WEIGHT TRAINING
NA TURE AND PURPOSE
During the past two decades, the effectiveness of
carefully planned weight training as a method of
improving body development and sports performance has been accepted on the basis of well-controlled studies. Although being muscle bound, having reduced localized muscle endurance, and loss of
speed and agility were once thought to result from
weight training, such claims have no physiological
basis.
Much may be gained from the systematic and
intelligent application of modern weight training
principles. Using the principle of overload (taxing
the muscles beyond their normal daily activities),
coupled with progressive resistance through a full
range of motion appears to be the most effective
means of acquiring dynamic strength. The closer the
weight lifting movement simulates the actions in
sports, the greater the transfer of strength to motor
performance. Weight lifting is also an excellent way
to develop flexibility, provided the exercise is executed through the entire range of motion. Muscle
enlargement does not reduce muscle endurance,
because an increase in capillarization usually accompanies the cross-sectional increase of muscle
fibers, which helps to delay the onset of fatigue.
Weight training does not necessarily affect cardiorespiratory endurance unless movements are executed
for this specific purpose. Increasing the cardiorespiratory endurance requires specific training. To
achieve this, heart and respiratory rates must be
intensely increased and maintained at higher than
normal resting values for a duration of time. Systematic weight training that applies the principles of
resistance, overload, and specificity will have positive effects on motor performance parameters and
contribute to successful participation in sports.
Many individuals become involved in weight
training as a means of gaining or losing weight. The
use of weight training is of greater benefit to gaining
body weight than to losing it. This is due to the
activities' physiological effect upon the body. The
overload principle causes proteins to be readily
incorporated into the muscle thus increasing muscular mass (hypertrophy), while on the other hand the
energy expenditure of weight lifting is too low to be
of much benefit in body weight reduction. However,
the overweight person may want to include weight
training as part of a reduction program to increase
body tone while reducing with diet and an aerobic
program.
Many centers of rehabilitation find the use of
weights valuable in developing weak or injured
muscles, strengthening underdeveloped muscles, or
rebuilding muscles affected by atrophy following
casting or hospitalization.
EQUIPMENT
Variable Resistance Machines
This type of machine is manufactured by many
companies under a variety of names. The most
widely used is the Universal Gym (Figure 25-1).
While this type of machine is available in separate
units, it is most commonly found as a jungle gym
arrangement on which several athletes can work out
at one time. The units consist of weight stacks
connected by pulleys to levers or lifting bars. The
levers and pulleys allow variable resistance through
a fixed and oftentimes limited range of motion.
Nautilus
An improvement upon the variable resistance
machine is the Nautilus equipment (Figure 25-2).
Through unique and innovative engineering the
machines offer a near true weight through the entire
range of motion. The range of motion along with the
specificity of the movements have also been improved. The Nautilus concept claims increased cardiovascular benefits while improving muscular
strength; however, many claims made by Nautilus
are supported by the manufacturer's own research.
Nautilus has been found by many coaches to be an
excellent way to maintain strength in-season.
Isokinetic Equipment
Probably the most talked about and misunderstood equipment available today are isokinetic de-
vices. The term isokinetic means "moving at a
constant speed." These machines require no weights
as the resistance felt from this equipment is selfgenerated. The machines are capable of being set at
a variety of training velocities. If the athlete is
capable of moving through a range of motion which
approaches this velocity, then resistance is felt
through that range. If the velocity is not reached,
resistance is not felt. For this reason to train on
these devices requires a highly motivated athlete
with constant supervision. The significance of training at a variety of velocities is found in the physiology of the muscle fibers. Since muscle fibers are of a
FIGURE 25-1. The Universal
Gym, a widely used variable
resistance machine.
FIGURE 25-2. The Nautilus pullover
torso machine.
FIGURE 25-3. The Orthotron isokinetic
machine.
fast and slow nature, it is felt that training at fast
and slow speeds will increase recruitment of these
fibers.
The value of isokinetic devices in rehabilitation
is well founded. The Orthotron and Cybex II (Lumex Inc.) are most commonly used for rehabilitation
while the Mini Gym is used for sports training. One
problem with isokinetic devices is that they do not
relate well with other forms of strength training.
There is also doubt as to their effectiveness in
building muscular bulk.
Free Weights
The oldest forms of weight training have been
done with free weights. There are two types: the
Olympic form and the standard one-inch barbell. A
well-equipped training room will have both types of
bars. The Olympic bar offers more balance, is more
durable, and is a must for power and Olympic lifts.
