Khidmat Foundation
(Pakistan & Azad Kashmir)
11-B, P&V Farms
Scheme 2, St 4 Chak
Shahzad, Islamabad
Phone (92) (51) 2241503
email: Khidmat@khidmat.org
info@khidmat.org
Rational Agriculture
21st Century Agricultural Opportunities:
Pakistan’s Path to Prosperity:
Article I.
INTRODUCTION:
Article II.
ISSUES:
Article III. BACKGROUND:
Article IV. NUTRITION:
Article V.
HORMONES:
Article VI. HORMONE INTERACTION:
Article VII. PEST CONTROL WITH NUTRIENTS:
Article VIII. THE LANGUAGE OF THE SOIL:
Article IX. RECOMMENDATIONS:
Annextures:
Mulder’s Chart: Interaction Between Nutrients:
Nitrogen Uptake:
What Happens to N in the Soil
Nitrogen Metabolism in the Plant:
Nitrate Nitrogen
Ammonium Nitrogen
Amine Nitrogen
Ammonia – Volatilization Loss Pathway
Urea Hydrolysis & Ammonia Volatilization
Nitrogen Retention By: Soil & Water
Nitrification Process
Chloride Fertilizer Affect Reducing Ammonia Volatilization from Urea
Nitrogen Cycle
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Article I.
Introduction:
Organics; GMOs; Biotechnology; Transgenics; Super Organics; Smart Breeding; Geonomics; DNA Markers;
BigAg Monopolies; Molecular Biology; Transgenomics; Apomixis; Disease Resistance; Drought Tolerance; More
Nutrition; Better Quality and Quantity Food; Environmental Degradation & Protection; Biodiversity; Soil & Water
Conservation; Market Conditions and a host of other issues confront the Bioenvironmental Manager. Harsh words and
extreme stands compounded by a lack of Conflict Resolution Bodies or Measures, assail the manager and she/ he is
forced to take refuge in one or other camp in a highly fractured and voluble mess of conflicting ideas. However, there
is but one absolute Truth or many compromise paths that take due cognizance of all points of view but come to
rational conclusions.
Where does all this leave Sustainable and Sustained Development Practioneers? Hopelessly frustrated by
display of emotions where pragmatism and rational thought is required. Illegal funding of opponents to support the
cause of vested and Particular Interest Groups further compounds the problem. Big money successfully uses media to
perplex and obfuscate issues in order to maintain a highly questionable Status Quo. Of course Corruption, Nepotism
and Resistance to Change are the Big 3 hurdles that faithfully lie in waiting to frustrate many a noble cause!
Where does this leave the malnourished, sick, homeless; unemployed and poverty stricken? Continued
anguish and acute deprivation is their lot whilst pseudo intellectuals and armchair idealists do their best to ensure
continuity to exploitation.
There is no villain versus hero; there is no black and white. Instead there are many shades of gray that shift
their hue and saturation levels on an almost continuous basis. Today’s villains can be tomorrow’s heroes and vice
versa.
Rather than bewail our sorry fate, it might serve some purpose to highlight the issues and arrive at rational
conclusions in order to impact malnourishment and ensure its eradication.
Article II.
Issues:
Do we not realize that agriculture is not a natural phenomenon! Replacing profuse biodiversity by single
variety crops that have been domesticated and bred for desirable genetic traits or Smartly bred or Genetically Modified
all lie in the same class of manipulating Nature to serve human needs. Increasing awareness has led to balancing
human needs and those of the environment and all other life forms. This balance is important and extremely important!
The central issue of safe and sustainable agriculture to feed a growing population is affected by many
external factors. These include politics; materialism; vested interests; negative as opposed to proactive attitudes;
resistance to change; incompetence and lack of vision; selfishness and greed; sloth and indifference as well as
downright meanness.
In Agriculture entire ecosystems are plowed under increasing susceptibility to soil erosion; encouraging pests;
compacting the ground; leaching nutrients; wasting precious water resources; emitting green house gasses; requiring
deadly herbicides/ pesticides for protection and consuming fossil fuels for tractors and pumps, thereby leading to toxic
emissions of fumes. All this results in severe disruption and destabilization of the ecosystem and produces food that is
laden with toxic residue that leads directly to creating medical problems for the consumer. As we eat for survival there
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is no point in producing food in a manner that negatively impacts the very survival that we are seeking. We must
Nurture Nature because Nature Nurtures us!
The Green Revolution increased yields and thus put off the scepter of famine from many a 3rd World Country.
However, this revolution unwittingly fostered the pollution of the environment by using unstabalized chemical fertilizers,
which, in turn led to the heavy use of pesticides. With growing knowledge and a body of evidence to spur them on,
Agri Scientists applied their ingenuity to overcome these problems while maintaining and even increasing yields. Some
alarmists pressed panic buttons and advocated return to natural farming; a misnomer as there is nothing natural about
farming. This gave rise to Organic Farming, which name is used to include the most unscientific of practices including
the use of raw manure and resultant chemical ill-affects that are similar to that of unstabalized chemical fertilizers
(excessive nitrate nitrogen build up) and lead to pest infestations (Chemical Trail – Chemitaxi for crawling insects and
build up of excessive amino acids to attract flying pests).
In reviewing all the prattle about modern Agriculture it has become obvious to the author that we are
confusing the issue to no end whatsoever. It is undeniable, especially for a Pakistani, that the Green Revolution saved
millions from starvation. However, it is also undeniable that this revolution has polluted the environment. The rational
recourse was to apply human ingenuity and develop inputs that do not harm the environment and at the same time
provide the nutrition required by a plant to enable commercial exploitation that meets the needs of growing
populations. The axiom adopted by the Swiss Development Corporation is entirely commendable and needs to be
supported. Sustainable Development that is Economically Sound; Ecologically Safe and Socially Just:
A point that is being missed by almost all those who have so volubly contributed to the Agricultural debate
concerns Plant Nutrition. All plants, whether they are:
Wild plants supported by Nature.
Organically grown plants arising from pre-tech, smartly bred or genetically modified seed varieties;
Pre-tech, smartly bred or genetically modified seeds supported by artificial fertilizers of the
unstabalized variety;
Pre-tech, smartly bred or genetically modified seeds supported by modern, hi-tech, environmentally
safe inputs and organics.
When we learn that the use of uncomposted manure will result in almost the same dangers to the
environment as unstabalized fertilizers and give rise to pest infestations similar to them, we realize that extremist
greenies and champions of the Green Revolution are actually riding the same horse. The advocates of Genetically
Modified Seeds, who fail to realize that these seeds often need more nutrition then their unsophisticated counterparts
due to greater genetic potential, further compound this issue. This extra nutrition is not being derided, as it is definitely
cost effective as a result of improved yields. Rather, the fact that extra unstabalized or misconceived organic fertilizer
will only add to the Earth’s burden of human caused pollution.
Let us outline our surmises:
Organic Agriculture is much more than the use of manure. Compost is an essential part of Organic
Agriculture and is indispensable to Agriculture of any kind. This is due to its primary advantage of being an
excellent and often vital soil amendment. However, even the best organic agriculture cannot produce sufficient
food for the World’s growing population.
Use of unstabalized or toxic chemicals has to be banned immediately in order to reverse their
deleterious effects.
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Complete, safe and rational plant nutrition makes efficient use of the genetic potential of any seed, be
it pre-tech, domesticated and bred over the centuries; hybrid seed; smartly bred seed (using gene mapping) or
genetically modified seed.
Plants raised on complete nutrition (one that caters to all of its requirements) are better able to fight
disease and combat adverse climate and other Negative Growth Factors.
