Российская экономическая академия имени Г.В. Плеханова
Кафедра иностранных языков и межкультурных коммуникаций
Аннотирование и реферирование англоязычного
научного текста
Практикум
МОСКВА 2008
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Составители: И.Л. Агеева
Е.Л Агибалова
Предлагаемый практикум предназначен для оказания методической помощи студентам 5 курса
факультета МЭО при составлении рефератов и аннотаций научных статей, курсовых и дипломных
работ на английском языке и направлен на формирование умений и навыков письменного научного
общения на профессиональные темы. Практикум состоит из трех частей, в состав которых входят
теоретические, учебные тексты и упражнения, связанные со смысловыми, лексическими и
грамматическими аспектами аннотирования и реферирования.
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Contents
Section 1.
A. Topic Sentences……………………………………………………………………………4
B. The Three-Part Paragraph…………………………………………………………………..6
C. Summarizing……………………………………………………………………………….10
D. Outlining………………………………………………………………………………......21
Section 2. Writing Abstracts ……………………………………………………………………………..23
Section 3. Writing a Diploma Abstract ………………………………………………………………......28
Appendix A. Useful Language File ……………………………………………………………………...35
Appendix B. Abstract Title …………………………………………………………………………….....36
Appendix C. Technical Production of the Abstract……………………………………………………….37
Appendix D. Submission Dates …………………………………………………………………………..38
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SECTION 1
STRUCTURED WRITING
A. TOPIC SENTENCES
Examine this paragraph and discuss the questions with the class
.
News is everywhere and serves many different functions. The news gives instant coverage of important
events. News also provides facts and information. In addition, news is business: a way to make money by
selling advertising and/or newspapers and magazines. Sometimes news is propaganda or disinformation: a
way to control a population. But whatever news is, it is all around us. You can't escape it. Every day we are
bombarded by information—newspapers, magazines, television, and the Internet.
a. What is the topic of this paragraph?
b. The first sentence is the topic sentence. What two ideas are
presented in this sentence?
c. How does the content of the rest of the paragraph relate to the topic
sentence?
Topics and Topic Sentences
The topic sentence is an essential part of a well-written paragraph. The topic sentence controls the conten
of the rest of the paragraph: It introduces the topic and states the main ideas. This control helps the writer
focus on supporting details in the paragraph that are directly related to the topic sentence.
The first step in writing a topic sentence is to choose a subject and find a point of view or idea about the
subject. For example:
Subject
news
television
reading
Topic/Point of View
→
News is everywhere,
→
Television is a bad influence.
→
Reading is good for you.
The next step is to narrow the topic even more by finding a "controlling idea." The controlling idea is the
idea you want to explain, illustrate, or describe in the paragraph. For example:
Topic
Controlling Idea (Topic Sentence)
news is everywhere →
television is bad
reading is good
News is everywhere and serves many
different functions
→ Television has a violent influence on children.
→ Reading helps you expand your mind and broaden your
interests.
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Each o f the following paragraphs is missing a topic sentence. Circle the topic sentence that best fits the
paragraph. Discuss your choices with a partner.
1. For example, you can't pick up a newspaper these days without reading about some outrageous or
gruesome crime. The top television news story is usually about a murder or other violent incident. We
need to read and hear about the good news stories, too. Otherwise, we will continue sending the message that
only violence is worth reporting. And what kind of message is that for our children?
a. Our society is becoming more and more violent every day.
b. Television news coverage focuses only on violent news.
c. All the media has become increasingly negative by focusing only on
violence.
2. As a result of live television, people can receive news as it happens. For example, during the Gulf War
CNN viewers around the world could watch the war as it was going on. Because of "live" reporting, people
nowadays can feel as though they are participating in history, not just reading or hearing about it afterwards. I
has changed the viewer's role completely.
a. These days there is more live television coverage than ever before.
b. “Live” television reporting has changed the way we see the news.
c. CNN changed the way we saw the news during the Gulf War crisis.
3. Experts recommend limiting viewing to one hour per day during the week and up to two hours per day
on weekends. The programs should be educational in content and promote discussion between the parent and
child. Programs on animal behavior and family values, and programs that teach basic learning skills, are
highly recommended.
a. Watching television is not bad for children.
b. Watching television is fine for children as long as you limit the
hours and monitor the programs.
c. Programs for children should be educational in content so that the
time spent watching TV is not wasted.
4. What we see on the nightly news has been carefully selected by the news department at the television
station. Because the station is interested in making money, the news that is selected is not necessarily the
most important news but rather the news which will attract the most viewers. As a result, we only see the
news that has been chosen for us, which is not always the most informative.
a. News makes money.
b. The news director selects the news.
c. News is not simply what we see, but what the news director at the
television station wants us to see.
The topic sentences in the following paragraphs are underlined. They are rather weak. They do not state
the main idea. Rewrite each topic sentence, making sure that there is a controlling idea.
1. Celebrities have jobs. Being a movie star or sports star is their job. It is what they are good at. They
should not be under the continual scrutiny of the media just because of their profession. They have a
right to a private life just like you and me.
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Rewrite: Celebrities deserve private lives like any other person.
2. News is different. In the old days, people got their news by word of mouth. As society became more
literate and printing costs decreased, newspapers became the medium. Radio then brought a sense of immediacy to the news. Television added the visual impact. Now we have the Internet, which gives up-to-thesecond news about any news event any time we want it. Who knows what the news medium of the future
will be?
Rewrite:
___________________________________________
3. Politicians are public figures. As a president, one is supposed to represent the qualities of honesty and
integrity. Remaining faithful to your husband or wife is the purest example of these qualities. If a president
is unfaithful to his or her spouse, how can we trust that he or she is honest in his or her presidential duties?
Therefore, the media has the responsibility to inform us when a public figure is unfaithful.
Rewrite: _______________________________________________________________
4. Reading is hard. As with any program of exercise, you have to discipline yourself and make reading the
newspaper a part of your everyday routine. And just as exercise makes your body stronger, reading
makes your mind stronger. It broadens your interests, gives you the ability to think critically about important
issues, and enables you to participate in interesting conversations. In conclusion, reading the
paper, like any exercise, is time well spent.
Rewrite: _______________________________________________________________
Writing topics
Write a paragraph about one o f the following topics.
1. Does sensational news ever have a place in our society? If yes, be specific and describe when and in
what place. If no, be specific and explain why not.
2. How can the media influence or shape a society's values? Be specific and give examples.
3. Do governments have the right to censor television programs (for nudity and violence, for example)? B
specific and explain why or why not.
4. Does the media reflect society, or does society reflect the media? Be specific and give examples.
B. THE THREE-PART PARAGRAPH
Work with a partner. Examine the paragraph below and answer the questions that follow.
There are many problems with implementing a teen curfew in our town. First of all, not all teens are
criminals, but if we are treated as criminals, we will begin to believe we are. In addition, many teens have
busy lives; the curfew will interfere with our lives. I, for example, work at a movie theater on the weekends
and do not get out of work until after midnight. Finally, the law doesn't even make sense because statistics
show that teen crime occurs most frequently in the afternoons between 3:00 and 5:00 P.M., not in the late
evening. In conclusion, the use of curfews is not only senseless, but it also treats teens as second-class
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citizens, without the respect and support that we need. It is respect and support that will keep us off the street,
not curfews.
1. What is the topic of the paragraph? Underline it.
2. What is the controlling idea? Circle it.
3. What are the supporting sentences? Double-underline them.
4. What is the conclusion? Underline it.
A paragraph is a group of sentences that talks about one main idea. There are usually three parts to a
paragraph: the topic sentence, supporting sentences, and the concluding sentence.
The Topic Sentence
The topic sentence introduces the subject you are going to write about and your ideas or opinions about
the subject. In this way, it controls what you write in the rest of the paragraph. For example, in the paragraph
above, the first sentence is the topic sentence. It introduces the topic, teen curfews, and the controlling idea,
many problems. All the sentences in the paragraph must relate to, describe, or exemplify the topic sentence.
Supporting Sentences
The second part of the paragraph includes details or examples that develop your ideas about the topic. Thi
part of the paragraph is usually the longest, as it discusses and explains the controlling idea. In the paragraph
above there are three examples of problems with having a teen curfew: it makes all teens feel like criminals; i
interferes with daily life; it doesn't make sense.
