Premier’s KPMG Business Education in Australia
Scholarship
Improving learning outcomes for
students from a Non English
Speaking Background who are
studying Stage 6 Business Studies
Victoria Huxtable
MLC School, Burwood
Sponsored by
1.0 Objectives of the study
The focus of this study is to explore the aspects of instructional design (ID) that improve
the learning outcomes for students from a Non English Speaking Background (NESB)
who are studying Stage 6 Business Studies. Of particular interest are:
 how to design a web based, multimedia resource that will facilitate improved learning
outcomes for NESB students in Business Studies; and
 how to design an effective independent study unit for NESB students.
Ultimately, the study will inform approaches to teaching NESB students when they
embark upon the Stage 6 Business Studies syllabus in Year 11. It is anticipated that
readers, faced with their own educational conundrum, could use this report as a blueprint
for designing their own instructional unit.
1.1 Background
According to the NSW Board of Studies Business Studies syllabus document,
“Business Studies is distinctive in that it encompasses the theoretical and practical
aspects of business and management in contexts which students will encounter in
life. Conceptually, it offers focus areas and perspectives ranging from the
planning of a small business to the broader roles of management, finance,
employment relations, marketing and the impact of the global business
environment. Through the incorporation of contemporary business theories and
practices the course provides rigour and depth and lays an excellent foundation
for students either in further tertiary study or in future employment.”
For an NESB student, even the mere comprehension of this paragraph could be
daunting enough, let alone the study of that to which it refers. In preparing materials
with NESB students specifically in mind, these students will have a greater chance of
achieving the outcomes alluded to above.
During six years of teaching Business Studies, predominantly to students from an NESB
background, I consistently found my sole source of literacy support was the experienced
English as a Second Language (ESL) team who prepared their own materials on an ad hoc
basis. I recognize that many teachers do not have access to ESL teams and hence, in my
opinion, the time is ripe to take a more systematic approach to teaching this group of
students Stage 6 Business Studies. Interestingly enough, the aim of my study is in line
with the stated aims of the Department of Education and Training, who in their 2004
Report state:
“The NSW Department of Education and Training is committed to building
harmonious and productive learning communities that deliver high quality
education services to people from all cultures and communities.
Multicultural education is for all. Multicultural education aims to develop the knowledge,
skills and values required by all students for active citizenship in a culturally diverse, civil
society. Multicultural education:
• promotes community harmony through programs which counter racism and
intolerance and develop understanding of cultural, linguistic and religious differences;
and
• supports the particular learning needs of students from diverse cultural and linguistic backgrounds
through the provision of specific programs and services.” (emphasis added)
The cultural and linguistic diversity of New South Wales is reflected in its schools,
colleges and other education and training institutions. Approximately one quarter of all
enrolments in NSW government schools and NSW TAFE institutes are students from
language backgrounds other than English, both overseas and Australian-born, speaking
over 80 different languages.
1.2 Instructive Research
The prevailing research that addresses teaching business related subjects to students from
a NESB was instructive in guiding the focus of my study. Kirby, Woodhouse and Ma
(1996) show that NESB Business students need to be provided with assistance with
discipline-specific vocabulary and, when necessary, Australian idioms, slang and cultural
expressions.
Bretag, Horrocks and Smith’s (2002) research was also illuminating. Their work, with
tertiary NESB Students undertaking business courses at the University of South Australia
found, after careful analysis, that course results in Database Design and Business Systems
Analysis show that as a group international students are less likely to withdraw but more
likely to fail and less likely to get a higher grade than local students. The literature that
relates to the poor performance of NESB Business students stipulates that whatever the
reason for their poor performance, there needs to be wide-ranging institutional support
to ensure they reach their academic potential.
2.0 Instructional Design (ID) Process – the Theoretical
Framework
The instructional design process is a systematic planning method that results in
successful learning and performance, that is, learning that is effective and efficient. The
goal of instructional design (ID) is to create sound instruction that will lead to
appropriate learning and competent performance.
As Mayer (2001) describes, instructional design is a term that describes how information
is structured and presented to encourage meaningful and memorable student interaction
with instructional content. ID is not to be confused with the term curriculum, which refers
to the subject content and skills that make up an educational program. The ID approach
considers instruction from the perspective of the learner, rather than the content. It
focuses on many factors that influence learning outcomes, including:
 What level of readiness do individual students need for accomplishing the objectives?
 What instructional strategies are most appropriate in terms of objectives and learner
characteristics?
 What media or other resources are most suitable?
 What support is needed for successful learning?
 How is achievement of the objectives determined?
