Ludvik Electric Co.
Training Department
Miscellaneous and Helpful Information for NICET Fire Alarm System
Certification Testing .................................................................................................... 2
Pencil Hardness ......................................................................................................... 2
Calculating Volume .................................................................................................. 2
Volume Formulas .................................................................................................. 2
Units .......................................................................................................................... 3
Surface Area Formulas ........................................................................................... 3
Definitions Related to Circles ............................................................................... 5
Circumference of Circle ...................................................................................... 5
Area of Circle: ........................................................................................................ 5
Length of a Circular Arc: ................................................................................... 5
Area of Circle Sector: ......................................................................................... 5
Equation of Circle: (Cartesian coordinates) ............................................... 5
Equation of Circle: (polar coordinates)........................................................ 5
Equation of a Circle: (parametric coordinates) ........................................ 6
The Right Triangle .................................................................................................... 6
Table of Elements......................................................................................................... 9
Element Descriptions ........................................................................................ 10
WEIGHT AND MEASURES Tables ...................................................................... 18
Grammar ....................................................................................................................... 21
Sentence Structure ................................................................................................ 21
The Simple Sentence ........................................................................................ 21
The Compound Sentence ................................................................................ 22
Special Cases of Compound Sentences ..................................................... 23
The Complex Sentence .................................................................................... 23
The Loose Sentence .......................................................................................... 24
The Periodic Sentence ...................................................................................... 25
The Declarative Sentence ............................................................................... 25
The Interrogative Sentence ........................................................................... 26
The Rhetorical Question .................................................................................. 26
The Exclamatory Sentence ............................................................................. 26
The Imperative Sentence ................................................................................ 27
Participles .................................................................................................................. 27
Infinitives ................................................................................................................... 29
Gerunds ...................................................................................................................... 30
PUNCTUATION ......................................................................................................... 31
THE COMMA: ........................................................................................................ 31
THE SEMICOLON: ............................................................................................... 33
THE COLON: ......................................................................................................... 34
THE DASH: ............................................................................................................ 35
THE HYPHEN: ....................................................................................................... 35
QUOTATION MARKS: ........................................................................................ 36
Punctuation Practice Exercise ........................................................................ 37
Punctuation Practice Test Answers.............................................................. 42
1 of 43
Ludvik Electric Co.
Training Department
Miscellaneous and Helpful Information for NICET Fire
Alarm System Certification Testing
Pencil Hardness
The 'H' stands for hardness, the 'B' stands for blackness, and HB is for hard and black
pencils. The hardest is a 9H, followed by 8H, 7H, 6H, 5H, 4H, 3H, 2H, and H. F is the
middle of the hardness scale; then comes HB, B, 2B, 3B, 4B, 5B, 6B, 7B, 8B, and 9B,
which is the softest. Another grading method uses numbers; the equivalents would be
#1=B, #2=HB, #2-1/2=F, #3=H, and #4=2H. The most commonly used writing pencil is
the #2 (HB grade), which is fairly soft, contains more graphite, and leaves a dark mark.
Calculating Volume
(pi = = 3.141592...)
Volume Formulas
Note: "ab" means "a" multiplied by "b". "a2" means "a squared", which is the same as "a"
times "a". "b3" means "b cubed", which is the same as "b" times "b" times "b".
Be careful!! Units count. Use the same units for all measurements.
Examples
cube = a 3
rectangular prism = a b c
irregular prism = b h
cylinder = b h = pi r 2 h
pyramid = (1/3) b h
cone = (1/3) b h = 1/3 pi r 2 h
sphere = (4/3) pi r 3
2 of 43
Ludvik Electric Co.
Training Department
ellipsoid = (4/3) pi r1 r2 r3
Units
Area is measured in "cubic" units. The volume of a figure is the
number of cubes required to fill it completely, like blocks in a box.
Volume of a cube = side times side times side. Since each side of a
square is the same, it can simply be the length of one side cubed.
If a square has one side of 4 inches, the area would be 4 inches times
4 inches times 4 inches, or 64 cubic inches. (Cubic inches can also be
written in3.)
Be sure to use the same units for all measurements. You cannot
multiply feet times inches times yards, it doesn't make a perfectly
cubed measurement.
The volume of a rectangular prism is the length on the side times the
width times the height. If the width is 4 inches, the length is 1 foot
and the height is 3 feet, what is the volume?
NOT CORRECT .... 4 times 1 times 3 = 12
CORRECT.... 4 inches is the same as 1/3 feet. Volume is 1/3 feet times
1 foot times 3 feet = 1 cubic foot (or 1 cu. ft., or 1 ft3).
Surface Area Formulas
In general, the surface area is the sum of all the areas of all the shapes that cover the
surface of the object.
Note: "ab" means "a" multiplied by "b". "a2" means "a squared", which is the same as "a" times "a".
Be careful!! Units count. Use the same units for all measurements.
Examples
Surface Area of a Cube = 6 a 2
(a is the length of the side of each edge of the cube)
In words, the surface area of a cube is the area of the six squares that cover it. The area of
one of them is a*a, or a 2 . Since these are all the same, you can multiply one of them by
six, so the surface area of a cube is 6 times one of the sides squared.
Surface Area of a Rectangular Prism = 2ab + 2bc + 2ac
(a, b, and c are the lengths of the 3 sides)
3 of 43
Ludvik Electric Co.
Training Department
In other words, the surface area of a rectangular prism is the are of the six rectangles that
cover it. But we don't have to figure out all six because we know that the top and bottom
are the same, the front and back are the same, and the left and right sides are the same.
The area of the top and bottom (side lengths a and c) = a*c. Since there are two of them,
you get 2ac. The front and back have side lengths of b and c. The area of one of them is
b*c, and there are two of them, so the surface area of those two is 2bc. The left and right
side have side lengths of a and b, so the surface area of one of them is a*b. Again, there
are two of them, so their combined surface area is 2ab.
Surface Area of Any Prism
(b is the shape of the ends)
Surface Area = Lateral area + Area of two ends
(Lateral area) = (perimeter of shape b) * L
Surface Area = (perimeter of shape b) * L+ 2*(Area of shape b)
Surface Area of a Sphere = 4 pi r 2
(r is radius of circle)