Genetically modified seed will give rise to the same problems as any other type of seed if Plant
Management Systems are not efficient; in accordance to the plant’s requirements or environmentally safe.
Increased yields in accordance with genetic potential; increased stress and disease resistance;
denial of pest help that arises from the use of unstabalized and unsafe Plant Nutrition; environment friendly inputs
are all due to Complete and Safe 21st century Plant Nutrition.
Introduction of Genetically Modified Seeds without introduction of safe inputs will add to rather than
relieve associated problems
The question arises whether such Plant Nutrition exists or not? The answer is a resounding YES! Thus the
debate should primarily revolve around Plant Nutrition. Careful examination will reveal that both organic and green
revolution agriculture will be knocked out from scientific debate when it comes down to feeding the World’s starving
millions in a sustainable manner. We cannot revert to pre-science agriculture and yet feed the world; we can no longer
ignore the threat to our environment by irrational agriculture AND we cannot afford unregulated science due to the
ability to cause irreparable or irreversible damage to the world. By this we mean only inbuilt safety and monitoring
mechanisms to prevent harm due to indifference, incompetence or greed.
Are the environmentalists not aware that the real and most important issue is Plant Nutrition and not Seed
Manipulation! If that is the case then God help the environment. It is my guess that they are a bunch of radicals and
socialists who are opposed to Capitalism and Multi National Corporations (MNCs). It is Big Ag that is the target and not
GEMs. Unfortunately BigAg holds patents upon the technology and that is causing all the fall out. However there is
very little technical basis for the controversy.
I hope to prove that correct and complete Plant Nutrition can, not only serve to meet the growing demand for
food but also overcome the related environmental problems. Further Smart Breeding and Genetic Engineering with
requisite Oversight Legislation and close monitoring is very much in the interests of humanity at large and the entire
Biosphere.
There is a strong requirement for R&D in Artificial Photosynthesis and Biosynthesis for Food Security.
Over 800 million people around the world still go hungry every day; half of them are suffering from severe
malnourishment, according to the World Bank. The world’s population continues to expand and the UN estimates that
the global population will cross the 8 billion mark by 2025.
In addition, a 1997 World Bank report found that the per capita acreage of cultivated land supporting food
production dropped by almost 50 percent between 1961 and 1997. This figure is expected to fall another 40
percentage points or more by 2050. At the same time, by 2025 some 3 billion people in 52 nations—about 40 percent
of the projected global population—will face chronic water shortages, according to the UN.
Article III. Background:
Life is perceived as a three-dimensional web, moving along a time path as the fourth dimension. Complex
and interdependent relationships exist between various organic and inorganic elements and compounds including
higher life forms.
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Plants alone have the capacity of capturing the energy from the sun and using it to store this energy as food
or fuel while producing Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide as by-products. Indeed the various essential nutrient elements
required by humans are made available from their inorganic mineral forms, to humans, through plants or plant
consuming animals.
Plants do not consume organic matter from the soil. This is a 200 years old concept that predates the
discovery of the plant’s requirements of mineral nutrition. In 1860, Julius Von Sachs, a German plant physiologist,
grew perfectly normal plants in a solution of ten minerals without any soil at all. Justus Von Liebeg, a German teacher
of Agricultural Chemistry, applied his knowledge of Chemistry to Agriculture and laid the foundation of Chemical
Fertilizers.
The Green Revolution used these chemical fertilizers to great affect and dramatically increased yields which,
when combined with new hybrid seeds, ensured food for millions who would have starved without this great benefit.
The birth of the Environment Movement and with increasing knowledge and breakthroughs in many fields
resulted in a growing awareness of humanities interdependence with the eco systems that they inhabit. Analysis
showed the flaws and ill affects of chemical fertilizers in the forms that they were being used. More responsible
scientists and an increasingly influential Green Lobby created the need to overcome these problems.
In 1997, Dr. Jerry Stoller, a German American Scientist, introduced the Stoller Advantage of complete Plant
Nutrition to us in Pakistan. In answer to a request for better seed he stressed the fact that we are not utilizing even
40% of the genetic potential of what we already have. His argument was that hormones drive the characteristics of a
plant, not fertilizers. The hormone balance of a plant dictates its growth characteristics. Nutrients are used to derive
these hormones. Weather and its extremes of heat and drought compounded by insects and disease, restrict genetic
potential utilization to 35 - 40%. Complete Plant Nutrition pushes this efficiency up.
35 %
0
100 %
40 %
Nutrition
Efficiency
Here a big gulf and divide appeared with increasingly extremist stands being taken on both sides. I refer to
Organic versus Chemical Agriculture. Here Chemical has come to mean toxic and dangerous even though the origin
of all life forms is chemical. An offshoot of Genetically Modified Organisms appeared on the scene and was quickly
speculated upon and patented by BigAg, which is treated as the enemy by the Greenies. Many issues unrelated to
Agriculture lie behind the scene.
It would serve to enlist the various technologies being used or being developed for Agriculture1. Our ancestors
used Plant breeding in the field for desirable genetic characteristics and developed the plants that we use today. The
GEMS controversy is also covered2.
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Wild Plants and the Prehistoric discovery that they were a source of food.
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Domestication by 9000 BC in Turkey, Irrigated Agriculture in Palestine by 6500 BC and 6000 BC in the Indus
Valley.
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Hybridization by crossbreeding of sexually compatible varieties for increased yields; resistance to insects,
pathogens, nematodes and fungi; resistance to adverse climate conditions etc. begun by 5000 BC.
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1650 – 1780 Chemistry evolves to pure science: Robert Boyle – Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier, the father of
Modern Chemistry.
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19th Century Science develops structural organic chemistry despite scientific misconception that
transformations undergone by matter in living organisms are not subject to the chemical and physical laws
that apply to inanimate substances.
1
Encyclopedia Britannica.
2 The Debate over Genetically Engineered Food, Microsoft: Rick Weiss is a science writer for the Washington Post.
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1828 Friedrich Wohler synthesizes urea, an organic compound, in the laboratory.
1840 Justus Von Liebeg publishes works on the great chemical cycles of nature. Points out that animals and
humans would disappear from the earth but for photosynthesizing plants, which produce the complex organic
compounds, required for their nutrition.
1860s Louis Pasteur proves that yeasts and bacteria cause fermentation and in some cases diseases.
1869 deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) isolated from nuclei of pus cells.
1877, ferments designated as enzymes.
1897, German Chemist E. Buchner proves that fermentation can occur in a press juice of yeast and thus
reduces life process of living cells by analysis to a non-living system of enzymes.
1913 Haber – Bosch synthesis of Ammonia to lay basis for N Fertilizer.
1926 first pure crystalline enzyme is isolated and identified as urease, subsequently this and many other
enzymes proved to be proteins recognized as high-molecular weight chains of subunits called amino acids.
1929 Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) isolated from muscle and demonstrated that its production is associated
with oxidative processes in the cell.
1935 radioactive isotopes of chemical elements used to trace pathway of substances in plants and animals by
two U.S. chemists, R. Schoenheimer and D. Rittenberg.
1930s – 1940s, Sites of metabolic reactions by ingenious technical advances in the studies of organs, tissue
slices, cell mixtures, individual cells and finally individual cell constituents such as nuclei, mitochondria,
ribosomes, lysosomes and membranes.
1940, F.A. Lipmann proposes that ATP is the common form of energy exchange in many cells.
1944 significance of DNA as genetic material revealed.
By 1954, Watson and Crick proposed the double helix structure of DNA
1962 saw the publication by Rochelle Carson of “Silent Spring” revealing the extensive ecological damage
caused by Agricultural Chemicals.