 What revisions are necessary if a tryout of the program does not match expectations?
In embarking upon the ID process for NESB students studying Stage 6 Business Studies,
it is important to answer four key questions, which will elucidate the key elements of the
ID process:
1.
2.
3.
4.
For whom is the program developed? (characteristics of learners);
What do you want the learner to demonstrate? (objectives);
How is the subject content best learned? (instructional strategies); and
How do you determine the extent to which learning is achieved? (evaluation
procedures).
These four questions form the basis of the remainder of this report.
2.1 For whom is the Program Developed?
Implementing a technology solution, without the consideration of the specific learning
context, will have little, if any, influence on learning. It is with this in mind that
anyone designing an effective educational intervention should proceed. In many
respects, the program is not being developed because of any formal “needs assessment”,
described by Kaufman, Rojas and Mayer (1993) as a tool for identifying the problem and
then selecting appropriate intervention. Rather, the program is being developed as a
result of “goal analysis”, whereby the problem - a paucity of NESB resources for
teaching Business Studies has been suggested - and goal analysis have been applied to
this “need” which is assumed to exist.
In addition, Instructional Designers need to determine whether intervention will actually
solve the problem. In this case, will a web-based, multimedia resources actually help
solve the problem of NESB students’ poor performance in Business related courses?
This is known as performance assessment and according to Bretag (2002), who stipulates
that there needs to be wide-ranging institutional support to ensure they reach their
academic potential, the answer is most definitely answered in the affirmative.
However, it is recognized that these learners are not an homogenous group. Countless
traits differentiate learners. Heinich, Molenda, Russell and Smaldino (1999) suggest that
designers initially consider three categories of learner characteristics: general, specific
entry competencies and learning styles.
1. General characteristics are broad variables – gender, age, work experience, education
and ethnicity;
2. Specific entry competencies are pre requisite skills and attitudes that learners must
possess to benefit from the materials;
3. Learning styles refer to how individuals approach learning tasks and process
information. Examples of learning styles, sometimes referred to as learning
preferences, are visual, auditory and kinaesthetic.
In the present context it is recognized that creating a resource that is suitable for all
NESB learners of Stage 6 Business Studies, given that all their characteristics would be
extensive, is beyond the scope of this project. Hence, the advice of Morrison, Ross and
Kemp (2001) will be heeded: “we recommend making the difficulty level slightly higher
than that considered optimum for the average learner”. Consequently, the instruction will
be challenging but not overly demanding for most learners; and it is usually easier to
provide supplementary support for learners experiencing difficulty than it is to make tooeasy content interesting and challenging for the majority.
In consultation with Trisha Moya, coordinator of the Intensive English Language
Program at the University of Northern Colorado, it was interesting to note that for
NESB students, there are some important factors to consider when scripting material in
English, due to the difference in cultures. Some interesting examples are set out below:
 The colloquial Australian term “bloody” conjures up images of blood, and hence
should be used advisedly;
 Importance of teaching idiomatic phrases that litter our language. Examples from
the multimedia resource’s script include:
o Sentiments will be buoyed;
o Ducking for cover;
o Grow a Mo;
o Strategies have been slammed;
o The penny dropped;
o Targets of a campaign (this may have negative implications, especially for
refugees);
o A tip off for the exams;
o Glass ceiling;
o Thumbs up;
o Taking a back seat;
o Being savvy;
o On the front foot;
o Grey sector;
o Plain sailing;
o Wannabe;
o Taste of their own medicine;
o Budding entrepreneur;
o Cracked up;
o Fitout;
o Blown the budget;
o Road toll; and
o Stopover.
In addition, there are many concepts that are taken for granted by Westerners which
need to be included with caution or with explanation such as:
 Calorie counting – it is inconceivable for some students from an NESB that
people would actually count calories. This is very much a western, upper
socioeconomic notion;
 The Great Depression – this period in Western history may be unfamiliar to
students from an NESB;
 Gearing – this is a technical accounting term, though has connotations of being
geared up, that is, hyped or excited; and
 Start up Capital – the word capital has many meanings.
2.2 What do you want the learner to demonstrate?
The objective of the web-based, multimedia resource is to facilitate improved learning
outcomes for NESB students in Business Studies through the design of an independent
study unit. Specifically, at the end of the program, students will be able to:
 spell all key business terminology used in the Preliminary Business Studies
syllabus;
 annunciate all key business terminology used in the Preliminary Business Studies
syllabus;



comprehend the meaning of all key business terminology used in the Preliminary
Business Studies syllabus;
actively recall all key business terminology used in the Preliminary Business
Studies syllabus and its meaning and use it appropriately in a sentence; and
correctly answer questions that test their understanding of the terminology used
in the Preliminary Business Studies syllabus.
