariana.
 Temptation / Desire
 Gender roles
 How are women portrayed in this play?
 Is Isabella a “sympathetic” character? Does she wield power? If so,
what is the basis of her power? Why does she seem to hold such
sway over all of the men in the play (from Claudio to Angelo to the
Duke)?
 What about Mariana and Juliet?
 What about Mistress Overdone?
o Some questions to consider:
 Keep at the forefront of your mind – what role does “knowledge” play in
Measure for Measure?
 Knowledge of the self
 Knowledge of the law
 Sex as “knowledge” of another
 Try to keep track of who knows what and when throughout the
play
 Does the Duke “know” Angelo is too “precise” even before
appointing him his deputy?
 Which characters, if any, value knowledge?
 Which characters, if any, abuse knowledge?
 Examine what “motivates” the following characters:
 The Duke
 Angelo
 Isabella
 Claudio
 Mariana
 Lucio
 Mistress Overdone
 Escalus is an interesting character – perhaps the only one seemingly
devoid of personal motivations…. Is this an accurate statement?
 Why is the play set in Vienna?
 NOT England.
 Catholic – NOT Church of England.
 Duke – NOT King James.
 No nuns/monks/friars in England in late 16th/early 17th century.
 Does chastity equate to (or guarantee) virtue?
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How is “sex” characterized in the play? Is it a “positive” or “subversive”
influence?
 Note how Lucio finds Isabella “a thing enskied and sainted” solely
because she has renounced earthly pleasures (1.4.33).
 Pompey notes his life as a pimp (or bawd) “does stink in some sort,
sir” (3.1.283).
Examine how Shakespeare posits sex as subversive, depraved, irrational,
transgressive, and self-destructive:
 Isabella – sex – “what I abhor to name” (3.1.100).
 Angelo – sex – “too much liberty” and “a thirsty evil; and when we
drink, we die” (1.2.110).
 Duke – “deplorable vice” and “most offenseful act”
 Isabella – sex as “natural guiltiness” (2.2.142).
The play is, in many ways, quite “filthy” – with plenty of references to
sex, intrigue, and sexually transmitted diseases. Why?
Why does the Duke “pretend” to leave? What is the purpose behind his
experiment?
What is the role of “law” and “justice” in the Duke’s Vienna?
 Laws as “needful bits and curbs to headstrong weeds” (1.3.20).
Can virtue / morality be legislated / regulated by law / justice? Why? Why
not?
Does the government have any business in our bedrooms/sex lives?
What role does Barnardine play in Measure for Measure? He certainly
seems to “know” himself….
Examine the role of substitutions in this play:
 Angelo / Escalus for Duke…back to Duke
 Mariana for Isabella
 Barnardine / Ragusine for Claudio
 Friar for Duke… back to Duke….
Is the Duke any “better” than Angelo? What do we make of his proposal
to Isabella? What do we make of the fact that the play ends before Isabella
gives her answer?
Play close attention to Shakespeare’s use of language.
 Precise diction.
 Puns.
 Double meanings/entendre.
 Rhyme/Rhythm
Looking Ahead:
 Lesson 22 – Of Sins, Political & Moral
o Measure for Measure, Act I (TNS 2049-2057)