1965 Green Revolution using Chemical fertilizers; Hybrid seed; other Agricultural Chemical and irrigation
resulting in enormous yield increases but reducing cultigens in use. Also flood irrigation and unstabalized
fertilizers compounded by inefficient delivery to the plant led to environmental pollution through Water
Logging; Salinity; Release of Nitrous Oxide through Volatilization (Green House Gas); Leaching of Nitrates
into Ground water; Escape of Phosphorus into surface water to change plant populations by encouraging non
fish food plants and restriction of fish food (Eutrophication). However, over a 30-year period the calories intake
by every human being in developing countries increased by 30 per cent.
Wide crossing of sexually incompatible plants; Embryo Rescue (removal of embryo after fertilization to be
fostered in the laboratory); Plant Mutation through chemicals and radiation.
Complete Plant Nutrition involving pure minerals in eco friendly and stabilized compositions; Seed Coating,
Foliar Application of Liquid Nutrients, Banding and Micro placement of Nutrients to enhance efficiency and
restrict availability to undesirable species.
Soil and Water Conservation.
Anther & Tissue Culture for cloning plants.
Recombinant DNA (rDNA); bioengineering by surgically altering a plants genome leading to known and
predictable genetic changes.
Widespread controversy surrounds bioengineering and agriculture starting with:
Possible human health risks of genetically modified food and whether every possible allergen in an
engineered food could possibly be tested in advance.
Crops engineered for herbicide resistance might create “super weeds” by cross-pollinating with wild,
weedy relatives growing nearby. Cross-pollination could give those weeds unprecedented resistance to
the very weed killers that farmers were counting on to control pest plants.
Experts predicted that plants endowed with the toxin genes might accelerate the evolution of
“superbugs”—insects resistant to insecticide.
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Many critics worry that the new agricultural biotechnology will give a handful of giant, profit-driven
companies too much economic power over farmers.
Economic and ecological costs and benefits of these crops appear to vary, depending on the region
being studied and local weather patterns in any given year.
Competing studies in 1999 offered contradictory answers to the question of whether genetically
modified crops actually bring increased crop yields or environmental benefits, such as reductions in
pesticide use.
Poor farmers most in need of improved crop varieties are typically the least able to afford the high
prices of patented seeds. Most of these farmers are in no position to promise they will not save some of
the precious seeds from year to year.
Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), a global treaty that emerged from the June 1992 UN Earth
Summit held in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. The CBD called upon signatory nations to develop a “biosafety
protocol.” In January 2000 more than 130 nations signed the first such protocol in Montreal, Canada. The
agreement leaves many issues unresolved. But it offers at least a glimmer of hope that developed and
developing nations will find a way to take advantage of the promising technology without posing undue
risks to human health or the environment.
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Natural hormones for changing genetic expression of a plant to combat adverse climate conditions and affect
micro management of the Plant’s Growth Stages in order to ensure greater utilization of genetic potential to
raise yields and improve quality.
Smart breeding through gene mapping and marking (Transgenomics).
Apomixis; to inculcate cloning through the seed rather than vegetatively in order to make plants produce
genetically identical offspring.
Bio engineered, smartly bred or transgenomic seed to enhance human nutrition via introduction of higher
quality protein; lower levels of saturated fats; increased vitamins and minerals; reduction of natural toxins and
allergens.
Delivery of life-saving vaccines via the plant.
Artificial Photosynthesis.
Artificial Bio Synthesis of Food.
Article IV. Nutrition:
The Natural World is subject to certain Laws and patterns that serve to maintain a balance. This balance has
led to evolutionary adaptation and development of life forms that are at the same time dependant upon Nature or the
Eco System that they inhabit in the overall Environment as well as interdependent upon each other for survival.
However, there exist numerous and often deleterious affect causing human and pest interventions that must be
rationally and sustainably managed on a sustained or self sustaining basis in order to perpetuate the Bioenvironment
and avoid breakdown. Homo Technicalis has the ability to either nurture or destroy this delicate balance. Only
complete understanding and careful monitoring can ensure correct and proper Bioenvironmental Management.
The existing Food Chains and Webs need to be reinforced and replenished in order to ensure health and
continued functioning.
The vital human requirements for food, water and air cannot be left to the mercy of ruthless, short sighted and
short-term exploitation that leaves death, destruction and permanent loss in its wake!
This fact is a dire necessity and can no longer be held in abeyance. Nor is it productive to enter into useless
and repetitive argumentations. International and National Politics cannot be allowed to subvert the achievement of Eco
Stability.
We must realize that the “enemy” does not exist in other Countries, nor do they adhere to “other” faiths, nor
yet are they of “different” races. The enemies of humanity belong to every faith and come in different colors. The so9
called advanced, developed or civilized world is just as replete with unscrupulous, materialistic, greedy, viscous
individuals as the 3rd World Countries. The garb of civilization, piety or affluence does not serve to subdue the reptilian
“claw that lurks within a paw covered by an outstretched hand” which is the phylo genetic patrimony of humanity.
A factor common to all of the before mentioned agricultural developments and indeed part of them is Plant
Nutrition. In fact the basis of the controversy is the deleterious affects of Plant Nutrition as introduced by the Green
Revolution. Rather than only highlight the positive results accrued by this revolution, it would serve humanity to take
lessons from past mistakes or oversights and move to correct them. This does not take from venerable reputations but
rather reinforces them by provision of continuity rather than termination. A greater and deeper understanding of
organics and their inorganic building blocks is badly required.
Organics are high-energy-level compounds that have arisen due to energy input (usually from the sun) to lowenergy-level inorganic elements and or compounds. Thus low-energy-level inorganic materials arise to constitute the
parts of high-energy-level organic compounds and entities of progressively higher life forms that, in turn are subject to
reversion to low-energy-level inorganic materials on decomposition and/ or death3. With this as a fact there is
absolutely no basis for an organic versus inorganic debate what so ever. The debate should revolve around the safety
of the introduction by humans of man-made materials into the environment. In case they are not safe then safer
materials need to be developed and unsafe materials need to be banned immediately or whenever such safe
materials are available.
It is an inescapable fact that all life forms require nutrition to maintain life. Modern research has shown that a
life form must change its physical constituents quite rapidly in order to meet its growth and existence requirements.
Indeed we require a constant supply of all kinds of atoms, molecules and compounds in order to replace what is being
lost. The environment provides us with air and water to fulfill our need and indeed that of all life forms with Oxygen,
Carbon and Hydrogen which make up over 90% of the life form’s body, be it human, animal or plants. Apart from this
there are a number of essential raw materials required, this placed is between eighteen to forty for human beings. Of
these eighteen are most commonly required, i.e. fifteen apart from the three already mentioned. These elements are
the same for humans, animals and plants. As yet however, only plants are able to synthesize these raw materials into
assimilable forms and make them available to humans and animals on an economic scale. There are six classes of
nutrients for humans; of these four supply indispensable building materials. These are water; protein; minerals and
vitamins. The other two are classed as energy foods (carbohydrates and fats, oils) and are interchangeable whereas
the previous four are not.
Just as living organisms shed their components and replace them on a continuous basis thereby consuming
energy so too does Nature constantly consume energy through breakdown of organic matter, weathering process in
the soil, the hydrothermal cycle and mobility of substances in soil, water, and air. Many dynamic and interdependent
chains and cycles exist within the Biosphere as elements are cycled and recycled, are consumed and/ or replenished,
subjected to output losses due to lack of input: output balance. Stable Eco Systems are those wherein minerals
(essential elements) and particulate material are retained by recycling them within its constituent sub-systems. It is
important to note that rebuilding of this dynamic recycling, in case of disruption, can take from 60 to 80 years and
longer depending upon the severity of the disruption. Secondly, it has taken millions of years for these Eco Systems to
evolve. For instance soil that has been either deposited or built up in millions of years can be lost within a few years if
mismanaged.