The Concluding Sentence
The last part of the paragraph can do several things. It can summarize the paragraph, offer a solution to the
problem, restate the introductory sentence, or offer an opinion. The paragraph above concludes with: In
conclusion, the use of curfews is not only senseless, but it also treats teens as second-class citizens. This
paragraph also adds the final comment: It is respect and support that will keep us off the street, not curfews.
Transition Words
Transition words are often used in supporting sentences and concluding sentences. They help the reader
follow the progression of examples, details, and ideas. Some of these words are listed below.
Use
Transition Words
For the first support
For additional support
For examples
For final support
For the conclusion
First, For one thing, First of all
In addition, Furthermore, Moreover, Also, Another reason
For example, For instance, Specifically
Finally, Last of all
In short, In conclusion, In summary
NOTE: transition words and phrases are followed by а comma (,).
Read each topic sentence and cross out the one lettered idea that does not support the topic sentence. The
first one has been done for you.
1. Some people believe that juvenile court is not fair to the defendants.
a. Reasons why juvenile court isn't fair
b. Definition of juvenile court
c. What the defendants think about juvenile court
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2. Laws that punish parents for their children's crimes get parents
involved in their children's lives.
a. Reasons why parents get involved
b. Examples of how parents become involved
c. Other ways (besides these laws) parents can become involved with
their children
3. Juvenile crime seems to be on the rise all over the world.
a. Some examples of crime statistics from around the world
b. What juveniles do in their free time
c. Reasons why juvenile crime is on the rise
4. When people choose to live overseas, they must obey the laws of that
country no matter how harsh they may seem.
a. Reasons why people choose to live overseas
b. Reasons why people should obey the laws
c. Reasons why people should expect to receive punishments
In each o f the following paragraphs there is one supporting sentence that does not directly relate to the
topic sentence. Cross out this sentence and explain why it is unrelated. The first one has been done for you.
1. There are a number of reasons why juvenile court is not fair to teen defendants. First, teens may plead
guilty just so they can avoid adult court. In addition, many teen jury members are not mature enough to judge
their peers reasonably. Finally, many defendants should be tried as-adults. Clearly these concerns must be
addressed if we want these courts to succeed.
Explanation:
This paragraph explains why teen courts are unfair to teens, ___
not why teens should be tried as adults.
2. Making laws that punish parents for their children’s crimes is a good way to get parents involved in
their children’s lives. First of all, parents must stop their children from committing crimes if they themselves
don’t want to go to jail or be fined. Furthermore, in other countries these laws seem to work. Most
importantly, it opens communication between the parents and the children because they are all involved.
Explanation:
_________________________________________
3. Juvenile crime seems to be on the rise all over the world. For example, in Hamburg, Germany, crimes
committed by children increased by 24.7 percent. Also, in Poland juvenile crime increased by 10 percent in
the first months of this year. Even more shocking, in Russia the juvenile crime rate increased 6 percent in the
first four months of this year. Juvenile crime was not an issue when I was growing up. We must make every
effort to find the cause of this international trend and try to stop it.
Explanation:
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4. When people choose to live overseas, they must obey the laws of that country no matter how harsh they
may seem. For one thing, you can’t expect the laws to change just because you are a foreigner. Another
reason is, by disrespecting the laws of the country you are disrespecting the people and the culture. Finally, as
the expression says, “When in Rome, do as the Romans do”. We are all citizens of planet Earth and should
learn to get along.
Explanation:
_____________________________________________________________________
For each topic sentence below, write two or three supporting sentences. Use transition words and
phrases.
1.
There are some important things parents can do to keep their children away from a life of crime.
_____________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
2. Sports are a good way to keep teens off the streets.
_____________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________
3. There are many ways people can work together to keep communities safe from crime.
4. Being a teenager is difficult, especially if you move overseas.
_____________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________
5. Punishments for juvenile crime vary from state to state and country to country.
_____________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________
Writing topics
Write a paragraph about one of the following topics. Be sure to include a topic sentence and to support
your ideas with examples and details. Include transition words and a concluding statement.
1. In your own culture, how are juvenile crime offenders treated? Do you agree with the treatment? Why
or why not?
2. Do you believe teens should have the same rights and privileges as adults? Why or why not?
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3. Do you think teens should be tried and convicted as adults? If yes, why and under what circumstances?
If no, why not?
4. Should teenagers under eighteen years of age be sent to their home countries for trial when convicted of
crimes overseas?
5. What kinds of programs should cities and towns provide for teens to keep them off the streets and away
from lives of crime?
C. SUMMARIZING
What is summarizing?
Summarizing is the retelling of the important parts of a passage in a much shorter form. Why summarize?
 Tо make sure you have understood something.
 Tо explain the sense of a passage to someone else?
 To review texts for examinations.
What does a good summary include?
 A good summary includes the main ideas and the major supporting points.
 A good summary does not include details, repeated details, or the reader's opinions.
Summarizing sentences
Summarize a sentence by taking out the unnecessary words. Use summary words to take the place of groups of
words about the same topic. Keep only the words which tell the main point of the sentence. Use as few words as
possible.
Example:
The tall cowboy put the saddle on his horse, untied him from the fence, waved good-bye and rode off into the
sunset.
Summary: The cowboy left.
Explanation: You can leave out the word tall, since that is not an important fact. All of the things that the
cowboy did (put saddle on horse, untied him, waved good-bye, and rode off) can be summarized in one word:
left.
Exercise1. Summarize these sentences. Work with another student.
1. After she turned on the oven, Michiko mixed the sugar, flour, eggs, milk, oil, and vanilla in the new
blender, poured the batter into the buttered pans, and put the cake in the oven.
Summary:
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2. As the bus rolled into her hometown, Liz looked around at the familiar streets and shops which she had
not seen for two years.
Summary:
3. Serge put on his raincoat, picked up his umbrella from the table near the door, turned off the lights, put
out the cat, and got ready for his ten-minute walk to the bus slop.
Summary:
4. When the Chen family returned from their vacation, they found the back door broken open, the television
set missing, and all the food in their freezer gone.
Summary:
5. In Natasha's library you can find mysteries, novels, biographies, travel books, how-to-manuals, science
fiction thrillers, and reference books.
Summary;
6. With her new credit card, Yoko bought groceries at the supermarket, shoes at the department store, and a
new set of tires for her sports cat at the auto supply store.
Summary:
7. During the summer along the Charles River in Boston, you can go rollerblading, running, biking, or
sailing, or you can have a picnic, listen to a concert, or watch a movie.
Summary:
8. After clearing away the old leaves and branches, Bill dug up the hard ground, mixed in fertilizer and new
soil, raked it all smooth, and planted the seeds.
Summary:
9. When they heard the weather forecast, the islanders closed the windows, put tape across the glass, moved
all of their plants and chairs indoors, and stocked up on bottles of fresh water.
Summary:
10. Sue put her pens and pencils neatly in a row, turned on the radio, stacked her English books on the desk,
got herself a soda, and sat down in her desk chair.
Summary:
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Summarizing paragraphs
A paragraph summary should be as short as possible, but it must be a complete sentence.
The summary of a paragraph is the main idea of the paragraph. Often (but not always), the main idea is
found in the topic sentence.
Step 1. Read the paragraph all the way through to be sure you understand it.
Step 2. Check to see if the paragraph contains a topic sentence.
• If the paragraph has a topic sentence, does it state the main idea of the paragraph? If so, you can use the
topic sentence as the summary.
• If the topic sentence is not a good statement of the main idea, write a summary which states the main
idea.
Step 3. Take out unnecessary words.
Example:
Shopping malls have produced a revolution in United States shopping and living habits in just 45 years.
Before 1950, there were no malls, but now almost every city or region has at least one. In fact, shopping mall
have become a part of daily life. Many people even think of them as social centers. In a way, malls have taken
the place of Main Street. Shops and services which were once spread over several city blocks are now in one
place at the mall. Busy householders can save time by doing their shopping at the mall. And people young and
old, with time on their hands, often say, "Let's go to the mall!"
Topic sentence: Shopping malls have produced a revolution in United States shopping and living habits.