Surface Area of a Cylinder = 2 pi r 2 + 2 pi r h
(h is the height of the cylinder, r is the radius of the top)
Surface Area = Areas of top and bottom +Area of the side
Surface Area = 2(Area of top) + (perimeter of top)* height
Surface Area = 2(pi r 2) + (2 pi r)* h
In words, the easiest way is to think of a can. The surface area is the areas of all the parts
needed to cover the can. That's the top, the bottom, and the paper label that wraps around
the middle.
You can find the area of the top (or the bottom). That's the formula for area of a circle
(pi r2). Since there is both a top and a bottom, that gets multiplied by two.
The side is like the label of the can. If you peel it off and lay it flat it will be a rectangle.
The area of a rectangle is the product of the two sides. One side is the height of the can,
the other side is the perimeter of the circle, since the label wraps once around the can. So
the area of the rectangle is (2 pi r)* h.
Add those two parts together and you have the formula for the surface area of a cylinder.
Surface Area = 2(pi r 2) + (2 pi r)* h
Tip! Don't forget the units.
These equations will give you correct answers if you keep the units straight. For example
- to find the surface area of a cube with sides of 5 inches, the equation is:
4 of 43
Ludvik Electric Co.
Training Department
Surface Area = 6*(5 inches)2
= 6*(25 square inches)
= 150 sq. inches
Definitions Related to Circles
arc: a curved line that is part of the circumference of a circle
chord: a line segment within a circle that touches 2 points on the circle.
circumference: the distance around the circle.
diameter: the longest distance from one end of a circle to the other.
origin: the center of the circle
pi ( ): A number, 3.141592..., equal to (the circumference) / (the diameter) of any circle.
radius: distance from center of circle to any point on it.
sector: is like a slice of pie (a circle wedge).
tangent of circle: a line perpendicular to the radius that touches ONLY one point on the
circle.
Diameter = 2 x radius of circle
Circumference of Circle =
where PI =
PI x diameter = 2 PI x radius
= 3.141592...
Area of Circle:
area = PI r2
Length of a Circular Arc: (with central angle
if the angle
is in degrees, then length =
if the angle
is in radians, then length = r x
)
x (PI/180) x r
Area of Circle Sector: (with central angle
)
if the angle
is in degrees, then area = ( /360)x PI r2
if the angle
is in radians, then area = (( /(2PI))x PI r2
Equation of Circle: (Cartesian coordinates)
for a circle with center (j, k) and radius (r):
(x-j)^2 + (y-k)^2 = r^2
Equation of Circle: (polar coordinates)
for a circle with center (0, 0):
r( ) = radius
5 of 43
Ludvik Electric Co.
Training Department
for a circle with center with polar coordinates: (c,
r - 2cr cos(
2
-
) and radius a:
)+c =a
2
2
Equation of a Circle: (parametric coordinates)
for a circle with origin (j, k) and radius r:
x(t) = r cos(t) + j
y(t) = r sin(t) + k
The Right Triangle
The right triangle is one of the most important geometrical figures, used in many
applications for thousands of years.
A Greek mathematician named Pythagoras developed a formula, called the
Pythagorean Theorem, for finding the lengths of the sides of any right triangle. He
treated each side of a right triangle as though it were a square and discovered that
the total area of the two smaller squares is equal to the area of the largest square.
He wrote this discovery as a formula:
where c is the hypotenuse and a and b are the other two legs of the triangle. Move
your mouse over the triangle to learn more.
6 of 43
Ludvik Electric Co.
Training Department
A right triangle has one angle equal to 90 degrees. A right triangle can also be an
isosceles triangle--which means that it has two sides that are equal. A right isosceles
triangle has a 90-degree angle and two 45-degree angles. This is the only right
triangle that is an isosceles triangle. This version of the right triangle is so popular
that plastic models of them are manufactured and used by architects, engineers,
carpenters, and graphic artists in their design and construction work.
Another interesting right triangle is the 30-60-90 degree triangle. The ratio of this
triangle's longest side to its shortest side is "two to one." That is, the longest side is
twice as long as the shortest side. It too is manufactured in plastic and widely used
in design, drawing, and building applications.
You can find an endless number of examples of right triangles. One of the most
famous is the "3, 4, 5 triangle."
The Egyptians used this triangle for land surveying. Some believe that they also used
it to help design their pyramids. Whether they did or not, the 3-4-5 triangle is still
7 of 43
Ludvik Electric Co.
Training Department
used by surveyors. Carpenters and woodworkers also use it to make their corners
square.
Pythagoras was a Greek mathematician who lived about 2500 years ago, and who
developed the most famous formula in geometry, possibly in all of mathematics! He
proved that, for a right triangle, the sum of the squares of the two sides that join at
a right angle equals the square of the third side. The third side--the side opposite the
right angle--is called the hypotenuse of the right triangle. The two shorter sides are
usually called "legs."
This formula is called the Pythagorean Theorem in honor of Pythagoras. It is usually
written as the equation below, where a and b are the measures of the legs of the
triangle and c is the measure of the hypotenuse.
Let's try out the Pythagorean Theorem using this right triangle with sides of 5 and 12
cm, and a hypotenuse of 13 cm. We can verify that the Pythagorean Theorem is true
by substituting in the values. The square root of 169 is 13, which is the measure of
the hypotenuse in this triangle.
The Pythagorean Theorem has many uses. You can use it to verify whether or not a
triangle is a right triangle. Or you can use it to find the missing measures of sides.
Let's use the Pythagorean Theorem to find the missing measure of the leg of the
right triangle SAM.
8 of 43
Ludvik Electric Co.
Training Department
Substitute the values into the formula and perform the calculations, like this. We find
that the square of the hypotenuse, or c squared, is equal to 400. To find c, we take
the square root of 400, which is 20. This is the value we're looking for, the missing
measure of the leg,
Table of Elements
9 of 43
Ludvik Electric Co.
Training Department
Element Descriptions
#
Atomic
Weight
Name
Symbol M.P. B.P. Density* Earth Discovery Group* Electron
( °C ( °C (g/cm3) crust (Year)
configuration
)
)
(%
)*
1
1.0079
Hydrogen
H
-259
-253
0.09
2
4.0026
Helium
He
-272
-269
3
6.941
Lithium
Li
180
4
9.0122
Beryllium
5
10.811
6
1776
1
1s1
0.18
1895
18
1s2
1347
0.53
1817
1
[He] 2s1
Be
1278 2970
1.85
1797
2
[He] 2s2
Boron
B
2300 2550
2.34
1808
13
[He] 2s2 2p1
12.0107
Carbon
C
3500 4827
2.26
ancient
14
[He] 2s2 2p2
7
14.0067
Nitrogen
N
-210
-196
1.25
1772
15
[He] 2s2 2p3
8
15.9994
Oxygen
O
-218
-183
1.43
46.71
1774
16
[He] 2s2 2p4
9
18.9984
Fluorine
F
-220
-188
1.7
0.029
1886
17
[He] 2s2 2p5
1
0
20.1797
Neon
Ne
-249
-246
0.9
1898
18
[He] 2s2 2p6
1
1
22.9897
Sodium
Na
98
883
0.97
2.75
1807
1
[Ne] 3s1
1
2
24.305
Magnesium
Mg
639
1090
1.74
2.08
1755
2
[Ne] 3s2
1
3
26.9815
Aluminum
Al
660
2467
2.7
8.07
1825
13
[Ne] 3s2 3p1
1
4
28.0855
Silicon
Si
1410 2355
2.33
27.69
1824
14
[Ne] 3s2 3p2
1
5
30.9738
Phosphorus
P
44
1.82
0.13
1669
15
[Ne] 3s2 3p3
280
10 of 43
0.14
0.094
Ludvik Electric Co.
Training Department
1
6
32.065
Sulfur
S
113
445
2.07
0.052
ancient
16
[Ne] 3s2 3p4
1
7
35.453
Chlorine
Cl
-101
-35
3.21
0.045
1774
17
[Ne] 3s2 3p5
1
8
39.948
Argon
Ar
-189
-186
1.78
1894
18
[Ne] 3s2 3p6
1
9
39.0983
Potassium
K
64
774
0.86
2.58
1807
1
[Ar] 4s1
2
0
40.078
Calcium
Ca
839
1484
1.55
3.65
1808
2
[Ar] 4s2
2
1
44.9559
Scandium
Sc
1539 2832
2.99
1879
3
[Ar] 3d1 4s2
2
2
47.867
Titanium
Ti
1660 3287
4.54
1791
4
[Ar] 3d2 4s2
2
3
50.9415
Vanadium
V
1890 3380
6.11
1830
5
[Ar] 3d3 4s2
2
4
51.9961
Chromium
Cr
1857 2672
7.19
0.035
1797
6
[Ar] 3d5 4s1
2
5
54.938
Manganese
Mn
1245 1962
7.43
0.09
1774
7
[Ar] 3d5 4s2
2
6
55.845
Iron
Fe
1535 2750
7.87
5.05
ancient
8
[Ar] 3d6 4s2
2
7
58.9332
Cobalt
Co
1495 2870
8.9
1735
9
[Ar] 3d7 4s2
2
8
58.6934
Nickel
Ni
1453 2732
8.9
1751
10
[Ar] 3d8 4s2
2
9
63.546
Copper
Cu
1083 2567
8.96
ancient
11
[Ar] 3d10 4s1
3
0
65.39
Zinc
Zn
420
7.13
ancient
12
[Ar] 3d10 4s2
907
11 of 43
0.62
0.019
Ludvik Electric Co.
Training Department
3
1
69.723
Gallium
Ga
30
2403
5.91
1875
13
[Ar] 3d10 4s2
4p1
3
2
72.64
Germanium
Ge
937
2830
5.32
1886
14
[Ar] 3d10 4s2
4p2
3
3
74.9216
Arsenic
As
81
613
5.72
ancient
15
[Ar] 3d10 4s2
4p3
3
4
78.96
Selenium
Se
217
685
4.79
1817
16
[Ar] 3d10 4s2
4p4
3
5
79.904
Bromine
Br
-7
59
3.12
1826
17
[Ar] 3d10 4s2
4p5
3
6
83.8
Krypton
Kr
-157
-153
3.75
1898
18
[Ar] 3d10 4s2
4p6
3
7
85.4678
Rubidium
Rb
39
688
1.63
1861
1
[Kr] 5s1
3
8
87.62
Strontium