In a human adapted Agricultural Eco System the cycling of nutrients involves:
Uptake by Plants.
Storage within the Organisms.
Harvest removal.
Return to Soil via:
Dead Organic matter.
Through inculcation of:
Plant Residue.
Manure/ Compost.
Human Agency Nutrient Provision.
Precipitation
Within natural Eco Systems, nutrient flow is conserved and input and loss is usually of small quantities
(especially in terrestrial systems) compared with the volume, which circulates within the system. In artificial or human
intervened systems, minerals which originated in underlying rock strata or through sediment deposit:
3
Environment Systems Engineering, Linvil G. Rich. Mcgraw-Hill, ISBN 0-07-052250-2
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Becomes part of Vegetation.
Vegetation regularly harvested and removed.
Thus large quantities of minerals are removed. If Compost or well-rotted Farm Yard Manure is inculcated in
the soil, quantities of these minerals are returned to the soil and fertility is replenished to the extent of addition. Since
Farm Yard Manure does not contain sufficient minerals to replace those removed, unless prohibitively large quantities
of rarely available manure are added. Even when composted with biodegradable organic material, the output: input
ratio is not balanced. Thus agricultural soils face continuous depletion. This is compounded by run off and leaching
losses due to poor cultural practices. Thirdly, over use of deadly pesticides and herbicides tend to kill or eliminate
useful biota in the form of microbes and fungi. These biota are of vital importance as they mineralize organic material
and provide them to plants and other energy pathways within the Eco System.
Therefore if uptake is value 5, retention is 1 and return is 2 then Nutrient Mining output: input ratio will be 5:3
representing a net loss of 2 per crop leading to declining fertility. When organic material and biota are absent or
deficient then the even 2 return is not, or partially mineralized and will not be available to the plants. Thus our Nutrient
Reserves are soon exhausted.
If cultivated land is managed correctly, nutrient reserves can be replenished and fertility levels can be
increased. For example nutrient loss from the Eco System is minimized by presence of plants that hold soil through
their roots and thus prevent erosion; convert water run-off to evapo-transpiration and restrict leaching losses; provide
shade and reduce rates of decomposition of organic matter so that the supply of soluble ions available for loss via runoff is lessened.
IF SUFFICIENT NUTRIENTS AND COMPOUNDS ARE PROVIDED TO THE PLANT, UPTAKE FROM THE
RESERVE IS CURTAILED AND SOIL FERTILITY IS MAINTAINED. These nutrients etc. must be in a chemical form
that makes it available to the plant and must be stable and safe for the environment.
Thus we see that provision of Plant Nutrition and Correct Cultural Practices are of prime importance. These
are common to all seed; often critical for hybrid or Genetically Modified Organisms. If either of these two is not rational
the result is poor quality and quantity produce as well as more susceptibility of the plant to Negative Growth Factors
and pest attacks.
Thus we see that humans require minerals either directly from plants or from animals dependent upon plants
(meat, milk, eggs etc.). It is the human, animal or plant that makes organic compounds out of basic essential building
materials. Some of these organic compounds are known as hormones, which are described as chemical messengers
that excite one response or the other in the body’s organs or tissues.
Plants normally obtain their mineral requirements from the soil and the ability of a soil to provide the proper
elements and compounds, in proper amounts and in proper balance for growth of specified plants when temperature
and other factors are favorable is what determines soil fertility (proper means in the ionic forms commonly absorbed by
the plant).
With favorable temperature and availability of moisture, a plant’s seed will swell and enzymes/ hormones
become active making the carbohydrates etc. present in the endosperm move towards the embryo. This leads to
growth of the shoot and roots. When the root system extends into the soil coupled with emergence of leaves and
initiation of photosynthesis, a plant is capable of attaining its nutrient requirements. At this period and due to the fact
that phosphorus is particularly required at this stage of growth and also because phosphorus is rare and if present is
immobile in the soil and since root systems are not yet extensive, a plant destined for consumption is managed by
provision of soluble phosphorus fertilizer in a chemical form that makes it available to the plant and should be
ecologically safe.
This phosphorus can be derived from manure where it arose from plant material ingested by the animal that
fed upon it. Or from compost where it is more abundantly available due to composition of 30 parts bio degradable plant
material and 1 part manure to form a 20:1 Carbon: Nitrogen ratio. However, the problem of ensuring that the
phosphorus ion is immediately available to the seedling remains. To band large quantities of manure or compost near
the seedling or provide it independently, either through banding or foliar sprays while using compost or manure for its
primary beneficial roles such as:
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Serves as the principal storehouse for anions such as nitrates, sulfates, borates, molybdates and chlorides
that are essential for plant growth.
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Increases CEC (Cation Exchange Capacity) of soil by a factor of 5 to 10 times that of clay.
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Acts as a buffer against rapid changes caused by acidity; alkalinity; salinity; pesticides and toxic heavy metals.
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Supplies food for beneficial soil organisms like earthworms, symbiotic Nitrogen fixing bacteria and mycorrihize
(beneficial fungus).
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Serves as recycling sink for organic waste and green manures (animal manure, crop residues, household
refuse and leguminous plants collected within and outside the farm) and thus keeps environment clean and
hygienic.
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Softens the soil by introducing fibrous matter.
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Increases soil water retention capacity.
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Makes plants more resistant to pests and disease through improved nutrient availability and uptake, resulting
in healthier plants with strong immune systems.
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Prevents soil acidification.
By either seed coating (not sufficient due to limited amount of nutrients that can be coated) or foliar
application, the target plant is the sole beneficiary and weeds or other undesirable plant species do not receive the
nutrient. Secondly, loss by leaching or run-off is reduced to almost zero. This is more so if the nutrients are chelated
{derived from the Greek ‘Chelae’ or Claw and used to denote covering an element with organic material to provide
ionic bonding affect of cation: anion (positive & negative ion attraction)}. The chelated nutrient ions bond to the leaf and
stem surface and resist being washed off till they have a reasonable chance of being absorbed by the plant’s tissue.
If we ensure that the nutrient element that we are providing to our crops are not dangerous to the environment
and other life forms. If we provide the crops with these safe nutrients in a responsible manner and if these nutrients are
sufficiently stable and do not decompose to toxic material either through hydrolysis or volatilization. Then there is no
point what so ever in deriding their use.
Von Liebeg’s Law states that the yield of a crop is limited by the nutrient in least supply. This means that
supply of which ever of the essential building materials is restricted in terms of quantities required by the plant, it will
restrict the yield. This is compared to a bucket with holes for various nutrients placed in accordance to amounts
required. As these amounts are met the hole is plugged and nutrient intake increases to the next critical nutrient
element required by the plant. Maximum genetic potential yields are achieved only when all holes are plugged. Of
course soil, management systems; cultural practices; climate, environment, mutual antagonism or stimulation between
various minerals and Negative Growth Factors play their own critical role in determining yields.
Nutrients
Yields
O
C
H
N
P
K
Ca
S
Mg
Zn
Cu
Fe
Mn
B
Mo
Cl
Co
12
If there are enough nutrients available for the following yields, total yield will be determined by the least
available nutrient in terms of the plant’s requirements,
Nutrient
Nitrogen
Phosphorus
Potassium
Sulfur
Magnesium
Calcium
------------------------Molybdenum
Yield (Kgs)
1000
800
600
1000
800
300
------150
The yield will be restricted to 150 Kgs.