In addition, students will be exposed English idioms and phrases, as well as aspects of
Australian business culture, which will authenticate their learning. Examples of the
terminology include words such as stakeholder, unethical, gearing and rejuvenation.
2.3 How is the subject content best learned?
Three recent learning theories relevant to the framework of this project are Baddeley’s
Model of Memory, Sweller’s Cognitive Load Theory and Mayer’s Multimedia Learning
Theory.
2.3.1 Baddeley’s Model
Baddeley’s model (2000) is based on the notion of short term and long term memory.
Meaningful learning is the result of the interaction of short term and long term
components. Short term memory is limited (seconds) and long term memory is
seemingly infinite. Our acquisition of new information must overcome the bottleneck of
short term memory.
A component of short tem memory is working memory – the active manipulation and
management of information. Baddeley recognises that the working memory can be a
potential bottleneck for both encoding and retrieving relevant information and so
focuses upon the learner’s working memory in instructional design.
Specifically, Baddeley seeks to design instructional materials that focus on the visual,
spatial and auditory. An “episodic buffer” helps integrate the visual, auditory and spatial
information. The component is episodic because it is assumed to bind information into a
unitary episodic representation. One implication of the episodic buffer is that unfamiliar
information requires additional processing by the learner to create an initial level of
understanding. If the learner is overwhelmed with the amount or structure of the new
information, it is unlikely that the learner will be able to relate prior learning to new
information. This has strong implications for the design of the web based multimedia
unit. It means that students from an NESB must interact with the new vocabulary at
least six times before it is transferred from the short term to long term memory. Hence,
the unit will incorporate activities that allow for this level of interaction. Once the
information is in the long term memory, the process of learning is not yet completed,
however. Learners must be able to retrieve relevant information when performance is
demanded. Again, the design of the unit must allow for sufficient interaction of the
information between the short and long term memory.
2.3.2 Sweller’s Cognitive Load Theory
Sweller’s Cognitive Load Theory (1999) addresses the capacity of our mental activity, that
is, our capacity to process and be attentive while learning. An optimal cognitive load is a
function of both the learner and the instructional material. Cognitive overload impairs
learning while too little cognitive load is characterised by a lack of interest or attention,
often leading to distraction. Novices often have difficulty managing cognitive load –
particularly with novel tasks or situations marked by past failures. When designing the
multimedia unit, in order to ensure optimal cognitive load, the following elements must
be integrated:
1. Reduce a high intrinsic load – where intrinsic load refers to the nature of the content
and its inherent level of complexity.
2. Reduce the extraneous load – where extraneous load refers to the “noise” or
superfluous elements of communication that act as barriers to learning due to the
increased load they place on memory.
3. Increase the germane load – where germane load refers to those things a designer can
do to help learners understand new information more quickly, for example, chunking
content into appropriate categories, sequencing it or providing analogies.
In regard to increasing the germane load, Trisha Moya again suggested some helpful
strategies for the multimedia unit, for example, providing as many cues as possible to the
learner that a new topic is being addressed. Vocabulary preparation too is important, so
students recognise the word when they see and hear it. This could involve speaking it and
writing it.
Issues based discussions on a topic such as obesity, from cultural perspectives help to
heighten awareness and help contextualise the issues for the learners before its formal
introduction. In addition activities that are fun help increase the germane load, such as an
activity on “misleading statements”, where students feel the pain of being mislead, and
share in a teacher’s own personal experience about how the teacher was mislead, could
all achieve this goal. An interesting presentation and assessment strategy known as
adaptive presentation, is also recommended by Moya. Adaptive presentation calibrates
the presentation and/or assessment of information based on past learner responses,
allowing the learner to interact with material that is neither too hard nor too easy in
terms of its intrinsic load.
2.3.3 Richard Mayer’s Multimedia Learning Theory
Different modes of presentation are important when designing instruction, however
researchers are also concerned with how individuals perform, or fail to perform, when
multiple modes are utilised. After numerous studies, Mayer (2001) has created a number
of multimedia principles to guide the design of instructional materials. Multimedia is
defined by Mayer as the combination of words, sounds and images. He focuses upon
optimising the flow of information through visual and auditory memory channels.
Because working memory is composed of several visual and auditory memory stores,
using both in a complementary fashion can theoretically increase the learner’s cognitive
capacity.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Multimedia Principle: Words and pictures are better than words alone.
Temporal Contiguity Principle: Words and pictures should be presented
simultaneously. Showing an image after a word is not as effective as showing the
image and word together.