If properly used with supervision from an experienced lifter, free weights offer the most substantial
strength program available. The cost of equipment is
low but the risk may be high with improper accessory equipment or lack of supervision.
Other Equipment
The following items may become necessary to
the lifter as the training becomes more intense.
Lifting Belt. The lifting belt is made of thick
leather and is used to give physical support to the
lower back and moral support to the mind. There
are two types of belts, training and competition. The
training belt is 5 inches wide and gives a wide
support to the lower back. The competition belt is 4
inches wide and may not exceed this in Olympic
and power lifting. The belt is generally worn with
free weight squats and cleans.
Lifting Straps. Lifting straps are loops of
leather or canvas belting about one inch wide. The
straps are placed around the hands and then under
and around the bar. With an overhand grip the lifter
secures the strap and the bar is held tightly to the
hand. Straps are used with dead lifts and cleans for
training only. Lifting straps may not be used in
competition.
Knee Wraps (Super Wraps). Wraps are long, 3inch wide strips of tough elastic material. They are
worn extremely tight around the knee to add spring
to the rebound phase of the squat and clean. They
are needed only with heavy weights and may be
worn in competition.
Super Suits. Super suits are made of tough
elastic material and look like wrestling gear. The
suit gives support and spring to the body during
heavy squats and cleans. They are generally not
worn in training bui are normally always worn in
competition.
THE FEMALE WEIGHTLIFTER
The fundamentals, techniques, and training programs described in this chapter are directed at both
sexes. The female athletes need strength training
every bit as much as their male counterparts, if not
more. Competitive power lifting and body building
are also becoming very popular among women
across the country. Coeducational weight training
classes offer no problems in terms of training programs, in fact they are very effective ways of destroying weight lifting myths concerning females.
myth: Women are not as strong as men.
fact: Through elementary school, middle school,
and well into high school, females are as strong if
not stronger than their male counterparts, although
with age and training men will surpass women
pound for pound.
myth: Women should execute lifts differently
because they are built differently.
fact: Anatomical differences in bone and muscle
are so slight that they have no bearing on lifting
technique.
myth: Women will become extremely muscular
if they lift heavy weights.
fact: Women can increase strength up to 70
percent with little change in physical appearance. It
is the male hormone (testosterone) which causes the
noticable hypertrophy in men. Most women have
such small amounts of this hormone that bulk muscularity is next to impossible. Women body builders
who do show extreme hypertrophy have (1) very
low body fat, (2) unusually high levels of testosterone, or (3) may take anabolic steroids (a testosterone-like drug).
myth: Women (as well as men) are concerned
that their muscles will turn into fat if they stop
working out.
fact: Just as lead cannot turn into gold, muscle
cannot turn into fat. Muscle generally atrophies
(becomes smaller) when training ceases. People who
appear to have become fat after they stopped training may not have changed their eating habits and
consequently may be gaining weight.
myth: Women should not train during various
stages of the menstrual cycle.
fact: The overwhelming majority of female athletes report no adverse effects on performance due
to this physiological process.
Most women who have begun training with
weights find they have gained the following benefits:
1. Increased physical strength improves their per
formance in sporting events.
2. There is a decrease in overall body fat while
developing muscular tone.
3. There is an improvement in self-image and a
feeling of well-being.
SUGGESTED LEARNING SEQUENCE
Weight training as part of a physical education
program should be approached as a skill-oriented
class and not merely as an activity. Weight training
requires an overall philosophy, the development of
techniques, and the ability to execute the skills of
each lift.
A four day a week lifting program is recommended which splits the various lifts into two
groups. Monday and Thursday lifts emphasize legs
and back while Tuesday and Friday lifts emphasize
upper body. If time restricts the number of lifts
which may be accomplished, then some leg and
back lifts may be done on Monday and some may be
done on Thursday. The same arrangement can be
used with the upper body lifts. A practical approach
for utilization of equipment would be to split the
class into two groups containing subgroups of three
students (matched for strength if possible). By doing
this, one group can do Monday/Thursday lifts on
Tuesday and Friday, thus allowing the proper
amount of time needed to execute a proper program.
The subgroups of three students lift as a team and
are responsible for spotting each other when this is
required. Each member of the subgroup should
complete a set before any member repeats a set.
The following instructional approach is recommended:
1. Students should be informed of the various forms
of strength training and how they differ.
2. Each lift should be demonstrated to the student
with emphasis placed on key points as well as
safety factors. Students should also understand
the purpose of each lift. (Olympic lifts may be
omitted from the demonstration as they are not
part of the training program.)