It is important to note that this is true for crops of all kinds, under all management systems and independent of
source or manner of derivation of the plant. In other words this inescapable fact holds true for Organic; Super Organic;
Smartly Bred or Genetically Modified Organisms.
Therefore our Management requirement is to provide enough environmentally safe and available forms of
nutrients to fulfill the needs of the plant. This ensures achievement of genetic potential apart from other factors. These
other factors such as water; climate; cultural practices and control of Negative Growth Factors (NGF), are also
managed in order to achieve maximum genetic potential (MPG).
The presence of nutrients in compost or manure is negligible as compared to an intensive crop’s
requirements. Intensive cropping means intensive mining of finite supplies of nutrients available in any given soil. As
we all know, soils vary greatly in nutrient availability, and inculcation of compost or manure is one way of replenishing
these nutrient supplies. However, we have seen that there are inefficient and do not contain enough nutrients to fulfill
the plant’s requirements. Added to this is the fact that particular nutrient deficient soils will not have sufficient amounts
of that nutrient to cycle into the food chain and will eventually not only restrict the crop’s yield but will also not be
available to the humans and animals that feed upon plants grown on such soils. If this element is lacking it will not find
its way either into manure or compost and the cycle of deficiency will be reinforced. To overcome this the element has
to be obtained externally. Secondly, and more importantly, it is prohibitively expensive to analyze and update soil
analysis for all elements required by a plant. On the other hand how much of each nutrient is required by a particular
species of plant for a given yield is known to science.
Does it not then make sense to provide all these nutrients in a free feeding mode and allow the plant to
uptake its requirements itself? Raising the soil’s fertility gradually and thus reducing external nutrient requirements can
utilize left over nutrients. It is important to note that most of these nutrients are required and supplied as trace
elements. Thus toxic build up is not a factor at all.
Apart from Chloride and Nickel, which help a plant to use urea, a plant needs at least 17 nutrient elements
critical for its survival. Carbon, Oxygen and Hydrogen constitute over 95% of a plant’s needs and are supplied from the
air and water. The rest are taken from the soil. Soil pH determines tying down or availability of Nutrients and 6.8 pH is
the break point as nutrients except Molybdenum and Chlorine are more easily absorbed in Acidic Soil. Foliar feeding
of essential nutrients is firstly, more efficient (70% foliar absorption compared with 30% soil borne uptake, radio
isotope analysis). Secondly, the mutual antagonism/ stimulation between various essential nutrient elements is
overcome. Roots act as a transport system for raw and inorganic nutrient elements to the leaves where they are
converted into food and sent to the roots for storage. It has been determined that foliar feeding is six times more
efficient for Clay Loam and Organic soils and 20 times more efficient for sandy loams. Loss by leaching is 2% for foliar
(chelated nutrients) and 70% for soil.
There are some critical periods for plant development wherein growth and yield increase with increased
availability of nutrients that can be used by the plant. Foliar feeding with correct combinations of nutrients as required
by the plant in different growth periods will provide increased growth and vigor resulting in increased yields, weather
proofing and disease resistance.
13
Another factor that increases yields is the prolonging of root life after flowering in order to provide longer time
for grain/ fruit to fill. In order to do this we need to keep the root growing vegetatively during the early period and after
flowering we need to elongate the period of root life.
Plateau corresponds to flowering
% Root Growth
Drought
Death
Good Weather
Days
This done by hormones. The hormone balance of a plant is responsible for dictating its response to
environmental factors. Changes in climate affect hormone balance. This is more in some varieties and less in others.
This is dictated by the genetics of a plant. Down through the centuries humans have domesticated and then bred
plants for desirable genetic traits. These genetic traits need to be tapped by the plant and this is only possible through
the support of complete plant nutrition. However, genetic expression of potential can be modified to weatherproof a
plant and ensure that climate change has less impact upon yields.
Plant diseases are directly related to climate, if the crop is weather proofed it can reduce the use of costly
pesticides.
Root growth direction is another hormonal response. Dry conditions after seed germination result in hormone
induced downwards growth of roots to tap moisture. Wet conditions at germination promote lateral
development. If a plant is treated with Rooting Hormones it will respond by downwards root development
irrespective of moisture conditions.
Direction of carbohydrate flow is hormone controlled. During the plant’s Vegetative Growth Period, plants
build up their root systems. Nutrients are absorbed in the lead ¼ inch of new root hair tissue. Root hormones
are also formed here. Any root tissue over 14 days old is unable to either form new hormones or absorb
nutrients. Thus healthy growth demands continuous root growth.
Hormones produced in the root tip primarily determine a plant’s disease resistance.
Availability of Nitrogen in abundance, as is practiced in Pakistan, at the vegetative stage causes vigorous
early plant growth. However, it will cause rapid root deterioration during the reproductive stage and lead to
plant death. Thus too much Nitrogen during the vegetative stage upsets the hormone balance and causes
excessive formation of those hormones, which are produced in the growing points above ground. This makes
the plant top heavy; subject to lodging and will have negative impact on production. There being fewer stolons
and tubers in potatoes; earlier flower and fruit abortion and less disease resistance.
During the vegetative stage, if soluble Ca and B are supplied to a plant the negative affects of excessive N
can be controlled. During the reproductive stage, carbohydrates are altered from the root and directed towards the
growing points above ground and reproductive tissue. This results in more ethylene and putrescence causing more
disease; physiological and stress problems as well as more aborting of fruit and flowers; premature ripening and early
plant death. Ethylene and putrescence are bad hormones or hormones like products, the plant’s defense against
these hormones are other hormones produced by the roots and Ca stored in the Cystol. It is possible to change the
genetic expression of a plant so that bad levels are minimized. This severely curtails yields unless shift of
carbohydrates from the root is modified. Each day a plant can be kept alive at this stage adds 4% to yields.
Carbohydrates and Proteins are primarily formed in the leaves and then transferred to the stalks and stems. The
vegetative growing points use carbohydrates from stalks, stems and branches. If a leaf has enough K, Mg and ABA
(hormone), the leaves are enabled to continuously replenish carbohydrates. If, however, there is too much IAA
(hormone) and Nitrate form of N, the leaves are unable to keep up the supply of carbohydrates.
Allelopathy is caused by accumulation of toxins, produced by the roots of a plant, in its neighboring plant. This
reduces fruitfulness but can be controlled with hormones. It is possible to treat plants so that they are immune to
disease or develop the capacity in a plant to repair itself after being infected. Nematodes attack plant roots and
introduce toxins into the plant. It is possible to increase a plant’s resistance to nematode toxins.
14
Article V.
Hormones:
There are five categories of hormones in plants:
AUXINS: Mostly in the leaf tips and control the growing point to light. IAA is the major Auxin; it influences the
rate of cell division and enlargement. Low rates increase while high rates retard. Roots are most sensitive at
0.02 ppb; buds follow in sensitivity at 0.1 ppm, while stems are least sensitive at 20.0 ppm. IAA regulates
pholem transport as higher IAA attracts more pholem flow. Auxins move only in one direction, i.e. from the tips
down and from the roots towards the tip. Auxin concentration is diluted when it moves from the growing point
downwards.
GIBBERELLINS: Gibberellins cause enlargement of cell walls, particularly internode cells and some fruit
cells. They cause breaking of dormancy, move freely in the plant and are produced in the roots and new
leaves.
CYTOKININS: Cytokinins are produced in the root tips and are carried upwards in the xylem tissue. They
loose concentration as they move towards the leaves. Cytokinins affect cell division.
ETHYLENE: Ethylene is stimulated by Auxins and can cause “Auxin like” effects. Ethylene stimulates
flowering and abscission of flowers, fruit and leaves. This hormone is produced in fleshy fruit and increases
ripening. Ethylene is a gas and causes senescence. It is called the aging hormone.