The Coherence Principle: Extraneous words, sounds and pictures should be
removed, since they compete for the limited attention of the learner.
The Modality Principle: Animation and narration is more effective than animation
and text.
The Redundancy Principle: Animation and narration are better than animation,
narration and text.
6.
Individual Differences Principle: Design Effects are stronger for low-knowledge
learners and high spatial learners.
Set out below are Mayer’s principles, and how the multimedia unit seeks to comply with
his principles.
Name
1. The Multimedia
Principle
2. The Temporal
Contiguity Principle
3. The Coherence
Principle
4.
5.
6.
The Modality
Principle
The Redundancy
Principle
Individual
Differences Principle
Application to Multimedia Resource
Words and images are used together. Images are used to
support and illustrate the instruction.
Narrations are used effectively to describe on screen
images. Words and images are simultaneous.
The screen design is clean and avoids unnecessary clutter.
Learners are presented with concisely organised
information that avoids extraneous load.
Narration supports on screen content so as not to divert
attention.
Onscreen content is used judiciously to avoid extraneous
load.
Consider using adaptive presentation and assessment to
accommodate different learner skills.
2.3.4 Self Paced Learning
Self paced learning has received significant attention in ID. Much evidence supports the
notion that optimum learning takes place when a student works at his or her own pace, is
actively involved in performing specific learning tasks, and experiences success in
learning. In some learning environments, the instructor and student may feel more secure
using a mixture of self paced and group paced activities. In addition, a quality self paced
learning program will include the following features:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
It will address specific objectives. It will be organized into small, discrete steps, each
dealing with a single concept;
Activities are carefully selected to meet the objectives;
The learner’s mastery of each step is checked before moving on to the next step;
The learner must receive immediate feedback regarding their mastery of the
content. With each success, the learner can confidently advance to the next step;
and
When the learner has difficulty understanding the material, or fails to master the
objective for a unit, further study may be necessary, or the learner may ask for help.
The multimedia unit will utilise a DVD and correlated printed materials to achieve self
paced learning. The printed materials will eventually be available in an online format,
whereby activities can be conducted online.
2.4 How do you determine the extent to which
learning is achieved?
There are two pertinent concepts that should be addressed at this point – Formative
Evaluation and Summative Evaluation.
2.4.1 Formative Evaluation
Formative evaluations are used to provide feedback to designers for making course
improvements. The evaluations take place as instruction is “forming” and thus they
precede the development of the final version of the instructional unit. Dr James Gall,
Associate Professor at the University of Northern Colorado, summarises the key
elements of formative evaluation as follows:
1. Initially, one-on-one evaluation is essential. Trial the unit with around five students
to elucidate where are the troubles and concerns. Ensure they are from diverse
backgrounds to ensure a good sample. For the multimedia unit, watch individual clips
and find out what the students learned. Ask students to take their own notes and
compare with more structured notes. Research suggests that when notes are put into
one’s own words, they are more valuable to the learner.
2. Small group evaluation. At this point, around ten students at a time should review
the unit, which by this stage is more finalised. More decisions have been made and it is
possible to evaluate the overall gain that have been made in the following four areas  Attitudinal – were the students receptive and motivated to learn more (not, did
they like it)? For example, a six week military course might elucidate the response
“it was a tough six weeks, but now I know what it’s all about”;
 Information acquisition and skills – do students know definitions and the main
areas of learning?
 Application – can the students apply what they learned outside the classroom?
and
 Does the unit address the problem you were trying to solve?
3. Pilot testing – this occurs when the final product is produced. It is observed
working in a classroom situation – as close to how it will be used as possible. Ideally, this
would occur in a couple of classrooms in a couple of schools.
2.4.2 Summative Evaluation
Summative evaluation is directed toward measuring the degree to which the major
outcomes are attained by the end of the course. Multiple data sources are particularly
valuable in providing a more accurate picture of whether an outcome has been achieved.
Objective tests such as multiple choice, true/false, cloze passages and matching and
constructed response tests such as short answers, essays and problem solving are all valid
methods of evaluation.
Pretesting is also recommended in order to determine how well prepared a learner is to
start an instructional program.
2.5 Concluding Remarks
This report has outlined the main features that designers of an academically rigorous
instructional unit should utilise. The elements of instructional design are the blueprint for
any educator wishing to improve the learning outcomes of their students. It is anticipated
that the multimedia resource that is compiled as a result of this study will indeed improve
the learning outcomes for all NESB students studying Stage 6 Business Studies.
References
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Cognitive Science, 4, 417-423.
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Report 2004, 7.
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