You can make this even shorter: Shopping malls have changed United States culture.
Exercise 2
Summarize each of the following paragraphs. Follow the steps explained above. Use as few words as
possible. Work with another student.
Shopping Malls in the United States
1.
Although every shopping mall is a bit different in design, shoppers often quickly feel comfortable
in a new mall. That is because malls usually share certain features. You can almost always find most of the
following: a department store, a pharmacy, a toy store, a book shop, clothing shops for all ages, shoe shops, a
bank, and places to eat. These businesses are all under one roof. Most malls are enclosed, so that shoppers
never have to go outdoors once they get to the mall. A few malls sometimes also have doors to shops on the
outside of the mall. Every mall is surrounded by a large parking area.
Summary:
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2. Malls are not all exactly alike. In a suburb of Chicago, where many wealthy people live, malls are quite
large and beautiful. One of these malls is two stories tall and houses about 50 businesses. These range from
small specialty shops to large luxury department stores. The roof of the mall is made of glass and is twice as
tall as the shops inside. Musicians play for the customers in the evenings, and trees and fountains are found in
central seating areas. In a poor, rural town in southern Maine, however, a typical mall is plain and rather
small. It might have a supermarket, a pizza parlor, a book and gift shop, a Laundromat, and a bank. All its
shops are found on one level, and the interior of the enclosed mall is plain and undecorated. Recorded music
is piped in through speakers.
Summary:
3. While shopping malls have changed American life, not all of their effects have been positive. Most of
the shops and services found in malls are parts of large corporations. These businesses have taken away
customers from smaller shops in the area and forced them to close. That has meant fewer individually owned
businesses and less local control over jobs. In addition, malls are harmful to the environment. They have
sometime been built on land that is important for the survival of birds and wild animals. Wherever they are
built, they cover large areas with buildings and parking lots— instead of trees or grass. Thus, they contribute
to the general loss of nature. And finally, malls are usually far from any town center, so people must use cars
to get there. This results in increased air pollution and heavy traffic on the roads near the mall.
Summary:
Exercise 3
Summarize each of the following paragraphs. Use as few words as possible. Work with another student.
The Challenger Disaster
1.
By 1984, NASA, the United States space program, had carried out many successful flights of the
space shuttle. In fact, Americans were beginning to take the whole NASA program for granted. Then, the
president announced that the next shuttle would carry a school teacher into space. Hundreds of teachers from
all parts of the country applied for the job. They all wanted to be "the first teacher in space." During the next
year, these adventurous educators were tested and examined and trained. At last, the choice was announced. A
teacher from New Hampshire, Christa MacAuliffe, would be the first teacher-astronaut.
Summary:
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2.
Many months of preparation and training followed the announcement. First, Christa went through
intensive physical training. She had to be in top condition for the flight. Then she learned how to operate
some of the delicate instruments on the Challenger space shuttle. Christa planned special lessons which she
would teach from space. Finally, she trained with the other astronauts, so they could work as a team in space.
Summary
:
3.
Everyone knows what happened on that terrible day in January, 1986. Early in the morning, the
Challenger crew had a good breakfast and discussed their plans. They made sure they understood all of the
work they would be doing during the flight. Later, they boarded a special van which carried them to the
shuttle. The weather was rather cold, and some NASA officials wondered if they should put off the flight.
After some discussion, they decided to go ahead. The Challenger took off over the Atlantic Ocean in Florida.
Minutes later, it exploded in the air. All of the crew members died in the crash.
Summary:
Summarizing short passages
Step 1. Read the passage all the way through.
Step 2. Go back to the beginning and underline the topic sentence in each paragraph. If you cannot find
topic sentence, write a short summary of the paragraph.
Step 3. Put the sentences from the paragraphs together. Connect them with signal words or other
connecting words. (Remember, signal words and connecting words tie ideas together. Examples: and, but,
however, first, next, then, because.)
Exercise 4
Reread the three paragraphs in Exercise 2. Write a summary of all three paragraphs together. Follow the
steps for summarizing a short passage. Work with another student.
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Exercise 5
Reread the three paragraphs in Exercise 3. Write a summary of all three paragraphs together. Follow the
steps for summarizing a short passage. Work with another student.
Exercise 6
Summarize this short passage. Work with another student. When you have finished, compare your work
with another student.
A New Way to Visit the Wilderness
People who are looking for outdoor adventure often go to Maine. This state in the northeastern United
States contains large areas of wilderness. There you can enjoy a new and exciting sport: white water rafting.
In the past, this sport was practiced only in the western states. But now, several outdoor travel companies
offer weekend rafting trips. They provide guide service, equipment, and even food and they invite people who
have had no experience at all. Thus, city residents, too, can get a taste of wilderness. All they need to bring
with them is a desire for adventure.
"White water" is the water of a river when it moves very fast over rocky areas. As the water fills with air
bubbles, it looks white. The areas of white water are also the most exciting areas for rafters—and also the
most dangerous. In fact, rafting guides must always be on the look for white water. And rafters must be ready
to swim, because the can tip over in white water FOR that reason, rafters should always wear special life vests
that will keep them afloat.
Rafting is a sport that almost anyone can do. It does not require great physical strength. Sometimes, at
very rocky parts of the river, rafters will need to walk for a while they may also need to carry the rubber rafts
at times, but these are very light. Paddling the boats is easy because they are going down river. The main
activity is simply to end the wonderful wild scenery.
Most rafting companies offer overnight trips that combine with camping. This kind trip is ideal for a
family with children over twelve. Several rafts of people will start out from a base camp. Their food supplies,
sleeping bags, tents, and other necessities are sometimes packed onto the rafts. Or all the supplies might be
brought by car to the camp site. The guide often is also the cook for the group of rafters and may be quite
good chef. After a day of rafting, in any case, the food tastes good and sleep comes quickly.
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Write one sentence to summarize each paragraph.
Paragraph 1:
Paragraph 2:
Paragraph 3:
Paragraph 4:
Now tie the sentences together to make one short paragraph. Write the final summary below. Use only the
words which are absolutely necessary.
Exercise 7
Summarize this short passage. Work with another student. When you have finished, compare your work with
another pair of students.
New Species in North America
Hundreds of different species of plants and animals have arrived in the United States. This number has
increased greatly as international travel and business have increased. Some of these new "residents" have
caused problems for agriculture or for the environment. The Mediterranean fruit fly, for example, arrived in
California on some imported fruit in the 1970s. In its original home in the Mediterranean area, it had never
caused much damage. In California, however, it multiplied very quickly. Soon the California fruit industry was
in trouble, the government had to take serious measures, including using lots of chemicals to try to kill the flies
However, they have not managed to get rid of the fly altogether.
Another example of an animal that has recently settled in North America is the zebra mussel. This small
shellfish was first discovered in the Great Lakes in 1986. It may have come over from Russia on a cargo ship. In a
very few years zebra mussels had spread over all the Great Lakes and into many important rivers. They have
grown into thick masses, covering many areas of lakes or river bottoms. They have also covered and closed up
pipes for power stations and water treatment centers. Government officials say that the mussels have caused
many millions of dollars worth of damage.
Sometimes the damage caused by an immigrant species is not measurable in dollars. It may not harm us
directly, but it may change the environment. And that may cause problems for the plants or animals that were
living there before. Loosestrife is a plant that came to North America some time in the 19th century. It may
have been carried as seeds on the back of some sheep from Europe. Or someone may have brought the seeds to
plant in their garden. In any case, loosestrife now grows along rivers and lakes all over North America. It is a
pretty plant, with a purple or pink flower. But when a lot of loosestrife grows in one place, other plants cannot
grow there. The birds and small animals that depend on those other plants cannot stay there, either. As
loosestrife spreads, they may have trouble finding any place to live and they may begin to disappear.
16
Write one sentence to summarize each paragraph.
Paragraph 1:
Paragraph 2:
Paragraph 3:
Now tie the sentences together to make one short paragraph. Write the final summary below. Use only the
words which are absolutely necessary.
17
Summarizing longer passages
When you summarize an essay, textbook chapter, or magazine article with many paragraphs, follow these
steps:
Step 1. Read the passage all the way through.
Step 2. Go back to the beginning and number the paragraphs in the text.