Sr
769
1384
2.54
1790
2
[Kr] 5s2
3
9
88.9059
Yttrium
Y
1523 3337
4.47
1794
3
[Kr] 4d1 5s2
4
0
91.224
Zirconium
Zr
1852 4377
6.51
1789
4
[Kr] 4d2 5s2
4
1
92.9064
Niobium
Nb
2468 4927
8.57
1801
5
[Kr] 4d4 5s1
4
2
95.94
Molybdenum
Mo
2617 4612
10.22
1781
6
[Kr] 4d5 5s1
Technetium
Tc
2200 4877
11.5
1937
7
[Kr] 4d5 5s2
Ruthenium
Ru
2250 3900
12.37
1844
8
[Kr] 4d7 5s1
Rh
1966 3727
12.41
1803
9
[Kr] 4d8 5s1
4
3
* 98
4
4
101.07
4
5
102.9055 Rhodium
12 of 43
0.025
Ludvik Electric Co.
Training Department
4
6
106.42
4
7
Palladium
Pd
1552 2927
12.02
1803
10
[Kr] 4d10
107.8682 Silver
Ag
962
2212
10.5
ancient
11
[Kr] 4d10 5s1
4
8
112.411
Cadmium
Cd
321
765
8.65
1817
12
[Kr] 4d10 5s2
4
9
114.818
Indium
In
157
2000
7.31
1863
13
[Kr] 4d10 5s2
5p1
5
0
118.71
Tin
Sn
232
2270
7.31
ancient
14
[Kr] 4d10 5s2
5p2
5
1
121.76
Antimony
Sb
630
1750
6.68
ancient
15
[Kr] 4d10 5s2
5p3
5
2
127.6
Tellurium
Te
449
990
6.24
1783
16
[Kr] 4d10 5s2
5p4
5
3
126.9045 Iodine
I
114
184
4.93
1811
17
[Kr] 4d10 5s2
5p5
5
4
131.293
Xe
-112
-108
5.9
1898
18
[Kr] 4d10 5s2
5p6
5
5
132.9055 Cesium
Cs
29
678
1.87
1860
1
[Xe] 6s1
5
6
137.327
Ba
725
1140
3.59
1808
2
[Xe] 6s2
5
7
138.9055 Lanthanum
La
920
3469
6.15
1839
3
[Xe] 5d1 6s2
5
8
140.116
Ce
795
3257
6.77
1803
101
[Xe] 4f1 5d1 6s2
5
9
140.9077 Praseodymium Pr
935
3127
6.77
1885
101
[Xe] 4f3 6s2
6
0
144.24
1010 3127
7.01
1885
101
[Xe] 4f4 6s2
Xenon
Barium
Cerium
Neodymium
Nd
13 of 43
0.05
Ludvik Electric Co.
Training Department
6
1
* 145
Promethium
Pm
1100 3000
7.3
1945
101
[Xe] 4f5 6s2
6
2
150.36
Samarium
Sm
1072 1900
7.52
1879
101
[Xe] 4f6 6s2
6
3
151.964
Europium
Eu
822
5.24
1901
101
[Xe] 4f7 6s2
6
4
157.25
Gadolinium
Gd
1311 3233
7.9
1880
101
[Xe] 4f7 5d1 6s2
6
5
158.9253 Terbium
Tb
1360 3041
8.23
1843
101
[Xe] 4f9 6s2
6
6
162.5
Dy
1412 2562
8.55
1886
101
[Xe] 4f10 6s2
6
7
164.9303 Holmium
Ho
1470 2720
8.8
1867
101
[Xe] 4f11 6s2
6
8
167.259
Er
1522 2510
9.07
1842
101
[Xe] 4f12 6s2
6
9
168.9342 Thulium
Tm
1545 1727
9.32
1879
101
[Xe] 4f13 6s2
7
0
173.04
Ytterbium
Yb
824
6.9
1878
101
[Xe] 4f14 6s2
7
1
174.967
Lutetium
Lu
1656 3315
9.84
1907
101
[Xe] 4f14 5d1
6s2
7
2
178.49
Hafnium
Hf
2150 5400
13.31
1923
4
[Xe] 4f14 5d2
6s2
7
3
180.9479 Tantalum
Ta
2996 5425
16.65
1802
5
[Xe] 4f14 5d3
6s2
7
4
183.84
Tungsten
W
3410 5660
19.35
1783
6
[Xe] 4f14 5d4
6s2
7
5
186.207
Rhenium
Re
3180 5627
21.04
1925
7
[Xe] 4f14 5d5
6s2
Dysprosium
Erbium
1597
1466
14 of 43
Ludvik Electric Co.
Training Department
7
6
190.23
Osmium
Os
3045 5027
22.6
1803
8
[Xe] 4f14 5d6
6s2
7
7
192.217
Iridium
Ir
2410 4527
22.4
1803
9
[Xe] 4f14 5d7
6s2
7
8
195.078
Platinum
Pt
1772 3827
21.45
1735
10
[Xe] 4f14 5d9
6s1
7
9
196.9665 Gold
Au
1064 2807
19.32
ancient
11
[Xe] 4f14 5d10
6s1
8
0
200.59
Hg
-39
357
13.55
ancient
12
[Xe] 4f14 5d10
6s2
8
1
204.3833 Thallium
Tl
303
1457
11.85
1861
13
[Xe] 4f14 5d10
6s2 6p1
8
2
207.2
Pb
327
1740
11.35
ancient
14
[Xe] 4f14 5d10
6s2 6p2
8
3
208.9804 Bismuth
Bi
271
1560
9.75
ancient
15
[Xe] 4f14 5d10
6s2 6p3
9.3
1898
16
[Xe] 4f14 5d10
6s2 6p4
1940
17
[Xe] 4f14 5d10
6s2 6p5
1900
18
[Xe] 4f14 5d10
6s2 6p6
1939
1
[Rn] 7s1
5.5
1898
2
[Rn] 7s2
Mercury
Lead
8
4
* 209
Polonium
Po
254
962
8
5
* 210
Astatine
At
302
337
8
6
* 222
Radon
Rn
-71
-62
8
7
* 223
Francium
Fr
27
677
8
8
* 226
Radium
Ra
700
1737
8
9
* 227
Actinium
Ac
1050 3200
10.07
1899
3
[Rn] 6d1 7s2
232.0381 Thorium
Th
1750 4790
11.72
1829
102
[Rn] 6d2 7s2
9
0
9.73
15 of 43
Ludvik Electric Co.
Training Department
9
1
231.0359 Protactinium
Pa
1568
15.4
1913
102
[Rn] 5f2 6d1 7s2
9
2
238.0289 Uranium
U
1132 3818
18.95
1789
102
[Rn] 5f3 6d1 7s2
9
3
* 237
Neptunium
Np
640
3902
20.2
1940
102
[Rn] 5f4 6d1 7s2
9
4
* 244
Plutonium
Pu
640
3235
19.84
1940
102
[Rn] 5f6 7s2
9
5
* 243
Americium
Am
994
2607
13.67
1944
102
[Rn] 5f7 7s2
9
6
* 247
Curium
Cm
1340
13.5
1944
102
9
7
* 247
Berkelium
Bk
986
14.78
1949
102
9
8
* 251
Californium
Cf
900
15.1
1950
102
9
9
* 252
Einsteinium
Es
860
1952
102
1
0
0
* 257
Fermium
Fm
1527
1952
102
1
0
1
* 258
Mendelevium
Md
1955
102
1
0
2
* 259
Nobelium
No
827
1958
102
1
0
3
* 262
Lawrencium
Lr
1627
1961
102
1
0
4
* 261
Rutherfordium
Rf
1964
4
16 of 43
Ludvik Electric Co.
Training Department
1
0
5
* 262
Dubnium
Db
1967
5
1
0
6
* 266
Seaborgium
Sg
1974
6
1
0
7
* 264
Bohrium
Bh
1981
7
1
0
8
* 277
Hassium
Hs
1984
8
1
0
9
* 268
Meitnerium
Mt
1982
9
Abbreviations
and
Definitions:
No.
Atomic
Number
M.P.
melting
point
B.P.
boiling
point
* Density of elements with boiling points below 0°C is given in g/l
* Earth crust composition average values are from a report by F. W. Clarke and H. S.
Washington, 1924. Elemental composition of crustal rocks differ between different
localities
(see
article).
* Group: There are only 18 groups in the periodic table that constitute the columns
of the table. Lanthanoids and Actinoids are numbered as 101 and 102 to separate
them in sorting by group.
Atomic number: The number of protons in an atom. Each element is uniquely
defined by its atomic number.
Atomic mass: The mass of an atom is primarily determined by the number of
protons and neutrons in its nucleus. Atomic mass is measured in Atomic Mass Units
(amu) which are scaled relative to carbon, 12C, that is taken as a standard element
with an atomic mass of 12. This isotope of carbon has 6 protons and 6 neutrons.
Thus, each proton and neutron has a mass of about 1 amu.
Isotope: Atoms of the same element with the same atomic number, but different
number of neutrons. Isotope of an element is defined by the sum of the number of
protons and neutrons in its nucleus. Elements have more than one isotope with
varying numbers of neutrons. For example, there are two common isotopes of
carbon, 12C and 13C which have 6 and 7 neutrons respectively. The abundances of
different isotopes of elements vary in nature depending on the source of materials.
For relative abundances of isotopes in nature see reference on Isotopic Composition
of the Elements.
17 of 43
Ludvik Electric Co.
Training Department
Atomic weight: Atomic weight values represent weighted average of the masses
of all naturally occurring isotopes of an element. The values shown here are based
on the IUPAC Commission determinations (Pure Appl. Chem. 73:667-683, 2001).
The elements marked with an asterisk have no stable nuclides. For these elements
the weight value shown represents the mass number of the longest-lived isotope of
the element.
Electron configuration: The distribution of electrons according to the energy
sublevels (subshells) in uncharged atoms. The noble gas shown in square brackets
(e.g. [He]), marks that all the subshells associated with that element are fully
occupied by electrons. For further information see another web site.
Energy levels and sublevels
Principal energy level Sublevels available
(Quantum number: n) (Quantum number: l)
1
2
3
4
5
6
1s
2s 2p
3s 3p 3d
4s 4p 4d 4f
5s 5p 5d 5f 5g
6s 6p 6d 6f 6g 6h
Ionization energy (IE): The energy required to remove the outermost electron
from an atom or a positive ion in its ground level. The table lists only the first IE in
eV units. To convert to kJ/mol multiply by 96.4869. Reference: NIST Reference Table
on Ground levels and ionization energies for the neutral atoms. IE decreases going
down a column of the periodic table, and increases from left to right in a row. Thus,
alkali metals have the lowest IE in a period and Rare gases have the highest.
WEIGHT AND MEASURES Tables
WEIGHT AND MEASURES1
UNIT
ABBREVIATION
OR SYMBOL
EQUIVALENTS IN
OTHER
UNITS OF SAME
SYSTEM
METRIC
EQUIVALENT
WEIGHT
Avoirdupois2
ton
short ton
20 short hundredweight,
2000 pounds
0.907 metric ton
long ton
20 long hundredweight,
1.016 metric ton
18 of 43
Ludvik Electric Co.
Training Department
2240 pounds
hundredweight
cwt
short
hundredweight
100 pounds, 0.05 short tons 45.359 kilograms
long
hundredweight
112 pounds, 0.05 long ton
50.802 kilograms
pound
lb or lb avdp
also #
16 ounces, 7000 grains
0.454 kilogram
ounce
oz or oz avdp
16 drams, 437.5 grains,
0.0625 pound
28.350 grams
dram
dr or dr avdp
27.344 grains, 0.0625
ounce
1.772 grams
grain
gr
0.037 dram, 0.002286
ounce
0.0648 gram
Troy
pound
lb t
12 ounces, 240
pennyweight, 5760 grains
0.373 kilogram
ounce
oz t
20 pennyweight, 480
grains, 0.083 pound
31.103 grams
pennyweight
dwt also pwt
24 grains, 0.05 ounce
1.555 grams
grain
gr
0.042 pennyweight,
0.002083 ounce
0.0648 gram
Apothecaries'
pound
lb ap
12 ounces, 5760 grains
0.373 kilogram
ounce
oz ap
8 drams, 480 grains, 0.083
31.103 grams
pound
dram
dr ap
3 scruples, 60 grains
3.888 grams
scruple
s ap
20 grains, 0.333 dram
1.296 grams
grain
gr
0.05 scruple, 0.002083
ounce, 0.0166 dram
0.0648 gram
CAPACITY
U.S. liquid measure
gallon
gal
4 quarts (231 cubic inches) 3.785 liters
quart
qt
2 pints (57.75 cubic inches) 0.946 liter
pint
pt
4 gills (28.875 cubic inches 473.176 milliliters
gill
gi
4 fluid ounces (7.219 cubic
118.294 milliliters
inches)
fluid ounce
fl oz
8 fluid drams (1.805) cub
19 of 43
29.573 milliliters