3. If the course meets five times a week, the nonlifting day should be devoted to instruction about
related areas (stretching techniques, aerobic exer
cises, guest speakers or lifters).
4. Begin the lifting schedule as soon as techniques
have been demonstrated and safety tips have
been emphasized.
Outlined below is a basic plan which may be
adopted as is or with modifications. If this plan does
not meet the needs of your program, many different
lifting schedules may be found in the books listed in
the reference section. This program may be done
almost entirely on variable resistance machines
(Universal Gym), totally with free weights, or in
combination. Students should begin with an amount
of weight which can be handled through the recommended number of repetitions. The first set should
be lighter than the second or third set. The student
may increase the weight in a set when there is no
longer difficulty in completing the last few reps of
the second or third set.
FW = Free Weights; VRM = Variable Resistance Machines
MONDAY AND THURSDAY LIFTS:
EXERCISE
SETS REPS
Back
Dead lifts (FW) Bent over rows (FW) 2
Lat pull overs (FW) Lat pull downs
2
(VRM)
2
2
Biceps and Forearms Barbell curl
(FW or VRM) Reverse curl (FW or
2
VRM)
Legs Squats (FW)
Leg lunge (FW) Leg press (VRM)
Leg extentions (VRM) Leg curls
(VRM)
Calf
Donkey calf raise Dorsal flexion
Abdominals Sit-ups
TUESDAY AND FRIDAY LIFTS:
5
10
10
10
8
2
8
1
10
1
2
2
2
2
5
10
10
10
10
2
15 (may vary)
15
2
15
EXERCISE
SETS REPS
Power cleans (FW)
3
5
Shoulders
Military press front (FW or VRM)
Military press back (FW or VRM)
2
2
10
10
Dumbbell shrugs (FW)
2
10
Chest
Bench Press (FW or VRM)
Incline Bench Press (FW)
3
3
5
5
Triceps
Lying triceps extensions (FW)
2
10
Calf
same as Mon/Thur
Abdominals
same as Mon/Thur
SKILLS AND TECHNIQUES
Correct lifting form is essential not only for
obtaining quick results but also for safety.
The Grip
The overhand, palms down, grip is used in
practically all exercises. The thumbs may be hooked
underneath the bar or in some instances, as in the
bench press, may remain on the same side of the bar
as the other fingers. This requires more balance and
is not recommended to the novice lifter.
on the bar in order to execute the lift properly as
well as provide safety.
When involved in Olympic or power lifting, the
use of chalk on the hands is recommended. The
chalk will increase the bar/hand friction, thus facilitating a better grip.
The Feet
FIGURE 25-4. The overhand grip.
The underhand grip is the exact opposite of the
overhand grip, with palms placed upward under the
bar. This grip is used in executing the curl maneuver.
When the bar is being lifted from the floor, as in
cleans or dead lifts, place the toes approximately
under the bar with the feet spread about one foot
apart. The feet should always be in the same line
although the distance between them may vary.
Many beginners have the fault of not starting close
enough to the bar; consequently, when they start the
lift the bar swings toward the feet instead of going
straight up. Many experienced lifters find that a
slight angling outward, not more than 15 degrees, of
the feet is a more comfortable and efficient lifting
style. This is a technique which should be developed as the lifter improves.
Breathing
Breathing should come naturally during the
course of the exercise, letting the body regulate the
demand. Forced gasping and hyperventilating (rapid
puffs of breath) only interfere with proper breathing
and may even lead to lightheadedness. The best
pattern of breathing is to inhale during the lifting
phase and to exhale with the return movement. As
the weight increases, many lifters find it more effective to take one deep breath and hold it through the
repetition of the lift. The lifter should never hold a
breath for more than one repetition. This puts undue
pressure on the body cavities as well as the blood
vessels of the head. Getting a purple face in the
weight room will not improve your lifting ability.
FIGURE 25-5. The underhand grip.
The alternating grip, with one hand palm down
and the other hand palm up, is favored for dead lifts.
Regardless of style, the hands must be spaced evenly
FIGURE 25-6. The alternating grip.
The Bar and Body Placement
A technique which is of utmost importance in a
weight room is lifting a bar from a power rack or
squat stands. Injuries which occur during this phase
of lifting with free weights can most always be
traced back to carelessness on the part of the lifter.
To properly place your body under the bar to execute a lift check the following items:
1. The bar should be no higher than the shoulder
nor more than 3 to 4 inches below the shoulder.