Step 3. Divide the text into parts. Notice which paragraphs focus on the same idea. Part one, for example,
will be Paragraph #1 to Paragraph #x. Part two will start with paragraph #y, and so forth.
Step 4. For each part, write a sentence which summarizes all the paragraphs in it.
Step 5. Tie all of those sentences together to form a summary, using signal words and other function words.
Exercise 8
Follow the steps for summarizing a longer passage. Summarize this magazine article. Work with another
student. Use as few words as possible
Better Homes in Garden s
by Marc Lecard
In the middle of winter, homes are sealed tight. Householders want to cut down on
heating bills and save natural resources, so they make their homes air tight. They put
special materials over windows and around doors to keep the heat in and the cold out. But
while keeping the cold out, they keep in a surprising amount of air pollution.
The air in a typical home or apartment can have many different kinds of poisons in it.
Some can even cause cancer. Certain chemicals are given off by furniture building
materials, and household products. Refrigerators and other household appliances add
unhealthy chemicals to the air. And tobacco smoke contains even more poisonous
fumes. Even breathing adds certain poisonous chemicals to the air, such as acetone and
ethyl alcohol. Inside a tightly sealed building with poor ventilation, hundreds of air
pollutants can be found.
But you don't have to stop breathing the air in your home! Cleaner air may be as clos
as your house plants! According to a NASA scientist, house plants can help keep indoor air
breathable. This scientist, B.C. Wolverton, has been investigating the use of plants as living
air filters for more than 20 years. His research developed from studies of the air in
spaceships.
Wolverton found that some common house plants had an appetite for certain poisons
in the air. Spider plants and Boston ferns love formaldehyde. Peace lilac takes in large
amounts of a chemical called trichloroethylene. English ivy and chrysanthemums eat
benzene.
Since he began his study, Wolverton has tested more than 40 plants for their ability to
remove pollutants from the air. Among the most useful for average households, he says, are
areca palm, golden pothos Janet Craig plant, and corn plant.
These planes are easy to grow indoors require only low light, and clean the air
effectively. He suggests using two or three plants for every 100 square feet of space.
18
Plants take in pollutants in the air though their leaves along with carbon
dioxide in the process of photosynthesis. Tiny microscopic bugs (microbes) in the soil
around the roots help break down the poisons so that the plants can feed on them. In
fact, the way the roots feed on these broken-down pollutants is a part of the natural
cleaning process. According to Wolverton, "Ninety percent of the work is done by the
microbes."
Wolverton predicts that someday all homes and offices will have indoor gardens built into
them. They will be a normal part of the design of the building's air control systems.
19
Step1
Part 1: Paragraph 1Part 2: Paragraph - __
Part _____ : Paragraph _____ - _____
Part _____ : Paragraph _____ - _____
Step 2: Write a very brief summary of each part here:
Part 1:
Part 2:
Part3:
Part ___ :
Step 3: Tie the summaries of the parts together to make one final summary. Use as few words as possible.
Steps in the Process of Summarizing Material
1.
Make sure you understand the details of your assignment. Are you supposed to summarize only or
to summarize and interpret or to summarize and compare? If phrases such as these are part of the assignment,
you will know that just summarizing is not enough to meet the requirements. Moreover, check to see how
long you summary should be; usually it should be not longer than one-quarter the length of the original.
2.
Read the selection through once for general understanding.
3.
Reread. This time look for the author’s main focus. Turn the title into a question which you try to
answer as you reread. Highlight or underline main ideas. Make notes in the margin to summarize the main
ideas of each paragraph in a few words.
4.
Notice how much space is given to different topics. If the author uses two pages on one topic and
only half-page on another, the first idea is probably more important than the second.
5.
Write a rough draft of your summary. Begin by identifying the author and the title of the book or
magazine. Remember to underline books and names of periodicals. Put into quotation marks the titles of
articles.
George Will, in a Newsweek article entitled “Is a Third Party Necessary?” states that...
Megatrends, a book by John Naisbitt, discusses…
If information about the author’s background is important to the summary, than briefly add it.
In Paradigms Lost, John Simon, a major critic of the arts, points out that…
6.
The body of your summary should include major points made in the article or book and, if there is
space, the major support for each of these points. The conclusion reached in the article should conclude your
summary.
7.
Leave out minor details, illustrations, anecdotes, and other unimportant material.
20
8.
You may want to use a few short, direct quotations in your summary to give your reader a taste of
the original writing or to emphasize an important point. If you want to shorten quotation you may use ellipsis
(three dots) to indicate that something has been left out of the original.
Wills comments, “If Anderson runs again, he runs the risk of resembling William Jennings Bryan at the
scopes trial ….” (The sentence also ends, so a period is added to the three dots.)
9.
Use the same tense throughout your summary. Present tense is most often used for summaries of
literature, past tense for biographies or history. In summarizing other forms of writing, choose a tense that
seems to fit and “stick to it” throughout the summary.
10.
A good summary is abbreviated, but it still should be smooth and logical.
Summarize the following passage in writing
Why Men Don’t Speak Their Minds
We all know the scene. John Wayne is off to fight some war or other. His wife begs him not to go.
Sobbing, she cries, “John, I love you so much.”
“Sorry”, says John. “I’ve got a job to do.” He may have strong emotions, but he won’t express them. I
isn’t mainly.
Actually, the truth may be that John can’t talk about what he’s feeling. There is evidence that men’s
brains are put together in a way that keeps them from putting emotions into words. Martin Safer, a
psychologist at the Catholic University of America, thinks the problem may be that the brain’s two halves, or
hemispheres, don’t talk to each other as easily in men as they do in women.
The brain’s hemispheres, though interdependent, have different specialties. The right hemisphere
controls nonverbal activity and spatial perception; the left is in charge of language and speech. Both halves
process emotions, but the right handles perception, while the left describes them with words.
Safer did an experiment to see whether emotional information entering just the right brain would
make it over to the left. First, he showed test subjects a slide depicting an emotion-laden face. Then he flashed
another, but directed this one only to the right brain.
To understand how he did this, look straight at a vertical line – the place where two walls meet is a
good one. Anything you see to the left of the line is entering your right brain. Things on the right enter the lef
brain.
Safer found that when the second slide was projected toward to the right brain, women were much
better than men at telling whether or not it matched the emotion seen on the first. The implication: Emotional
data that enter the right hemisphere of the man’s brain seem to stay there. In women the information travels
more easily over to the left side, where it can find expression.
Is this because women’s brains are physically different? “Maybe,” says Safer. “or maybe it’s cultural.
Culture might even determine neural development.”
D. OUTLINING
An outline helps you organize your notes or ideas before you begin to write. It helps you see the order in
which you will talk about the main ideas, and it guides you in selecting details and examples to support those
ideas. An outline shows you where to add more details, give more examples, or change the order of the main
points. Preparing and following an outline is a useful pre-writing activity.
21
The Structure of an Outline
An outline is usually written in the following way:
I. Main idea (can also be written as a topic sentence)
(indent) A. Supporting detail 1 (always relates to the topic sentence)
(indent) 1 . example (exemplifies the supporting detail)
2. example
a. further example (exemplifies the example)
b. further example
B. Supporting detail 2 (supports the topic sentence)
1. example (exemplifies the supporting detail)
a. further example (exemplifies the example)
2.
example
a.further example (exemplifies the example)
b.further example
It is not necessary to write your ideas in complete sentences, although some people like to write the main
idea as a topic sentence. Some outlines are quite simple: They list only the main ideas (I, II) and a few
supporting details (A, B). Some outlines are more detailed: They include many ideas (I, II, III, IV), details (А
В, C, D), examples (1, 2, 3, 4), and further explanations (a, b, c, d).
3.
Read the following paragraph and write it in outline form.
Bill Gates and Henry David Thoreau represent very different philosophies and approaches to life. On the
one hand, Bill Gates embraces technology as a necessary and essential tool for the advancement of
humankind. For example, he believes that technology has enhanced our lives and enabled people to live
longer and better lives. Thoreau, on the other hand, believed that technology could actually stop the advancement of humankind. He believed that technology takes us away from living truthfully. In other words,
technology stops us from enjoying the simple pleasures such as reading a book or walking in the woods.