Ludvik Electric Co.
Training Department
inches)
fluid dram
fl dr
minim
min
60 minims (0.226 cubic
inch)
3.697 milliliters
1
/60 fluid dram (0.003760
cubic inch)
0.061610 milliliter
U.S. dry measure
bushel
bu
4 pecks (2150.42 cubic
inches)
35.239 liters
peck
pk
8 quarts (537.605 cubic
inches)
8.810 liters
quart
qt
2 pints (67.201 cubic
inches)
1.101 liters
pint
pt
½ quart (33.600 cubic
inches)
0.551 liter
British imperial liquid and dry measure
bushel
bu
4 pecks (2219.36 cubic
inches)
36.369 liters
peck
pk
2 gallons (554.84 cubic
inches)
9.092 liters
gallon
gal
4 quarts (277.420 cubic
inches)
4.546 liters
quart
qt
2 pints (69.355 cubic
inches)
1.136 liters
pint
pt
4 gills (34.678 cubic
inches)
568.26 milliliters
gill
gi
5 fluid ounces (8.669 cubic
142.066 milliliters
inches)
fluid ounce
fl oz
8 fluid drams (1.7339 cubic
28.412 milliliters
inches)
fluid dram
fl dr
60 minims (0.216734 cubic
3.5516 milliliters
inch)
minim
min
1
/60 fluid dram (0.003612
cubic inch)
0.059194 milliliter
LENGTH
5280 feet, 1760 yards, 320
1.609 kilometers
rods
mile
mi
rod
rd
5.50 yards, 16.5 feet
5.029 meters
yard
yd
3 feet, 36 inches
0.9144 meter
foot
ft or '
12 inches, 0.333 yard
30.48 centimeters
20 of 43
Ludvik Electric Co.
Training Department
inch
in or "
0.083 foot, 0.028 yard
2.54 centimeters
AREA
square mile
sq mi or mi2
640 acres, 102,400 square
rods
2.590 square
kilometers
4840 square yards, 43,560 0.405 hectare, 4047
square feet
square meters
acre
square rod
sq rd or rd2
30.25 square yards,
0.00625 acre
25.293 square meters
square yard
sq yd or yd2
1296 square inches, 9
square feet
0.836 square meter
square foot
sq ft or ft2
144 square inches, 0.111
square yard
0.093 square meter
square inch
sq in or in2
0.0069 square foot,
0.00077 square yard
6.452 square
centimeters
VOLUME
27 cubic feet, 46,656 cubic
0.765 cubic meter
inches
cubic yard
cu yd or yd3
cubic foot
cu ft or ft3
1728 cubic inches, 0.0370
cubic yard
0.028 cubic meter
cubic inch
cu in or in3
0.00058 cubic foot,
0.000021 cubic yard
16.387 cubic
centimeters
1
2
For U.S. equivalents of the metric unit see Metric System
The U.S. uses the avoirdupois units as a common system of measuring weight.
table.
Grammar
Sentence Structure
The Simple Sentence
The most basic type of sentence is the simple sentence, which contains only one clause.
A simple sentence can be as short as one word:
Run!
21 of 43
Ludvik Electric Co.
Training Department
Usually, however, the sentence has a subject as well as a predicate and both the
subject and the predicate may have modifiers. All of the following are simple
sentences, because each contains only one clause:
Melt!
Ice melts.
The ice melts quickly.
The ice on the river melts quickly under the warm March sun.
Lying exposed without its blanket of snow, the ice on the river melts quickly
under the warm March sun.
As you can see, a simple sentence can be quite long -- it is a mistake to think that you can
tell a simple sentence from a compound sentence or a complex sentence simply by its
length.
The most natural sentence structure is the simple sentence: it is the first kind which
children learn to speak, and it remains by far the most common sentence in the spoken
language of people of all ages. In written work, simple sentences can be very effective for
grabbing a reader's attention or for summing up an argument, but you have to use them
with care: too many simple sentences can make your writing seem childish.
When you do use simple sentences, you should add transitional phrases to connect them
to the surrounding sentences.
The Compound Sentence
A compound sentence consists of two or more independent clauses (or simple
sentences) joined by co-ordinating conjunctions like "and," "but," and "or":
Simple
Canada is a rich country.
Simple
Still, it has many poor people.
Compound
Canada is a rich country, but still it has many poor people.
Compound sentences are very natural for English speakers -- small children learn to use
them early on to connect their ideas and to avoid pausing (and allowing an adult to
interrupt):
Today at school Mr. Moore brought in his pet rabbit, and he showed it to the
class, and I got to pet it, and Kate held it, and we coloured pictures of it, and it ate
part of my carrot at lunch, and ...
Of course, this is an extreme example, but if you over-use compound sentences in written
work, your writing might seem immature.
22 of 43
Ludvik Electric Co.
Training Department
A compound sentence is most effective when you use it to create a sense of balance or
contrast between two (or more) equally-important pieces of information:
Montéal has better clubs, but Toronto has better cinemas.
Special Cases of Compound Sentences
There are two special types of compound sentences which you might want to note. First,
rather than joining two simple sentences together, a co-ordinating conjunction sometimes
joins two complex sentences, or one simple sentence and one complex sentence. In this
case, the sentence is called a compound-complex sentence:
compound-complex
The package arrived in the morning, but the courier left before I could check
the contents.
The second special case involves punctuation. It is possible to join two originally
separate sentences into a compound sentence using a semicolon instead of a coordinating conjunction:
Sir John A. Macdonald had a serious drinking problem; when sober,
however, he could be a formidable foe in the House of Commons.
Usually, a conjunctive adverb like "however" or "consequently" will appear near the
beginning of the second part, but it is not required:
The sun rises in the east; it sets in the west.
The Complex Sentence
A complex sentence contains one independent clause and at least one dependent
clause. Unlike a compound sentence, however, a complex sentence contains clauses
which are not equal. Consider the following examples:
Simple
My friend invited me to a party. I do not want to go.
Compound
My friend invited me to a party, but I do not want to go.
Complex
Although my friend invited me to a party, I do not want to go.
In the first example, there are two separate simple sentences: "My friend invited me to a
party" and "I do not want to go." The second example joins them together into a single
sentence with the co-ordinating conjunction "but," but both parts could still stand as
independent sentences -- they are entirely equal, and the reader cannot tell which is most
important. In the third example, however, the sentence has changed quite a bit: the first
23 of 43
Ludvik Electric Co.
Training Department
clause, "Although my friend invited me to a party," has become incomplete, or a
dependent clause.
A complex sentence is very different from a simple sentence or a compound sentence
because it makes clear which ideas are most important. When you write
My friend invited me to a party. I do not want to go.
or even
My friend invited me to a party, but I do not want to go.
The reader will have trouble knowing which piece of information is most important to
you. When you write the subordinating conjunction "although" at the beginning of
the first clause, however, you make it clear that the fact that your friend invited you is
less important than, or subordinate, to the fact that you do not want to go.
Not all sentences make a single point -- compound sentences, especially, may
present several equally-important pieces of information -- but most of the time, when you
write a sentence, there is a single argument, statement, question, or command which you
wish to get across.
When you are writing your sentences, do not bury your main point in the middle; instead,
use one of the positions of emphasis at the beginning or end of the sentence.
The Loose Sentence
If you put your main point at the beginning of a long sentence, you are writing a loose
sentence:
loose
I am willing to pay slightly higher taxes for the privilege of living in Canada,
considering the free health care, the cheap tuition fees, the low crime rate, the
comprehensive social programs, and the wonderful winters.
The main point of this sentence is that the writer prefers to live in Canada, and the writer
makes the point at the very beginning: everything which follows is simply extra
information. When the readers read about the free health care, the cheap tuition fees, the
low crime rate, the comprehensive social programs, and the wonderful winters, they will
already know that these are reasons for living in Canada, and as a result, they will be
more likely to understand the sentence on a first reading.
Loose sentences are the most natural for English speakers, who almost always talk in
loose sentences: even the most sophisticated English writers tend to use loose sentences
24 of 43
Ludvik Electric Co.
Training Department
much more often than periodic sentences. While a periodic sentence can be useful for
making an important point or for a special dramatic effect, it is also much more difficult