ABSCISIC ACID. ABA: This hormone is a growth inhibitor and promotes senescence, bud dormancy and
seed dormancy. It is produced in the leaves.
Hormones are produced in some organs and move to other organs to change their characteristics. For
instance, in wheat, early growth is dominated by Gibberellins, the middle stage by Cytokinins and the later stages by
Auxins. There is growing evidence that hormone regulation in plants is controlled by a central mechanism. This is
distribution of Calcium in the protoplasm.
Article VI. Hormone Interaction:
Stem Elongation: Here Auxin + IAA is necessary, Gibberellins can interfere with this.
Apical Dominance: Whenever Auxins and IAA are produced in large quantities, stem growth is greater but
bud growth is strongly inhibited. Further away from the growing tip the bud growth is weakly inhibited. When
plants are pruned, new buds will form above the apex. Bud growth can be prevented by Ethylene, which is
caused by too much Auxin causing Ethylene to be produced in cells. Cytokinins can release bud growth from
the effects of Auxins + IAA.
Root Initiation: High Cytokinin/ Auxin rates develop shoot growth. It reduces the Auxin+ IAA effect. The
above ratios inhibit shoot growth of roots towards the tip. When Cytokinins are lower back from the root tip,
branch roots will grow. When Auxin rates get really high, adventitious roots will appear from the stem.
Senescence Abscission: When flowers are fertilized they make Auxins, which prevent abscission. Fruit
abscission develops when Auxin is reduced in the flower. It may be that Auxins attack Cytokinins from the
roots, which prevent abscission and senescence. Evidently ABA reduces Auxin in flowers or fruit. This would
increase abscission.
Dormancy: Abscisic Acid (ABA) promotes dormancy in seeds and buds. Gibberellins and Ethylene break
dormancy. It appears that IAA inhibits fruiting branches and bud break near the growing tip. Higher levels of
Cytokinins apparently modify this. It appears that ABA affects bud break all over the plant and seems to be
the main group of hormones, along with Ethylene, that cause premature dying.
The hormone balance of the plant is responsible for dictating its response to environment factors. This is of
prime importance and the major factor for maximum economic yield if response is adequate. Good nutrition is
essential for the health of the plant but will fail to provide the desired results in case a plant is unable to use this
nutrition. The size, shape and yield of a plant depend upon hormone balance. Fertilizer nutrients do affect this balance
but the major factor is the climate. With changes in climate the hormone balance of the plant is altered. This is more in
some varieties of plants and less in others. This is dictated by the genetics of that particular plant. It is possible to
15
change the Genetic Expression of a plant so that it can quickly adjust to climate change. Thus it is not essential to
change the basic Genetics of a plant, which, though desirable, is quite an expensive proposition. By modifying the
genetic expression of a plant we can weather proof it and ensure that climate change has less impact upon yields.
Since the last many years, we in Pakistan are facing the problem of vagaries in weather that is causing a serious drop
in yields. Thus, it is important to introduce this alteration of genetic expression.
METHOD: For example, if the soil remains dry after planting, the root will grow downwards. If the soil remains
wet it will cause the roots to grow sideways. The genetic expression of root growth is determined within the first
15 days after germination. Its genetic expression does not change thereafter. Since we plant in wet conditions,
we ensure lateral development of the root system. In case of root development in the upper area of the soil the plant
will be less drought resistant and easily uprooted. Deep penetration will make the plant drought resistant and well
anchored. It is possible to treat seed with hormones and make it “think” that it is growing in dry soil, no matter if the soil
is actually wet. Our habit of introducing a plentiful supply of Nitrogen along with the seed, in the shape of Urea, is in
fact harmful and wasteful. Nitrogen causes increase in root mass and does not change root direction. The same is true
for growth enhancers and starter fertilizer.
VEGETATIVE GROWTH PERIOD: During this period a plant builds its root system. Calcium and Boron are
the major nutrients that determine initial root length and lateral branching of major root hairs. These nutrients interact
with hormones such as Cytokinins; Indobutyric Acid and small amounts of IAA. To some extent, Nitrogen has an effect
upon these hormones. The hormones being produced in its root system determine a plant’s disease resistance. The
roots, as we have seen, are primarily developed, mostly during the vegetative stage. Thus a plant’s disease resistance
is at its greatest during this stage. In case there is insufficient usable Calcium in the soil, the cell walls of the roots will
be weak and result in leaking. Soil borne disease vectors will use this leaking as a “Chemical Taxi (Chemitaxi)” to hitch
a ride into the plant. Over abundant Nitrogen might also cause rapid root deterioration. Secondly, plants become top
heavy as more Auxins and Gibberellic Acid is produced in the growing points above ground. This causes rapid upward
growth at the expense of root growth. The farmer is pleased with the apparent health of the plant but is disappointed
with the yield. Top-heavy plants are also susceptible to lodging and frost damage. It is important that we bear two
points in mind; one is that Nitrogen in sufficient quantities is essential to plant growth. Over abundance at a particular
stage is however harmful. Secondly, there must exist an adequate supply of available Calcium and Boron in the soil.
Insoluble Calcium is of no use to the plant. Pakistan’s Calcareous soils are not evidence of sufficient Calcium as
commonly believed. This is due to the fact that the Calcium is inert and insoluble. Dilute Sulfuric; Hydrochloric or
Phosphoric Acid can be used to solubilize the Calcium in the soil. However, this is a temporary fix as the Calcium is
later converted to Calcium Sulfate. Calcium Carbonate is of no use to the plant. Calcium Sulfate is 200 times more
soluble. However, Calcium Chloride and Calcium Nitrate are 2000 times more soluble. Calcium Chloride is readily
available in the market and is required in lesser quantities then Gypsum. Moreover, the double positive charge on the
Calcium Ion repels the single charged Sodium Ion. Thus Sodium is not allowed to clog the root system and/ or burn
delicate vegetable plants. Thus Calcium in available form is introduced as well as removes the problem of Sodium.
Over and above this, Calcium Chloride also stabilizes Urea and keeps it in the Ammonium form. This material is a byproduct of the Marble industry and has been used by the Khidmat Foundation with amazing results in 1998 at Daharki,
District Ghothki, Sindh. Five acres of summer vegetables and one acre of experimental wheat were treated. These
acres were subject to salinity to varying degrees. Vegetable germination was 98% and came to term. Wheat saw an
increase of 800 Kg per acre. However wheat was also treated with hormones and given split foliar applications of Urea
stabilized with Calcium Chloride.
REPRODUCTIVE STAGE: This stage of growth triggers the most serious problems for the plant. The
Carbohydrate flow is diverted from the roots towards growing points and reproductive tissue such as seed, storage
tissue and fruit. Thus root growth decreases and fewer nutrients are absorbed and fewer hormones are produced.
Other hormones are now effectively in control of the plant such as Ethylene and Putrescence.
These all effect the hormone balance and cause early death of the plant, which in turn affects, yields. When
yields are high the observation is that stalks and/ or stems are still green. This shows that the plant was still alive. If we
can slow down the shift in Carbohydrate flow from the roots to the reproductive tissue, we can elongate the life of the
plant. This will allow greater time for the grain to fill, or fruit to develop, as the case may be. Thus, the lessons learnt so
16
far are that in the Vegetative stage we should help the roots to grow vigorously and in the Reproductive stage we must
elongate the roots life. Hormones do this. Every day that a plant’s life is extended results in 4 % additional yield.