3. Write a complete three-paragraph essay following the outline below. Be sure to include a topic
sentence, supporting sentences, supporting details, and concluding statement.
I. There are many wonderful things technology has done for us.
A. Sciences
1. better health care
2. healthier food preservation
B. Communication
1. worldwide
2. nationwide
C. Comforts
1. television
2. computers
II. There are also many negative sides to technology.
A. Acid rain from cars and industry
1. affects 45 percent of lakes in Sweden
2. costs millions of dollars to repair damage
22
B. Interpersonal relations
1. loss of face-to-face contact
2. traditional writing skills decline as e-mail becomes more common
III. We need to produce "smart technology" that makes ourselves better without damaging the
environment.
A. Research groups
1. produce useful research and smart technology
2. maintain funding for innovative technology
B. Educate our citizens
1. start in elementary schools
2. encourage young people to think about the difference between wasteful and dangerous technology and
smart technology
Writing topics
Write about one o f the following topics. First make an outline. Try to use the vocabulary, grammar, and
ideas you learned in this unit.
1. Thoreau wrote, "Our life is frittered away by detail. An honest man has hardly need to count more than
his ten fingers, or in extreme cases he may add his ten toes, and lump the rest. Simplicity, simplicity,
simplicity!" Thoreau felt that we need only a simple life without modern comforts and technology to
appreciate the world around us. Do you agree or disagree? Explain your answer.
2. Imagine you have to eliminate five technological devices from your life. What would they be? What, if
anything, would you replace them with? How would your life be different?
3. Technology is necessary to make people live longer and better. It would be impossible to live without
technology. So you agree or disagree? Explain your answer.
4. When is technology a luxury? Does the definition of a luxury change over time? When is technology a
necessity? In other words, are some things that would have been thought of as luxuries ten, twenty, or one
hundred years ago, now considered necessities of life? Explain your answer.
SECTION 2. WRITING ABSTRACTS
Task 1. Discuss the following questions.
1. What is an “abstract”?
2. For what purposes are abstracts written?
3. What is in a good abstract?
Task 2. Scan the article from The Journal of the American Society for Information Science and see if you
guessed right.
Standards for Writing Abstracts
By Ben H. Weil
23

Introduction
The growing volume of scholarly, scientific, technical, and other informational and instructional documents
makes it increasingly important that the basic content of each document be quickly and accurately identifiable
by readers. This ready identification is aided if the author of the document begins it with a meaningful title and a
well-prepared abstract. Indeed, authors must bear in mind that many people will read no more than the titles and
abstracts of their documents.
For these reasons, a proposed American National Standards Institute (ANSI) standard for writing abstracts has
been drafted primarily to assist authors as well as the editors who guide them to prepare abstracts with
maximum usefulness. The specialized knowledge of an author together with the wide view of a field provided
by an editor can be expected to yield a good abstract if the proposed standard is followed.

Definitions and Scope
In the proposed standard the term abstract signifies an abbreviated, accurate representation of a document
without added interpretation or criticism and without distinction as to who wrote the abstract. Thus, an abstract
differs from a brief review of a document in that, while a review often takes on much of the character of an
informative-indicative abstract, its writer is expected to include suitable criticism and interpretation. While the
word synopsis was formerly used to denote a resume prepared by the author, as distinct from an abstract
(condensation) prepared by some other person, this distinction no longer has real meaning.
An abstract should be as informative as is permitted by the type and style of the document; that is, it should
present as much as possible of the quantitative and/or qualitative information contained in the document.
Informative abstracts are especially desirable for texts describing experimental work and documents devoted to
a single theme. However, some discursive or lengthy texts, such as broad overviews, review papers, and entire
monographs, may permit the preparation of an abstract that is only an indicative or descriptive guide to the type
of document and what it is about. A combined informative-indicative abstract must often be prepared when
limitations on the length of the abstract or the type and style of the document make it necessary to confine
informative statements to the primary elements of the document and to relegate other aspects to indicative
statements.
Abstracts should not be confused with the related, but distinct, terms annotation, extract, and summary. An
annotation is a note added to the title or other bibliographic information of a document by way of comment or
explanation. An extract signifies one or more portions of a document selected to represent the whole. A
summary is a restatement within a document (usually at the end) of its salient findings and conclusions, and is
intended to complete the orientation of a reader who has studied the preceding text. Because other vital portions
of the document (e.g. purpose, methods) are not usually condensed into this summary, the term should not be
used synonymously with “abstract”; i.e., an abstract as defined above should not be called a summary.

Use of Abstracts
A well-prepared abstract enables readers to identify the basic content of a document quickly and accurately, to
determine its relevance to their interests, and thus to decide whether they need to read the document in its
entirety. Readers for whom the document is of fringe interest often obtain enough information from the abstract
to make their reading of the whole document unnecessary. Therefore, every primary document should include a
good abstract. Secondary publications and services that provide bibliographic citations of pertinent documents
should also include good abstracts if at all possible.
The following recommendations are for authors and editors of specific documents and publications.
Journals
Include an abstract with every formal item, such as research, methods, and theoretical papers; speculative
articles; essays; discussions; and review articles. Notes, short communications, editorials, and Letters to the
Editor that have substantial technical or scholarly content should also have brief abstracts.
24
Reports and Theses
Include an abstract in every separately published report, pamphlet, or thesis.
Monographs and Proceedings
A single abstract may suffice in a book or monograph that deals with a homogeneous subject. However, a
separate abstract is also necessary for each chapter if the volume covers many different topics or is a
combination of articles by different authors.
Patents
An abstract is now included in t every patent.
Secondary Publications and Services
Secondary publications and services can often make verbatim use of the abstracts provided in primary
documents if these abstracts have been carefully prepared and are free from copyright restrictions. Such authors’
abstracts can also provide suitable bases for the secondary service that orients its abstracts to a group of users
different from those envisioned by the authors.

Treatment of Document Content
Readers in many disciplines have become accustomed to an abstract that states the purpose, methodology,
results, and conclusions presented in the original document. Most documents describing experimental work can
be analyzed according to these elements, but their optimum sequence may depend on the audience for which the
abstract is primarily intended. Readers interested in applying new knowledge may gain information more
quickly from a findings-oriented arrangement in which the most important results and conclusions are placed
first, followed by supporting details, other findings, and methodology.
Purpose
State the primary objectives and scope of the study or the reasons why the document was written unless these
are already clear from the title of the document or can be derived from the remainder of the abstract. Refer to
earlier literature only if it is an essential part of the purpose.
Methodology
Describe techniques or approaches only to the degree necessary for comprehension. Identify new techniques
clearly, however, and describe the basic methodological principle, the range of operation, and the obtainable
accuracy. For documents concerned with nonexperimental work, describe data sources and data manipulation.
Results
Describe findings as concisely and informatively as possible. They may be experimental or theoretical results
obtained, data collected, relationships and correlations noted, effects observed, etc. Make clear whether
numerical values are raw or derived and whether they are the results of a single observation or of repeated
measurements. When findings are too numerous for all to be included, some of the following should receive
priority: new and verified events, findings of long-term value, significant discoveries, findings that contradict
previous theories, or findings that the author knows are relevant to a practical problem. Limits of accuracy and
reliability and ranges of validity should indicated.
Conclusions
25
Describe the implications of the results and especially how these relate to the purpose of the investigation or
document. Conclusions can be associated with recommendations, evaluations, suggestions, new relationships,
and hypotheses accepted or rejected. Results and conclusions may be abstracted jointly to avoid redundancy, but
conjecture must be differentiated from fact.
Collateral and Other Information
Include findings or information incidental to the main purpose of the document but of value outside its major
subject area (e.g., modifications of methods, new compounds, newly discovered documents or data sources).
Report these clearly, but in such a way that they do not distract attention from the main theme. Do not
exaggerate their relative importance in the abstracted document.
Secondary services should include further details about the document itself, such as the presence of extensive
tables and illustrations and the number of bibliographic citations. Such statements should appear near the end of
the abstract and need not be in sentence form, e.g., “15 References”.