to read, and often requires readers to go back and reread the sentence once they
understand the main point.
Finally, it is important to remember that you have to structure a loose sentence as
carefully as you would structure a periodic sentence: it is very easy to lose control of a
loose sentence so that by the end the reader has forgotten what your main point was.
The Periodic Sentence
If your main point is at the end of a long sentence, you are writing a periodic sentence:
periodic
Considering the free health care, the cheap tuition fees, the low crime rate, the
comprehensive social programs, and the wonderful winters, I am willing to pay
slightly higher taxes for the privilege of living in Canada.
The main point of this sentence is that the writer prefers to live in Canada. At the
beginning of this sentence, the reader does not know what point the writer is going to
make: what about the free health care, cheap tuition fees, low crime rate, comprehensive
social programs, and wonderful winters? The reader has to read all of this information
without knowing what the conclusion will be.
The periodic sentence has become much rarer in formal English writing over the past
hundred years, and it has never been common in informal spoken English (outside of bad
political speeches). Still, it is a powerful rhetorical tool. An occasional periodic sentence
is not only dramatic but persuasive: even if the readers do not agree with your conclusion,
they will read your evidence first with open minds. If you use a loose sentence with
hostile readers, the readers will probably close their minds before considering any of your
evidence.
Finally, it is important to remember that periodic sentences are like exclamatory
sentences: used once or twice in a piece of writing, they can be very effective; used
any more than that, they can make you sound dull and pompous.
The other classifications in this chapter describe how you construct your sentences,
but this last set describes why you have written the sentences in the first place. Most
sentences which you write should simply state facts, conjectures, or arguments, but
sometimes you will want to give commands or ask questions.
The Declarative Sentence
The declarative sentence is the most important type. You can, and often will write entire
essays or reports using only declarative sentences, and you should always use them far
more often than any other type. A declarative sentence simply states a fact or argument,
25 of 43
Ludvik Electric Co.
Training Department
without requiring either an answer or action from the reader. You punctuate your
declarative sentences with a simple period:
Ottawa is the capital of Canada.
The distinction between deconstruction and post-modernism eludes me.
He asked which path leads back to the lodge.
Note that the last example contains an indirect question, "which path leads back to the
lodge." An indirect question does not make a sentence into an interrogative sentence -only a direct question can do that.
The Interrogative Sentence
An interrogative sentence asks a direct question and always ends in a question mark:
Who can read this and not be moved?
How many roads must a man walk down?
Does money grow on trees?
Note that an indirect question does not make a sentence interrogative:
Direct/Interrogative
When was Lester Pearson prime minister?
Indirect/Declarative
I wonder when Lester Pearson was prime minister.
A direct question requires an answer from the reader, while an indirect question does not.
The Rhetorical Question
Normally, an essay or report will not contain many regular direct questions, since you are
writing it to present information or to make an argument. There is, however, a special
type of direct question called a rhetorical question -- that is, a question which you do
not actually expect the reader to answer:
Why did the War of 1812 take place? Some scholars argue that it was simply a
land-grab by the Americans ...
If you do not overuse them, rhetorical questions can be a very effective way to introduce
new topics or problems in the course of a paper; if you use them too often, however, you
may sound patronising and/or too much like a professor giving a mediocre lecture.
The Exclamatory Sentence
An exclamatory sentence, or exclamation, is simply a more forceful version of a
declarative sentence, marked at the end with an exclamation mark:
26 of 43
Ludvik Electric Co.
Training Department
The butler did it!
How beautiful this river is!
Some towns in Upper Canada lost up to a third of their population during the
cholera epidemics of the early nineteenth century!
Exclamatory sentences are common in speech and (sometimes) in fiction, but over the
last 200 years they have almost entirely disappeared from academic writing. You will (or
should) probably never use one in any sort of academic writing, except where you are
quoting something else directly. Note that an exclamation mark can also appear at the end
of an imperative sentence.
The Imperative Sentence
An imperative sentence gives a direct command to someone -- this type of sentence can
end either with a period or with an exclamation mark, depending on how forceful the
command is:
Sit!
Read this book for tomorrow.
You should not usually use an exclamation mark with the word "please":
Wash the windows!
Please wash the windows.
Normally, you should not use imperative sentences in academic writing. When you
do use an imperative sentence, it should usually contain only a mild command, and thus,
end with a period:
Consider the Incas.
Participles
First and foremost, a participle is the form of the verb, but it is not a verb. Second, it is an
adjective. And finally, it ends in "ing" or "ed" or "en."
[In the following examples, the participle is bold and the verb is underlined.]
As the colonies became a new nation dedicated to the proposition that all men are
created equal, public schools had another purpose.
First find the subject and verb of each clause: COLONIES BECAME and SCHOOLS
HAD. With that done, we can see that DEDICATED is not the subject. Instead, it
describes the word NATION. Therefore, it is an adjective. A form of a verb that ends in
ED, EN or ING and acts as an adjective is a participle.
27 of 43
Ludvik Electric Co.
Training Department
Transformed by the national economy, urban factories developed a need of disciplined,
obedient workers.
The subject (factories) DEVELOPED. So what does TRANSFORMED do? It describes
FACTORIES.
Learning to solve problems in groups, the students began to understand how to fit within
the social structure.
Identify the subject and verb. What is this sentence about? STUDENTS. What is the
verb? BEGAN. What part of the sentence does LEARNING go with? The subject. It
describes STUDENTS, so it is a form of the verb acting as an adjective—a participle.
The steps to finding a participle:
1. Find the subject and verb to eliminate any confusion.
Al Gore, knocked around by Bill Bradley for being "pro-gun," is confidently pushing gun
control to the forefront of his presidential campaign.
AL GORE is the subject. IS PUSHING is the verb. KNOCKED is a form of the verb,
acting as an adjective, modifying Al GORE.
The activist called for a waiting period for gun purchases to help reduce illegal gun
trafficking.
The subject is ACTIVIST. The verb is CALLED. WAITING is a form of the verb, acting
as an adjective, modifying PERIOD.
Headed by conservative media watchdog leader Brent Bozell, the Parents Television
Council announced the results of a study.
The subject is THE PARENTS TELEVISION COUNCIL. The verb is ANNOUNCED.
HEADED is a form of the verb, acting as an adjective, modifying the subject.
The network reported on the springtime ritual of young men and women flocking to
warm beaches around the globe.
The subject is NETWORK. The verb is REPORTED. FLOCKING is a form of the verb,
acting as an adjective, modifying men and women. It can't act as a verb without an
auxiliary verb. e.g. Young men and women WERE flocking to warm beaches.
2. Decide what part of the sentence the verbal belongs to.
The statement issued by Columbia noted that a current weakness of the Internet is the
inability to authenticate material.
The subject is STATEMENT. The verb is NOTED. ISSUED is part of the complete
subject. It is a form of the verb, acting as an adjective.
The armed services struggle to meet recruiting goals in a tight job market.
28 of 43
Ludvik Electric Co.
Training Department
The subject is SERVICES. The verb is STRUGGLE. RECRUITING is part of the
complete predicate. It is a form of the verb, acting as an adjective modifying goals.
Infinitives
First and foremost, an infinitive is the form of the verb, but it is not a verb.
Second, an infinitive can be a noun, an adjective or an adverb. And finally,
it is always "to" plus a verb.
[In the following examples, the infinitive is bold and the verb is underlined.]