2. Grip the bar evenly and space your hands wider
than your shoulders.
3. Move under the bar in such a way that the
midpoint of the bar is on line with your back
bone.
4. The bar should rest on the base of the neck and
Lht; shoulders.
5. If the muscles of the neck and shoulders lack the
mass to cushion the bar, foam pads or towels
should be wrapped around the bar so as to
protect the bony parts of the back. This is ex
tremely important for young lifters and as a rule
is a good policy for women to follow.
6. By bending at the knees, align your body as
vertically as possible under the bar.
7. With the head up, lift straight up with hip and
leg power to a vertical position.
8. Step backwards out of the rack no more than 2V2
feet.
9. With spotters on both ends of the bar, execute
the lift.
10. Rerack the weights by stepping back into the
rack, with alignment by spotters, and set the
weight down.
TRAINING PROGRAMS
As weight training has come of age and specificity has become a recognized factor in a successful
program it has become difficult to recommend training programs without knowing what equipment is
available and what purpose the program will serve.
There are recent publications which speak to many
specific programs in weight training. For this reason
specific programs will not be proposed but rather
comments concerning programs will be presented.
For training manuals, refer to the references at the
end of the chapter.
Light Conditioning Programs
These types of programs cover the broadest
range of weight trainers from in-season athletic
programs to the programs typically offered to the
general public at spas. The programs generally
consist of a three day a week lifting routine. All of
the basic lifts would be done at this time with a
brief stretching and warm-up followed by one set of
10 to 15 reps of the various lifts. This is the "circuit
or circus" training approach, also known as the "get
them in—get them out" routine. This approach is a
lifelong battle which gives non-dramatic results.
Heavy Conditioning Programs
Programs in this area are practiced by a smaller
group of lifters containing pre-season athletes,
power lifters, Olympic lifters, and body builders.
The programs run from a 4 to 7 day week with
muscle groups worked rather than the entire body.
The average workout would be around two hours;
however body builders, prior to a contest, may
actually train on a split day routine, thus doubling
the workout time. This is a very effective program if
you can afford the time. The general rule followed in
heavy training is to thoroughly overload and exhaust the muscle each time it is trained with at least
one day between training of that muscle group
again. Overtraining in heavy programs is a real
problem and it affects different people at different
times. Constant muscular pain with a loss in
strength are the warning signs. The large muscle
groups are the first to be affected, especially the
lower back.
A heavy training program, although there is
much variation, may consist of a 5 X 5 approach of
5 sets with 5 reps, not including a warm-up or
stretch. A current variation of the 5 X 5 approach is
to include one day of extremely high rep work at
around 50 to 60 percent of maximum.
An important point concerning heavy training
for sport specificity is that the movements of the
sport should also be done before or after the lifting.
This will allow new motor skills to develop with the
new strength gains.
TERMINOLOGY
SAFETY IN THE WEIGHT ROOM
1. Stretching exercises and a warm-up should pre
cede the training program.
2. Until you are familiar with the movements in
volved with the lift, do not attempt a great
amount of weight on the bar.
3. Collars should always be used on the bars and
they should be secure.
4. Keep adequate distance between the lifters and
the equipment in the training room.
5. Always use spotters on the squats and the bench
press.
6. Dropping of weights other than on a lifting plat
form is uncalled for. Likewise weight stacks on
machines should not be banged up and down.
7. It is always best to partially unload both sides of
a weight bar before removing the final weights.
8. When weight pate racks are available, replace all
weights after use.
Barbell A steel bar 5 to 7 feet long on which circular iron
plates of known weight may be placed.
Cheating A lift which is executed with the addition of
muscle groups other than the prime movers involved
in the lift.
Clean The power clean or beginning phase of the clean
and jerk.
Dumbbell A short barbell, 12 to 16 inches, with fixed or
removable weight plates.
"Lats" The latissimus dorsi muscles of the back.
Overload principle Progressively increasing the intensity
of the workouts over the course of the training program.
Quadriceps The four muscles of the front of the thigh.
"Pecs" The pectoralis major muscles of the chest.
Rep Repetition or the continuation of identical motions.
Set The completion of a predetermined number of repetitions.
Specificity The development of a training program aimed
at increasing one's ability to succeed in a particular
skill.
Spotter Individual responsible for the safety of the lifter.
Generally two spotters are used, one at each end of
the bar, in lifts such as the squat and the bench press.
They are not used in Olympic lifts.