Presentation and Style
Location of the Abstract
Place the abstract as early as possible in each document. Publish it prominently on the title page of a paper or
a separately published report or thesis. If a brief foreword is deemed necessary to supply background
information in a report, the abstract should follow the foreword and should not repeat its background
information. In a book or monograph, place the abstract on the back of the title page or on the right-hand page
following it. Place separate abstracts of chapters on or preceding their first pages.
Bibliographic Information
In primary publications, include a full bibliographic citation of the document on the same page as the abstract.
In secondary publications, or whenever the abstract of a document is reproduced separately from it, precede or
follow the abstract with the full bibliographic citation of the original document.
Completeness, Accuracy, and Length
Since an abstract must be intelligible to a knowledgeable reader without reference to the document, make the
abstract self-contained. Retain the basic information and tone of the original document. Be as concise as
possible while still fulfilling requirements as to content, but do not be cryptic or obscure. Cite background
information sparingly if at all. Do not include information or claims not contained in the document itself.
For most papers and portions of monographs, an abstract of 250 words will be adequate. For notes and short
communications, fewer than 100 words should suffice. For long documents such as reports and theses, an
abstract generally should not exceed 500 words and preferably should appear on a single page.
Style
Begin the abstract with a topic sentence that is a central statement of the document’s major thesis, but avoid
repeating the words of the document’s title if that is nearby.
In abstracts specifically written or modified for secondary use, state the type of the document early in the
abstract when this is not evident from the title or publisher of the document or will not be clear from the
remainder of the abstract. Explain either the author’s treatment of the subject or the nature of the document, e.g.,
theoretical treatment, case history, statement-of-the-art report, historical review, report of original research,
literature survey etc.
Paragraphing and Complete Sentences
26
Write a short abstract as a single, unified paragraph, but use more than one paragraph for long abstracts, e.g.,
those in reports and theses. Write the abstract in complete sentences, and use traditional words and phrases for
coherence.
Use of Active Verbs and Personal Pronouns
Use verbs in the active voice whenever possible; they contribute to clear, brief, forceful writing. The passive
voice, however, may be used for indicative statements and even for informative statements in which the receiver
of the action should be stressed. For example:
Say: “Iron-containing bauxites sweeten gasolines in the presence of air.”
Not: “Gasolines are sweetened by iron-containing bauxites in the presence of air”
But: “The relative adsorption coefficients of ether, water, and acetylene were measured by …”
Use the third person to avoid cumbersome sentence constructions.
Nomenclature
Avoid unfamiliar terms, acronyms, abbreviations, or symbols; or define them the first time they occur in the
abstract.
Nontextual Material
Include short tables, equations, structural formulas, and diagrams only when necessary for brevity and clarity
and when no acceptable alternative exists.
The Journal of the American Society for Information Science
Task 3. Read sections “Introduction” and “Definitions and Scope” and complete the following chart.
Secondary
texts
Condensed
representa
tion of a
primary
text
Criticism
or
comment
added
Prepared
by the
author of a
primary
text
Prepared
by some
other
person
Used as
part of a
primary
text
Brief review
Synopsis
Annotation
Extract
Summary
Abstract
Task 4. Read the rest of the article and answer the following questions.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
What does ANSI stand for? What is its contribution to abstract writing?
What is an abstract? What are the main types of abstracts?
What is the main function of an abstract?
What documents are expected to include an abstract?
How is information arranged in an abstract?
Should an abstract include bibliography?
What are word limits for abstracts?
What are the main guidelines to handle style and language?
27
Used as a
separate
text
Task 5. Read the abstract below and decide if it accurately reflects the content of the article and follows
the guidelines. What makes you think so? What should be done to improve it?
A lot of valuable information about how to write the informative and indicative abstracts is presented in this
article. Readers are also given some general recommendations. An American National Standards Institute
(ANSI) standard for writing abstracts has been drafted primarily to assist authors and editors who guide them to
prepare abstracts with maximum usefulness. The purpose of this article is to instruct authors and editors how to
write abstracts of different kinds. The author of this article has worked out his own methodology. At the
beginning he provides us with introduction, definitions to what the abstract is. The use of abstracts is also
mentioned. The main parts of the article deal with the treatment of document content and presentation style. In
the first chapter the author tells us what should be included in the abstract, what has to be mentioned and what
has to be taken into account if you are going to write an abstract. The second chapter gives information about
the location of the abstract, bibliography, length, completeness, accuracy and style. The research done by the
author is very useful. After reading the article you can easily understand what the abstract is, what it consists of,
what can be included and how it should be written.
(218 words)
Task 6. Use the recommendations made in the article to write its abstract of 250 words.
SECTION 3. WRITING A DIPLOMA ABSTRACT
Guidelines for Writing Diploma Abstracts
A diploma abstract is an abbreviated accurate representation of a diploma paper. It must have the following:
1. A beginning which describes the subject matter, i.e. lays out the problem and purpose or hypothesis,
together with a short discussion of why the chosen topic is interesting or relevant.
2. A section addressing the academic validity of the research, i.e. locating the particular problem you are
studying within a wider theoretical framework.
3. A discussion of the methodology that you have chosen to investigate the problem or hypothesis. The
hypothesis test can be based on econometric and statistical methods on either publicly available statistical
data or on survey data that come from the investigation. Alternatively, it can involve the use of historical
evidence and/or case studies together with some logical deduction from the evidence presented.
4. A literature survey of the existing theories and evidence (empirical literature) relating to the problem area,
together with any conclusion that can be reached from the analysis of this literature.
5. A discussion of the results of the research, i.e. any theoretical models being developed by you or any
empirical evidence collected by you , or case studies developed by you.
6. A formal conclusion. This ties the arguments of the previous sections and reaches some definite conclusion.
The concluding section should contain no new evidence or arguments, as its function is to bring together the
previous discussion or arguments and empirical evidence and take it to some logical end.
7. All of you information sources such as books, magazine articles, newspaper articles, journal articles,
working papers, lecture notes etc should be fully referenced in your bibliography at the end of your
abstract. For example,
Smith C.W. (1985) The Determinants of Firms Hedging Policies. Journal of Financial and Quantitative
Analysis, Vol. 20, 391-405.
The bibliography must be in alphabetical order both for the English language and Russian language sources.
The Russian language sources should be referenced in the Russian language and follow the English
language sources.
28
Task 1. Study the guidelines above and match the following Russian phrases with their English
equivalents used in the text:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
определить проблему
рассматривать теоретическую значимость исследования
определить место исследования в общей проблематике
изучение проблемы на отдельно взятом примере
разработать теоретическую модель
данные, полученные опытным путем
внести источники в список литературы
Task 2. Read the following sample abstract and choose suitable headings from the list below for each
section.
Subject matter
Academic validity
Conclusion
Methodology
Literature survey
Bibliography
Results
A
The study of NAFTA’s impact on Canada requires to be analyzed in two different ways. One is based on
econometric and statistical methods on publicly available data which helps determine quantitatively the existing
degree of cooperation within this organization as well as qualify its major attributes. Secondly, historical
method involving logical deduction from the evidence makes it possible to understand and explain the profound
implications of this cooperation for Canada.
B
As a trading nation, Canada’s ability to meet future challenges and take full advantage of opportunities available
in the global marketplace will increasingly depend on how competitive it is both domestically and
internationally.
It will also depend on an open and more secure access to key export markets. In both respects, however, it is
clear that NAFTA has brought tremendous benefits to the Canadian economy. Thus, increased employment,
higher productivity, increased technology adaptation and diffusion, more choices for consumers at competitive
prices and rising prosperity have been some of the key drivers behind Canada’s leading economic performance
in recent years.
According to the Canadian government policy, Canada is going to enhance economic relations with its NAFTA
partners, which means that, to some extent, its economic prosperity will continue to be determined by its role in
the increasingly integrated and well-functioning North American market.
C
Notwithstanding some predictions of a future disaster, the study reveals that Canada’s membership in NAFTA
has been one of its economic success stories of the past decade resulting in a rapid technological change,
growing international trade and effective rate of employment. Canada has become a highly successful, globally
competitive trading nation with exports over 40% higher than for any other major industrialized economy. Even
in 2001 – a difficult year for the global economy – Canada’s exports and imports of goods and services with the
world averaged about $1.7 billion (US) per day.