Supporters of the Internet fail to mention that it contains a lot of trash
packaged to look like reliable information.
o

Students need to learn the parts of speech.
o

The subject is ATTORNEY. The verb is HAS. RIGHT is the object of the
verb and the infinitive TO REPRESENT is an adjective telling us what
kind of right.
Lawsuits are useful to punish corporations or to represent consumers.
o

The subject is ANTS. The verb is HAVE ARRIVED. The infinitive TO
GRAB is an adverb explaining why or where they have arrived.
That attorney has the right to represent you.
o

The subject is STUDENTS. The verb is NEED. The infinitive TO LEARN
is the object of the verb. Therefore, it is a noun.
The ants have arrived to grab the leftovers from the picnic.
o

The subject is SUPPORTERS. The verb is FAIL. The infinitive TO
MENTION is the object of the verb. Therefore, it is a noun.
The subject is LAWYERS. The verb is ARE. USEFUL is type of adjective
known as a predicate adjective and the infinitive TO PUNISH is an adverb
modifying that adjective.
Farmers are splicing genes and manipulating seeds to create more robust
plants.
o
The subject is FARMERS. The verbs are ARE SPLICING and
MANIPULATING. TO CREATE tells us why they are doing this.
Therefore, it is an adverb.
29 of 43
Ludvik Electric Co.
Training Department
Gerunds
First and foremost, a gerund is the form of the verb, but it is not a verb.
Second, it is a noun. And finally, it ends in "ing."
[In the following examples, the gerund is bold and the verb is underlined.]