MOVEMENT OF CARBOHYDRATES: Carbohydrates and Proteins are produced in the leaves of the plant
and then transferred to stalks, stems or branches. From here the vegetative growing points such as roots and shoots
use them. In order to replenish the Carbohydrate supply the leaf must have adequate Potassium, Magnesium and
ABA (hormone). If too much IAA (hormone) and Nitrates are present this may not be possible. Research has revealed
that nutrients and hormones can be manipulated in order to induce movement of Carbohydrates out of the leaves. The
only way to reduce early dying is to ensure that stalks, stems and branches are full of Carbohydrates when the
reproductive stage begins. This is hormone controlled.
NEGATIVE GROWTH FACTORS (NGF): Five major factors cause negative growth in plants, these are:
ALLELOPATHY: When seeds are planted in close proximity, the roots of one plant cause accumulation of
toxins in the neighboring plant. This results in reduction of fruitfulness of each plant. Immunity to this toxin can be
induced, this results in shorter plants, stems or stalks with larger diameters; more lateral branching or suckers or tillers;
more fruiting points and more fruit; much longer root systems and no tap root. These results were practically observed
by the Khidmat Foundation in wheat crop of the year 2000, in Mung village of Khanpur Tehsil, District Haripur, Hazara
of N.W.F.P.
SOIL BORNE DISEASES: Where root growth is slower, soil borne diseases are more severe. Low levels of
Calcium, as earlier pointed out, cause this and result in Chemitaxi route into the plant for these diseases. Thus there is
a requirement of avoiding this and also healing the plant if it is affected.
FOLIAR DISEASES: These are more severe during the reproductive stage. This is caused by Ethylene and
Putrescence accumulation in the plant. The plant can fight these with hormones produced in the roots and Calcium
stored in the Cytosol.
NEMATODES: Nematodes attack plant roots and introduce toxins into the plant. Hormones can control
these.
STRESS: Hot and dry climate conditions cause stress in the plant. This causes:
Disease.
Early dying.
Premature ripening.
Abortion of fruit or seed.
Poor storage or shelf life.
HORMONE CONTROL: All of the above negative growth factors are hormone related and are not related to
nutrients. Nutrients can affect the hormones, e.g. Calcium has a positive effect and Nitrogen has a negative effect.
Hormones can speed up a plant’s metabolism and result in more efficient use of chemical fertilizers. Thus with the
addition of hormones, less fertilizers need to be used. Secondly, with a more complete “Diet” in so far as nutrients are
concerned, we can achieve much better results. Hormone treatment of seed and plants therefore is perhaps even
more important than hybrid seed development. The full genetic potential of existing seed is achieved and yields are
vastly improved. It is important to note that the cutting down of Macro Nutrients, as presently being used, will result in
savings that offset the expense incurred in Hormone Treatment and Micro Nutrient Supply. Secondly, improved yields
will more than compensate for the money and efforts expended. Thirdly, Micro Nutrients and Hormones are naturally
occurring elements and compounds. Thus, the use of these elements and compounds are environmentally safe and
17
highly desirable. It is important to note that hormone use in plants is nowise similar to indiscriminate hormones use in
Poultry Production. The hormones suggested for use with plants are only those that would be normally produced by
the plant itself if it were healthy or were to receive a balanced “Diet”. These hormone Products should be registered
with the EPA and must be natural.
Article VII. Pest Control with Nutrients:
SUCKING INSECTS: APHIDS; MITES; WHITE FLY; THRIPS; OTHERS:
Sucking insects feed upon amines and amino acids in order to form their own proteins. Plant proteins are of
no use to these insects. Since the insect’s life cycle is short it needs massive quantities of proteins in order to lay eggs.
Sucking insects usually attack and feed upon new leaves. New leaves have only pholem and no xylem tissue. As
such, organic compounds are not being manufactured in the new leaves; they rely upon the compounds made in old
leaves. Plant sugar can give these insects diarrhea, causing sticky plants. Amines and amino acids move freely in
pholem tissue. They are low on Calcium, Boron and other nutrients as they are not mobile or only slowly mobile in new
tissue. When sucking insects destroy new leaves or vector in a virus the hormone balance of the plant is disrupted.
This causes a major change in the older leaves. Proteins hydrolyze to amines and amino acids and become available
to the sucking insects as food. Nitrogen also causes higher amines and amino acid levels in the plant. The more the
nitrogen used the greater the threat. Zinc will lower the level of amines and amino acids in the new leaves. Thus,
during critical periods, a foliar application of Zinc will treat the leaves. Repeat applications are required every 14 days.
Article VIII. The language of the Soil:
As with the plant, the soil too has a particular expression of its own. The condition of the soil will determine the
plant’s ability to uptake nutrients in order to go about its business of growth and reproduction. Limiting factors can only
be overcome if they are understood and steps are taken to preclude their inhibiting characteristics. Soil content,
condition and pH determine the plant’s ability to uptake nutrition. Sophisticated soil, leaf tissue and sap analysis will
provide exact data on available nutrients in the soil at the time that the sample was taken. However, delays in
providing results will result in changes that might have occurred since that time. Secondly, these tests need to be
carried out with every crop, as each preceding crop will have removed so much nutrition. The expenses involved are
too high to be used to optimum advantage. This is particularly true for small and subsistence farmers. The parent
material, out of which the soil is derived, indicates the presence or chronic absence of nutrients. For example, alkaline
soils with pH of 8.0 and above are deficient in Iron. Excessive watering, needed to leach Sodium salts, results in
further depletion. Incorrect Agricultural practices can also result in depletion of nutrients. For example Copper
availability in poorly aerated and drained soils is very low. The interaction of various nutrients also determines their
availability. For example, high levels of available Phosphate in soils can decrease Zinc uptake by plants. This results
from heavy use of Phosphate Fertilizers in crops. The interaction between nutrients can either be antagonistic or
stimulating. Mulder’s chart is a graphic illustration of this complexity. Soil pH is a major factor, which determines micro
nutrient availability and utilization. For example, the previously mentioned Zinc deficiency, due to excessive
Phosphate, is increased when air and root temperatures are low. Light intensity is also an affecting factor. For
instance, high light intensity and long days lower a plant’s requirement for Manganese. In short, the complex SoilPlant-Fertilizer interaction needs to be understood. When corrective measures are planned, many factors need to be
considered and some attempts have to be given the status of trial and error. The Rizosphere (portion of soil close to
surface and plant roots) is the area from which nutrition is absorbed. It is this zone that is corrected. For example, if an
acidic fertilizer such as Ammonium Sulfate is banded close to the plant’s root zone, a local acidic zone is temporarily
produced. This in turn increases Zinc, Manganese and Copper availability even though the soil pH of the rest of the
field remains the same. Chelated or chemically combined, positively charged Cations (Zinc; Manganese; Iron; Copper;
Magnesium or Calcium) with an organic, negative charged Chelating agent. The organic molecule surrounds the
positively charged metal and protects the new chelated form of Cation from being chemically tied up in the soil.
However, this needs to be considered. For example, the high Iron content of organic soils will cause replacement of
Manganese chelate by Iron. This will result in a build up of Iron chelate and can increase the Manganese deficiency.
18
This is because the replaced Manganese is rapidly tied up in the soil and becomes unavailable to the plant. Method of
application is also important. For instance, Copper fertilizers applied directly to organic soils will result in copper
combining quickly with the soil. Here foliar application is the preferred method for best results. Foliar application of
fertilizers result in rapid response. However, the effects can be short lived and multiple applications are needed. Thus
planning of nutrition is most important as correction of a deficiency or toxicity, when observed, results in damage
already done and yield loss sustained. It is far better to understand how and when, which deficiency or toxicity can
occur and thus remove it before it affects yields.
Article IX. Recommendations:
Institute Appropriate Policy reforms with a view to increased productivity through more sustainable agriculture.