One of the benefits accruing from NAFTA was an opportunity to enter the Mexican market of about 100 million
people. Today with bilateral trade reaching $15.1 billion (US) Mexico is Canada’s sixth largest export
destination and fourth largest source of imports worldwide.
Since 1989 Canada-US trade has nearly tripled from $235.2 billion to $677.8 billion.
Similar to trade, Canada’s foreign direct investment in the USA has increased dramatically over the past decade,
having grown an impressive 230% since 1990, to $198 billion in 2001.
Likewise, the total stock of the US investment in Canada grew by 150% over the past decade to reach $215
billion in 2001. This figure represents more than two thirds of the total direct investment by foreigners in
29
Canada. On a proportional basis the Canadian investment in Mexico has grown even more impressively. It
increased sixteen fold between 1990 and 2001, to stand at close to $4 billion.
From this study, it can be inferred that strengthening economic and political ties with the USA and Mexico, as
well as promoting a broader agenda of trilateral cooperation can carry implications of greater economic success.
D
The last decade has witnessed an explosion in the number of regional trade agreements (RTAs) due to
increasing cooperation between different countries of one region. The North American Free Trade Agreement is
an example of such RTA, whose primary goal was to eliminate tariffs on almost all merchandise trade between
member-states, i.e. USA, Canada and Mexico. With interest in such examples of regionalism, it would be useful
to examine the history of and reasons for NAFTA formation. The present study attempts to infer NAFTA’s
implications for the Canadian economy. Thus, the primary objective of the research is to develop a better
understanding of recent changes in the FDI flows, trade, labour market, industry of Canada from an economic
perspective, testing the working hypothesis that NAFTA has brought tremendous benefits to the Canadian
economy.
E
Regional integration is seen today as a global trend which has some basic features determining both advantages
and limitations for economic development of the countries concerned. A comprehensive detailed study of
NAFTA’s impact on the Canadian economy can be a viable basis for proposing a generalized model of
successful integration, which is of great importance to Russia, notwithstanding the distinction between NAFTA
and the Commonwealth of Independent Republics. The assumptions and findings of the study can be useful for a
variety of purposes whether academic or practical.
F
The role of NAFTA has been widely discussed in the literature. Some critics of the North American free trade
believed that the Agreement would be an unmitigated disaster for the Canadian industry, Canadian workers,
Canadian social programs, environment and, above all, Canadian sovereignty. On the other hand, a lot of
proponents of free trade argued that the Canadian industry needed barrier-free access to North American
markets to overcome the obstacles of a relatively small domestic market and strengthen the overall
competitiveness of the Canadian economy.
The study reflects opinions of well-known Russian scholars specializing in the world integration processes, such
as E. Komkova, L. Nemova, S. Komlev, as well as of different foreign authors, e.g. Robert A. Pastor, Edward
M. Graham, James Rude and Sergio Marchi.
The research is based on statistical data provided by the World Bank and the Inernational Monetary Fund.
Task 3. Reread the Guidelines for Writing Diploma abstracts and rearrange the sections of the sample
abstract to make up a coherent and logical diploma abstract. The first section is done for you as an
example.
1. D, Subject matter
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Task 4. Translate the italicized phrases into Russian.
Task 5. Reformulate the following sentences to avoid the first person.
1. We have used different methods to investigate the problem.
30
2. My research has shown that the aerospace industry is one of the key world economic areas.
3. In this report we look at Russia in the global context in order to draw out the unique facets of the market and
set the scene for a longer-term strategic perspective.
4. We show property, plant and equipment at their historical value.
5. In accordance with Swiss law we treat dividends as an appropriation of profit in the year in which they are
ratified at the annual General Meeting.
6. In this analysis we seek to pin down in as much detail as possible what the particular drivers are and what
value lies in Norilsk as an investment proposition at current levels given the macro and company specific
dynamics which have never been stronger.
7. When looking into actualities of the modern world, we should take into consideration socio-cultural,
political, economic, religious, ethnic characteristics of the countries in question.
8. This research will enable us to objectively evaluate the current political and economic situation in the Arab
world.
Task 6. What is the difference between the words and phrases in the following sets?
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
theme, topic, subject
trend, tendency
actual, current, vital, topical
thesis, diploma, research, study
define, determine, identify
present, represent
scholar, scientist
example, case
supervisor, leader, head
Task 7. The use of the verbs make and do often causes difficulties. As a generalisation, we can say that make
means to bring into existence (like making things in a production department) or to produce a result (e.g. make
a profit, make changes) and do means to perform an action (e.g. to do an exercise, to do your homework).
goods
an enquiry an application
an offer
a deal
a request
an excuse
money
a profit or loss
an appointment
arrangement or plans
a complaint
make
an apology
a decision
a choice
a forecast
a mistake
progress
a phone call
an effort
an attempt
certain/sure
a business trip
changes, or an improvement
a contribution
Business
a job
some work
good
wrong
the accounts
your duty
an experiment
do
research
well, or better
someone a favour
31
damage/harm
repairs
something to, or for, or with someone
something for a living
Complete the following sentences with the correct form of either make or do, and one of the words or
expressions from the boxes above.
1. For too long, manufacturing companies have been content to _______ for the domestic market.
2. The huge fall in exports has ___ a great deal of ___ to the economy.
3. She is ________ on the French economy between the wars.
4. We ___ a lot of ___ in Japan, and since the profit margin is high, we ___ a lot of ___.
5. It is too early to _______ about demand.
6. Were you able to _______ to meet the area manager?
7. This study ____ an outstanding ___ to our understanding of the recent changes in the market.
8. Researchers need to ____ further ___ .
9. The restructuring was part of an _______ by the management to boost the company profits.
10. The leaflet will enable you to ___ an informed ___ about whether to buy this product.
11. The subcommittee ____ some nice ____ on the document.
12. Recently negotiators have ____ considerable ___ in the talks.
13. An alarming number of ____ have been ___ against the bank.
14. The company is ___ much ___ than last year.
Task 8. Choose a phrase from the box to complete each sentence below. Several answers are possible each
time, but one solution uses all the words in an appropriate way.
On the one hand …………. but on the other
At first……………but in the end
At the time……………….but in retrospect
On paper …………………but in reality
On the surface ………………..but deep down
Under normal circumstances ………………….but in the current situation
In the short term ………………………..but in the long term
1. ___________________the quality is good, _________________ the price is quite high.
2. ________________she was quite shy, _______________she knew what she wanted and was determined to
get it.
3. _____________Hong Kong Disneyland looks like it should be a great success, _____________it will be a
challenge to adapt the Disney formula to such a different culture.
4. ______________I found my MBA course very difficult, _____________I got used to the workload and
started to really enjoy it.
5. _____________we need to establish our presence in the market and increase the visibility of the brand,
_____________profitability will of course be the number 1 objective.
6. _______________I would agree with you, ______________ I just do not think we can afford to take any
risks. Let’s put your suggestion on hold and discuss it again in six months.
7. ______________It was difficult to leave my job at 28 and invest time and money in an MBA,
____________it was the best career move I ever made.
Task 9. These exercises will help you to review more of the important words that we use to join ideas in a
piece of writing.
A. Put the following words and expressions into their correct place in the table depending on their
function.
32
to sum up briefly  it can be concluded that  also  similarly  likewise  besides 
to conclude  too  in addition  in brief  in the same way  thus  what’s more  furthermore
 moreover  along with  to summarize  as well as  therefore  correspondingly
Addition
(for example: and)
Equation
(for example: equally)
Conclusion
(for example: in conclusion)
B. Complete these sentences with one of the words or expressions from above. In most cases, more than
one answer is possible.
1. Tourism brings much-needed money to developing countries. _________, it provides employment for the
local population.
2. _______ bringing much-needed money to developing countries, tourism provides employment for the local
population.
3. Tourists should respect the local environment. _______ they should respect the local customs.
4. _______ industrial waste, pollution from car fumes is poisoning the environment.
5. In order to travel, you need a passport. _______, you might need a visa, immunization jabs and written
permission to visit certain areas.
6. Drugs are banned in Britain - _______ weapons such as guns and knives.
7. All power corrupts. _______, absolute power corrupts absolutely.
8. You shouldn’t smoke, drink, take drugs or eat unhealthy food. _______, you should live a more healthy
lifestyle.