Many local governments and school districts forbid releasing student
information to any outside group, including the military, colleges or
corporations.
o

Burning oil and smashing atoms are good for the environment.
o

STORY is the subject. IS is the verb. FARMING is the object of the
preposition FOR. An object is a noun. A form of a verb that ends in ING
and acts as a noun is a gerund.
Kids enjoy surfing the 'Net, but it doesn't mean that their minds are
engaged.
o

First find the subject and verb of the clause: MINING is the subject and
YIELDS is the verb. Therefore, MINING is a noun. A form of a verb that
ends in ING and acts as a noun is a gerund.
The story is the same for high-tech farming.
o

First find the subject and verb: BURNING and SMASHING are the
subjects and ARE is the verb. Therefore, BURNING and SMASHING are
nouns. A form of a verb that ends in ING and acts as a noun is a gerund.
Coal mining yields 5,000 watts per square meter per day, and an oil field
yields close to 10,000.
o

First find the subject and verb: GOVERNMENTS and DISTRICTS are the
subjects and FORBID is the verb. Is it an action verb? Yes? Do they
forbid something? Yes. What? RELEASING. So, RELEASING is a direct
object, which is a noun. A form of a verb that ends in ING and acts as a
noun is a gerund.
KIDS is the subject. ENJOY is the verb. SURFING is the direct object of
the verb. An object is a noun. A form of a verb that ends in ING and acts
as a noun is a gerund.
The study does not show a link between using computers and
improving student performance
o
The subject is STUDY. The verb is DOES SHOW. USING and
IMPROVING are objects of the preposition BETWEEN.
30 of 43
Ludvik Electric Co.
Training Department
PUNCTUATION
Punctuation is more than simply a series of rules to be memorized. It is the tool
that can most effectively fine tune your writing. The choice to use a semicolon
rather than begin a new sentence. The decision to string series of phrases one
after another with commas. The attempt to interrupt the flow of a sentence a
sentence with a dash. All of these involve crafting beyond simply applying
rules. But to apply the proper touch, a writer must understand the rules that
govern punctuation. He or she must know slows a sentence as well as what
stops it.
There are six types of punctuation we will consider:
1) commas, which are used to connect a series of words, phrases and clauses
and have specific rules of use in Associated Press Style.
2) semicolons, which are used to connect independent clauses and provide
clarity in a "comma heavy" sentence.
3) colons, which are used to let the reader know that a list or restatement is to
follow.
4) dashes, which are used to indicate a dramatic break in the sentence's
direction.
5) hyphens, which are used to connect compound modifiers.
6) quotation marks, which have specific rules of use in Associated Press
Style.
THE COMMA:
There are 11 simple rules that govern the comma in AP style. Be aware
that this is a particular style. Other styles have different rules for comma
use.
1) When the last item in a series is connected by a coordinating
conjunction (e.g., and, or, but, nor, for, yet, so), do not use a comma
before the conjunction.
o
I enjoy golf, football and boxing.
31 of 43
Ludvik Electric Co.
Training Department
2) Use a comma to separate two independent clauses connected by a
coordinating conjunction.
o
The UO football team won the game, and the Ducks are going
to the Rose Bowl.
3) Remember: A compound predicate (two or more verbs serving the
same subject) does not need a comma.
o
The man voted today and hoped his candidate would win.
4) Use commas following introductory clauses and phrases and other
clauses and phrases that would be confusing without commas.
o
In the hassles and headaches of daily life at the University, it is
easy to forget how privileged we are to attend college.
o
Although she had always been afraid to fly, she loved her
flight in a small plane.
o
Every day, journalists report the news.
5) Use commas to set off non-restrictive (non essential) clauses, phrases
and modifiers from the rest of the sentence.
o
The lawn mower that is broken is in the garage.
(Restrictive: Indicates more than one lawn mower)
o
The lawn mower, which is broken, is in the garage.
(Nonrestrictive: Adds non-essential information about the only lawn
mower)
6) Use commas to separate descriptive modifiers of equal rank if the
coordinating conjunction is missing.
Tip: If you can use the adjectives interchangeably and can successfully
insert a conjunction and between them, they require a comma.
o
In an angry, blunt statement, President Clinton chided his
opponents.
7) Use commas to set off parenthetical expressions and nominatives of
direct address.
32 of 43
Ludvik Electric Co.
Training Department
o
The test, you may recall, was easy.
o
She said, "You know, Jan, that the test is today."
o
"Jan, where's the car?" "Where's the car, Jan?"
8) Use commas to set off participial phrases that modify some part of the
independent clause.
o
The runner quit, having cut his toe on a broken bottle.
o
The judge, tired of the commotion in the courtroom, made
everyone leave.
o
Driven by an unquenchable desire to win, Sally often cheated.
9) Do not use a comma to separate two independent clauses that are not
joined by a coordinating conjunction. Do not use a comma to introduce a
subordinate clause.
o
The test was today, we all passed. (WRONG)
o
We all passed the test because it was easy. (RIGHT)
10) Do not use a comma to separate a reflexive pronoun.
o
The mayor himself will be here today.
11) Do not use a comma to precede a partial quotation.
o
The mayor said that his opponent was "one of the worst
candidates ever to run for office."
BUT: If the quotation is a full sentence, it should be preceded by
a comma.
o
The mayor said, "John Smith is one of the worst candidates
ever to run for office. "
THE SEMICOLON:
1) When each item in a series includes commas, a semicolon is used to
separate the items.
33 of 43
Ludvik Electric Co.
Training Department
o
The pilots were delighted that the owners approved the new
contract, the one with the pay increase; accepted changes to
the benefits package, changes that included vision care; and
allowed pilots to fly small commuter jets.
2) The semicolon may be used to separate closely related independent
clauses that are not connected by conjunctions.
o
The sun shone all day; it was a welcome sight.
3) Hence, however, indeed, moreover, still, therefore, thus are
conjunctive adverbs. They belong to the second sentence and are not
coordinating conjunctions. When used after a semicolon they are
followed by commas.
o
Steve found it difficult to take advice; however, Bill found it
easy to give.
THE COLON:
1) When the colon is used to introduce a complete sentence, the first
word of that sentence should be capitalized.
o
The announcement caught John by surprise: Fans who are
standing on the field will be arrested.
2) But when the colon is used to introduce a word, phrase or clause that
is not a complete sentence, the first word following the colon should not
be capitalized.
o
John knew what he had to do when he saw the police: remain
calm.
3) Use a colon to introduce a two-sentence (or longer) quotation. Using a
comma instead of a colon is incorrect.
o
JFK said: "Ask not what your country can do for you. Ask
what you can do for your country. "
4) Use a colon to introduce a list of items.
o
When choosing a computer, consider these three factors:
speed, memory and cost.
34 of 43
Ludvik Electric Co.
Training Department
5) A colon is unnecessary if you are introducing a short list without the
words "the following."
o
The voters elected Jones, Smith and Marzone.
THE DASH:

Use a dash to notify the reader of a surprising element at the end of a
sentence.
o The trapper gave his grandson a coat made of fur—skunk fur.

Use a dash to announce a list, restatement or an amplification.
o The waiter's first recommendation—a sea bass baked in a
hazelnut crust—was sold out.

o
Her first car—a pink and white pinto with leopard-skin seat
covers—should be in a museum.
o
He had worked hard—did his coach realize how hard?—to
improve his free throw shooting.
Don't use a dash for a simple appositive that doesn't require a dramatic
shift.
o Her first car, a Dodge Dart, is still running.
THE HYPHEN:
Smaller than a dash, the hyphen brings words together rather than setting them
apart.