9. The ozone layer is becoming depleted, the air in the cities is becoming too dirty to breathe and our seas and
rivers are no longer safe to swim in. _______ pollution is slowly destroying the planet.
10. Your grades have been very poor for the past two years. ________ you need to work really hard if you want
to pass your exams next month.
Task 10. Study the information on references and bibliographies and do exercises A and B.
References are arranged in alphabetical order (A-Z) of the author’s surname or the name of the organization. If
more than one author has the same surname, they should appear in alphabetical order of the initial of the first
name. If more than one reference is given by the same author, then the earlier dated reference will appear first.
If two or more references by the same author appear in the same year, they will be labeled in sequence with
letters (a, b, c, etc.) after the year. References to one author are normally listed before those of joint authorship
of the same author.
There are differences between references to books and references to journals.
-
Note the sequence of information commonly used in references to books: Author’s name, initials, date (in
brackets), title (underlined or in italics), place of publication, publisher. E.g.
Wallace, M.J. (1998). Study Skills in English. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
33
-
Note the sequence of information commonly used in references to articles in journals: Author’s surname,
initials, date (in brackets), title of article, name of journal (underlined or in italics), volume number, issue
number, sometimes season or month, sometimes page numbers. E.g.
West, R. (2008). Needs analysis in language teaching. Language Teaching, 27 (1): 1-19
Note: Volume and issue numbers may also be written: Vol. 27 no.1
A. It is important that references are arranged in strict alphabetical order. Surnames beginning with Mc
are treated as if their spelling was Mac e.g. McKenzie, like Mackenzie, will come before Madison.
The following surnames (and initials) are those of authors of books. Number the names in each list in
alphabetical order from 1 to 12.
List A
Dawson, E.
Davidson, D.
Davey, A.C.
Davies, C.T.
Day, D.A.
Davey, A.M.
Dawkins, R.
Davis, A.
Davidson, G.D.
Davies, C.W.
Davy, A..
Dawes, C.G.
___
___
___
___
___
___
___
___
___
___
___
___
List B
Johns, T.F.
James, K.
Johnson, R.
Jones, J.F.
Johnston, S.A.
Jackson, J.
Johnson, K.
James, C.V.
Johns, A.M.
Jones, C.
Johns, C.
James, D.V.
___
___
___
___
___
___
___
___
___
___
___
___
B. There are a number of errors in the bibliography below. These may be to do with the order of
items or the omission of some details. Mark the places where the errors occur and then write a
description of the error and what is needed to correct it.
Abbot, G. (1991). Encouraging communication in English: a paradox. ELT Journal.
James, K. (2004a). The writing of thesis by speakers of English as a Foreign Language: the
results of a case study. In R. Williams, J. Swales and J. Kirkman (Eds.). Common ground:
shared interests in ESP and communication studies. ELT documents: 117.
James (2004b). Speak to Learn.
McDonough, J. (2008). ESP in Perspective: A Practical Guide. Collins ELT: London.
Mackay, R. & A. Mountford (Eds.) (2002). English for Specific Purposes. London: Longman.
Zamel, V. Responding to student writing. TESOL Quarterly, 19 (1).
Swales, J.M. (1998). The role of the textbook in EAP writing research. English for Specific
Purposes, 14 (1).
Swales, J.M. and C.B. Feak (1997). Academic Writing for Graduate Students. Ann Arbor:
University of Michigan Press.
34
Write a short bibliography for your subject, listing at least five books and articles. Ensure that all the details are
correct.
Appendix A: Useful Language File
Subject Matter
- The present paper aims at …
- The following study is concerned with…
- The aim of the paper is to provide an up-to-date account of/for…
- This study attempts to quantify ….
- Within the framework of….., various attributes are identified, weighted and quantified for..
- The present paper deals with the reason why …..
- The primary objective of the study is/was
- The present study was conducted to ascertain the response/influence of……
- Different types of ….. have been (were) examined and a relationship between …… was established
- This paper describes the basic features of a…..system, considers some important aspects in detail, outlines
the advantages and limitations of the system and indicates how it can be used.
- It may be suggested that…
- It must be admitted that…
- It might be natural to assume that…
- It may be assumed to be a working hypothesis…
- One may put forward a working hypothesis to explain….
Academic Validity
-
The problem raised by… assumed a place of prime importance….
It assumed world-wide importance….
The significance of this work can hardly be overestimated…..
It has been a favourite subject for dispute among scholars…
It is important to realize…
The problem of … is one of the most important…
The problem of … has not lost its topical significance…
The problem has become more acute: it took a new form….
It is the major theme of macroeconomics…
A comprehensive study of … is the key to solving the problem…..
At present there is a growing interest in …
The current interest in the problem lies in …
Methodology
- These factors require to be analyzed in two different ways
- According to the ……theory the …..process can be calculated by different methods…..
- In order to check the accuracy of the results obtained from ….. they were compared with . ..
- The method of investigation is …..
- The method is based on the idea that ….
- An analogical approach will help to distinguish a few common features…
- The most promising approach is a complete/comparative/detailed/typological analysis of…
- The analysis can be expanded to …..
Literature survey
35
- The review of literature reveals very little work done on this aspect……..
- In earlier studies/calculations/experiments of ….., the basic assumption was made that….
- Much has been said and written about….
- Much has been done in the field of…. but undoubtedly much still remains to be done in it…
- Although a number of issues have been analysed and discussed much remains to be done in the field of….
- The early discussions on … did not touch the question of …
- The question still remains open…
- This question has been widely discussed in the literature…
- In recent years a considerable amount of work has been done in …
- In his book Dr….gave a full account of/described/came up with a hypothesis/proposed a model/developed
the general theory/put forward a theory…
Results
- To carry out a comparative assessment of….., it is necessary to state some basic parameters
- It may be further assumed that …….
- The data indicate clearly that………
- Based on the data for ….., it is found that…..
- A comparison of /between….. and….. reveals that…..
- Two lines of development can be traced…..
- It has been traced back to…..
- It is possible to trace the influence of … on…
- This explains much of what followed…..
- It explains the way of the development……
Conclusion
- On the basis of the comparison the conclusion is drawn …….
- From the study it can be inferred that……
- The results show that…….
- The results are in agreement with the hypothesis that …….
- The data presented support the concept that………
- The future of ….. is, therefore assured, assuming that………
- The analysis made provides the basis for…
- Thus the results obtained support the conclusion that
- The results of the research/analysis/study/comparison/experiments agree with……
- On the basis of the above study and considering …., it can be stated that ……..
- The present study provides evidence of ……
Appendix B: Abstract Title
Russian Plekhanov Academy of Economics
International Economic Relations Faculty
Foreign Languages and Cross-cultural Communications Department
36
Diploma Paper Abstract
Russia on the World Aerospace Market
Student:
Group:
Research Supervisor: Prof. L. A. Slavin
Moscow 200…
Appendix C: Technical Production of the Abstract
Paper size and typing
The abstract of approximately 1000-1200 words (around 2 pages in length) should be typed on A4 white paper,
and lines should be double spaced.
Margin
The left hand margin should be not less than 40 mm and the other margin not less than 20 mm.
Page numbering
All pages should be numbered consecutively throughout the abstract, including the bibliography. The page
numbers should be located centrally at the bottom of the page approximately 10mm above the edge.
Binding
The abstract must be bound. The title of the project and the name of the author should appear on the front cover
(See Appendix B).
37
A Note on Plagiarism
Plagiarism means the use of the ideas of others without acknowledging them as such. It is an academic tradition
that it is totally unacceptable to plagiarize. You must adhere to this tradition.
Plagiarism is an extremely serious academic offence.
All cases of suspected plagiarism will be strenuously investigated.
Proven plagiarism can have serious consequences for you and your final examination mark. Do not do it!
Appendix D: Submission Dates
Two copies of your abstract laid out in the correct format have to be handed in to the Foreign Languages
Department Office on or before 10 April.
Failure to meet the deadline for submission without good cause may result in a fail. If you consider yourself
unable to complete by the due submission, then you must request a deferral from the Head of the Department.
Please note that any applications for a deferral must be accompanied by substantiating evidence, such as
medical certificates. No deferrals will be granted for short-term minor illnesses or short-lived work pressures.
38