Use a hyphen to form compound modifiers.
COMPOUND MODIFIER:
The Definition: Two or more words are acting as a single modifier for a
noun.
The Clue: They belong together. They are not part of a series that can
separately describe the noun.
35 of 43
Ludvik Electric Co.
Training Department
o
o
o
I think Steve is a well-intentioned volunteer.
Steve is a helpful, supportive volunteer.
The 20-year-old man was too young to buy alcohol.
The Rule: If you can put "and" between the modifiers and it makes
sense, it is not a compound modifier.
The Exception: If the modifier includes "very" or an "-ly" adverb, these
words alone indicate that they are part of a compound modifier, so a
hyphen is redundant.
o
o
o
o
Most people think they have a well-developed sense of style.
Steve has a highly developed sense of style.
Susan has an open-minded view of the world.
Doug thinks he has very liberal views.
The Kicker: Most compound modifiers are hyphenated when they
follow the linking verb "to be."
o
I think his proposal is short-sighted.
The Caveat: But be careful to distinguish between a compound modifier
and the same words not used as a modifier.
o
o
His too-small effort couldn't save the game.
The coat he gave his mother was too small.
QUOTATION MARKS:
1) Set off explanatory expressions with commas. In this example,
attribution ("the mayor said") is inserted between the dependent clause
("If we ...") and the independent clause, ("we will")
o
"If we can win this election," the mayor said, "we will change
the future of our great city."
2) Place periods and commas within quotation marks.
o
o
"I don't like cabbage," said Peter Rabbit.
Peter Rabbit said, "I don't like cabbage."
36 of 43
Ludvik Electric Co.
Training Department
3) Place a question mark inside quotation marks if the quotation is a
question. But if the quoted material is not a question, put the question
mark outside the quotation marks.
o
o
He asked, "Do you like me?"
How can you support somebody who is said to be "on the
wrong side of every issue"?
4) Semicolons are placed outside quotation marks.
o
The football coach introduced his starting lineup as follows:
"Daffy Duck, a great quarterback"; "Pluto, a heckuva
fullback"; and "Goofy, a ferocious tackler. "
5) A colon goes outside the quotation marks unless it is part of the
quotation itself.
o
o
The man said, "I have but one hobby: eating."
The man called his friend "every bad name in the book":
Slimeball, twit, tiny-brained and nose-wiper were some the
most common.
6) Use quotation marks for titles of books, lectures, movies, operas,
plays, poems, songs, speeches, television shows and works of art. Do not
use these marks for names of magazines, newspapers, references books
or the bible.
Punctuation Practice Exercise
Choose an answer for each question. After completing the entire exercise,
read the copy of this exercise that is immediately following for the correct
answers.
Instructions: Select the incorrectly punctuated sentence from each group of
choices. If all are correct, select d) all are correct.
1) a) Her quickly amassed fortune includes a dramatic collection of paintings
that are stored in the basement.
b) Herb’s sister yelled, "Does anyone have a telephone"?
c) Christina missed her graduation from high school, yet her parents didn’t
37 of 43
Ludvik Electric Co.
Training Department
seem to care.
d) all are correct
2) a) The three-week-old injury does not appear to be healing.
b) Most of the Duck fans were optimistic about the teams chances of winning
the championship.
c) Hoping to reach the summit by midnight, the expedition team pushed
forward at a grueling pace.
d) all are correct
3) a) The manager told his sales team, "If you want to win the award, you will
need to double your sales."
b) Jack Kennedy, who was assassinated by Lee Harvey Oswald, was a popular
president.
c) The local newscaster enjoyed being famous, she was often asked for her
autograph.
d) all are correct
4) a) Pudding and custard are Ted's two favorite desserts which Kate cannot
understand at all.
b) Her inexperienced assistant told the visitor, "My boss didn’t feel like
working and went golfing instead."
c) To reach the peak of success in business, most people devote very
concentrated time to their professions.
d) all are correct
5) a) "These dogs are from championship bloodlines," the breeder explained
confidently. "You should buy one."
b) Matt told the princess that he had "always longed to be a servant."
c) Surrounded by old friends and family; the couple said their vows.
d) all are correct
6) a) Martina asked Chicago Bulls star Michael Jordan to act as the head of the
company.
b) After the game ended, the coach complained: "We didn’t block. We didn’t
tackle. We didn’t win."
c) As Carter worked to secure the sail, Seamus went below to get their
raincoats.
d) all are correct
7) a) Did you read Susan Orlean’s article in The New York Times Magazine?
38 of 43
Ludvik Electric Co.
Training Department
b) Their sister said, "I want to go to the game. I’m sure it will be good. We
need to be on time."
c) The attorney filed the brief because her client opposed the developer’s plan.
d) all are correct
8) a) After such a long-winded introduction, the speech itself will certainly be
terrible.
b) The balloon’s pilot climbed a 60 foot cable to repair the leak.
c) She has a deep-seated fear of speaking in front of a judge.
d) all are correct
9) a) The announcer repeated the same thing: "The white zone is for loading
and unloading only."
b) The manicurist thanked the salesman for showing her "the light."
c) Last year Greg read "Gone with the Wind;" his sister recommended it.
d) all are correct
10) a) The carpenter liked using medieval technology (e.g. a hand-turned lathe).
b) The gangsters told the shopkeeper, "If you are not careful you’ll be ‘fish
food.’"
c) Britt Hume himself will lead the news team to Somalia.
d) all are correct
11) a) Every day, Stephen reads The New York Times to his reporting class.
b) Shirley did not expect her trip to Greece to be such an exhilarating,
whirlwind adventure.
c) Sarah is intrigued that her Uncle Cliff was a pilot in the war; nonetheless, he
rarely discusses it.
d) all are correct
12) a) After she poured the brass, Alice took off her gloves; filled the tub with
water; and submerged the sculpture.
b) When Daniel got too close to the edge of the cliff his father yelled, "Get
back here, Daniel!"
c) Driven by the need to prove his tormentors wrong, Karl worked hard every
day to improve his backhand.
d) all are correct
13) a) The doctor is popular among his patients although he does not spend
much time with them.
b) Have you seen the new show "The West Wing"?
39 of 43
Ludvik Electric Co.
Training Department
c) Grant asked the teacher, "When will the test results be posted?"
d) all are correct
14) a) His mother and father chose to stay home and work in the yard.
b) Nerdly is one of the most aptly-named children Monique has ever met.
c) Are you going to see "What Lies Beneath"?
d) all are correct
15) a) Meryl Streep, who has won several acting awards, seems to be just a
regular person.
b) Trying desperately not to cry the young child explained that the "booger
monster" had taken his spinach.
c) Before we start this exercise, let’s do a few stretches.
d) all are correct
16) a) The class visited the museum, they went to a baseball game, too.
b) Maria Shriver is a talented journalist and a completely devoted mother.
c) When they leave for the concert—she thinks it will be near noon—they’ll
call you.
d) all are correct
17) a) Nancy prefers gold to silver; she thinks its more elegant.
b) For such a quick-witted employee, she has been rather confused by this
easily operated machine.
c) Has Michael enjoyed his internship at The Register Guard?
d) all are correct
18) a) Kimberly is flying to Mexico to meet her husband Jack for a vacation.
b) The race between the two sprinters was widely hyped and completely
disappointing.
c) The speaker asked every audience the same thing: "Do you want to be right,
or do you want it to work?"
d) all are correct
19) a) Before you decide that you hate this strawberry pie, take a bite.
b) The moose made its way across the meadow, and into the forest.
c) The picnic basket contains the following: potato salad, Grandma’s recipe;
Jello, Aunt Judy’s recipe; and fried chicken, the Colonel’s recipe.
d) all are correct
20) a) Grace is going to the movies without him, Bryce has already seen it.
40 of 43
Ludvik Electric Co.
Training Department
b) Cole’s scooter, which he got for his eighth birthday, is totally cool.
c) Have you ever tried to pronounce "ameliorate"?
d) all are correct
41 of 43
Ludvik Electric Co.
Training Department
Punctuation Practice Test Answers
1) b) Herb’s sister yelled, "Does anyone have a telephone"?
2) b) Most of the Duck fans were optimistic about the teams chances of
winning the championship.
3 c) The local newscaster enjoyed being famous, she was often asked for
her autograph.
4) a) Pudding and custard are Ted's two favorite desserts which Kate
cannot understand at all.
5) c) Surrounded by old friends and family; the couple said their vows.
6) d) all are correct
7) b) Their sister said, "I want to go to the game. I’m sure it will be good.
We need to be on time."
8) b) The balloon’s pilot climbed a 60 foot cable to repair the leak.
9) c) Last year Greg read "Gone with the Wind;" his sister recommended
it.
10) b) The gangsters told the shopkeeper, "If you are not careful you’ll be
‘fish food.’"
11) d) all are correct
12) a) After she poured the brass, Alice took off her gloves; filled the tub
with water; and submerged the sculpture.
42 of 43
Ludvik Electric Co.
Training Department
13) d) all are correct
14) b) Nerdly is one of the most aptly-named children Monique has ever
met.
15) b) Trying desperately not to cry the young child explained that the
"booger monster" had taken his spinach.
16) a) The class visited the museum, they went to a baseball game, too.
17) a) Nancy prefers gold to silver; she thinks its more elegant.
18) a) Kimberly is flying to Mexico to meet her husband Jack for a
vacation.
19) b) The moose made its way across the meadow, and into the forest.
20) a) Grace is going to the movies without him, Bryce has already seen it.
43 of 43