Provide Grants for Training through Learning & Doing Centers.
Introduce “Conglomoculture” as Individual Intensive Horticulture Production Farm Units within Overall
Framework for Inputs/ Skills/ Training/ Processing/ Marketing Support.
Increase productivity through Integrated Pest & Nutrition Management Systems.
Capitalize the Rural areas through Export Development Fund for Value Added/ Processed Goods.
Establish Knowledge Base; Information; Assistance and e-commerce Sites in local languages.
Provide Farmer Support and Capital Investment, e.g., Solar Pumps, Horticulture Machinery, and Cold Stores.
Provide incentives/ support to farmers adopting environment friendly measures and provide consumer access
to rural areas
Fertilizer subsidy on part of GOP for unstabalized Chemical Fertilizers should be discontinued unless eco
friendly measures of stabilizing and coating are not carried out. Secondly, appropriate fertilizer such as stabilized NPK
MAP and MOP should be produced. Due attention be paid to eco-friendly Secondary and Micronutrients.
Stricter controls over Pesticides should be instituted.
Institute Cross-Compliance (farmers receive support if they adopt certain resource-conserving technologies
for soil/ water conservation, energy pollution, organic pest control, avoid leaching of nitrates into ground water (should
be obligatory for Nitrate Sensitive Zones that should be surveyed and established immediately).
Institute Appropriate Regulatory Framework for sustainable agriculture.
Identify and declare illegal to cultivate on steep slopes, riverbanks, forests and Government land.
Restrict use of antibiotics and growth regulators for livestock.
Test and report: Food Stuffs for Pesticide and Lead accumulations; Drinking water for fecal, nitrate
contamination
Certify crop varieties before multiplication and distribution to farmers.
Institute Joint Forest and Grazing lands management with Local Communities.
19
Institute Water and Soil Conservation Associations, Bodies, User Groups, Districts etc.
Reform Agricultural Education to include Conservation techniques through Hands On Training.
Support Private Sector and NGO Research.
Consortia of Government, NGO, Farmers Associations, Trade Groups for joint planning and coordination for
Regional Agriculture/ Resource Conservation Action Plans.
MULDER’S CHART:
INTERACTION BETWEEN NUTRIENTS:
Mulder’s Chart is a graphic illustration of the complexity of interaction between Nutrients. Antagonism
is illustrated by a solid line and stimulation by a dotted line.
MANGANESE
CALCIUM
POTASH
COPPER
IRON
MAGNESIUM
PHOSPHTE
MOLYBDENUM
BORON
ZINC
NITROGEN
20
Nitrogen is 78 % by volume of dry air. It is an essential element in all-living things. Nitrogen is a constituent of proteins
and nucleic acids. Some Nitrogen is mined as Nitrate ores such as Chilenitre NaNO3
Dinitrogen consists of diatomic molecules
(i)
N
N
Low reactivity of Nitrogen attributable to strength of triple bond.
N2 (g)
2N (g);
H
= + 940 Kj mol –1
Oxidation states of +3 and +5 in oxo-anions (+3 in NO2- and +5 in NO3)
Covalency of 3, Nitrogen has no d orbitals, thus it cannot promote one of the s electrons to a d orbital. Thus covalency
of 3 using the 3 unpaired p electrons.
2p
2s
N
When Nitrogen uses its lone pair of electrons to form a coordinate bond as in NH4+ and NO3- it has a covalency of 4.
a)
REACTANT
NITROGEN
PHOSPHORUS
Metals
Ionic or interstitial
Nitrides formed
Phosphides formed
Oxygen
Some NO formed
At high temp. & in
Electric discharge
Ignites, white at 35 o C
red at 260oC, to form
P2O3 + P2O5
Sulphur
No reaction
Mixture of sulphides
formed
Halogens
No reaaction
PX3 + PX5 formed
Hydrogen
Some NH3 formed
At high pressure
No reaction
Alkali
No reaction
White P (not red) reacts
To form PH3 + H2PO2
Concentrated
HNO3
No reaction
H3PO4 formed
21
PHOSPHORUS:
Too reactive to occur in free state. Mined as phosphate ores e.g. Ca (PO4)2 Calcium Phosphate. When heated with
silica and coke in an electric furnace, phosphorus sublimes over. The two chief allotropes of phosphorus are the white
and red forms. The allotropy is monotrophic, red phosphorus being more stable then white under all conditions.
Oxidation states +3 and +5 in their oxo-anions.
+ 3 PO2 –
+5 PO3 - , PO4 3Shows covalency of 3 using the 3 unpaired p electrons.
Shows covalency of 5 by promoting one of the s electrons to a d orbital.
3d
3p
3s
P (Ground
State)
P+ (Excited State)
22
23
Nitrogen Uptake:
Nitrogen is commonly applied to the
soil as Organic material, Urea,
Ammonium and Nitrate.
Research shows that most Nitrogen
taken up by plants is in Ammonium
and Nitrate forms.
Due to rapid conversion from
assimilable forms of Organic N
(including urea) to the more common
forms of N available to the Plant:
Ammonium & Nitrate.
What Happens to N in the Soil
Organic Material
& Urea
Limited crop Uptake NH2
Ammonium
(NH4+)
Plant Uptake/ Volatilization/
Held by Soil CEC
Nitrate (NO3-)
Plant Uptake/ Leaching
2
Nitrogen Metabolism in the
Plant:
ASSEMBLY LINE
1st Stage
Pieces
NO3Nitrate
2nd Stage
Pieces
Components
NH4+
Amides
Ureides
Amines
Ammonium
Nitrate & Nitrite
Reductase
Enzymes
3
End Product
Protien
Biosynthesis
Advantages/ Disadvantages
Nitrate Nitrogen
Easy to take up.
Creates high vegetative and
weak growth
Not Toxic.
Increases disease
susceptibility
Increases Cation
Uptake.
Cation sink in fully expanded
leaves
Less stress resistance
Auxin Hormone Dominates
High-energy requirements
4
Advantages/ Disadvantages
Ammonium Nitrogen
Encourages
branching and
reproduction
Can become toxic
if present in large
quantities
Does not create
Cation sink in the
leaves
More efficient
Reduces Cation
Uptake
form of N (2nd
Stage piece)
5
Advantages/ Disadvantages
Amine Nitrogen
Even more
efficient than
Ammonium
(Component)
Encourages
Normally only
made by the plant
greater root
growth
Increases
Cytokinen
Hormones
Helps Plants
resist stress
6
Ammonia – Volatilization
Loss Pathway
Soil and/ or fertilizer Ammonium - N
1
NH4+ + HCO3-/ CO3=
Free Soil
Carbonates
(NH4)2 CO3 (Ammonium
Carbonate)
Left exposed to surface soil in the presence of adequate
moisture
(H2O)
Free
Ammonia
lost to the atmosphere
2
+
2NH3 +
H2O +
CO2
2NH4 OH
(Ammonium
Hydroxide
7
Urea Hydrolysis &
Ammonia Volatilization
Urea
(NH2)2CO + H2O
(Urea Hydrolysis)
(NH4)2 CO3 (Ammonium Carbonate)
Exposure to Surface Soil + H2O
2NH3
+ H2O + CO2
2NH4 OH (Ammonium
Hydroxide)
(Unstable: Reverts
back to free Ammonia)
8
Nitrogen Retention By:
S
o
i
l
&
W
a
t
e
r
Negative
Negative
Charge (-)
Charge (-)
Soil &
Organic
matter
NO-3
(Nitrate – N)
Repel
Negative
Charge (-)
Soil &
Organic
matter
Subject to movement
with Water
Positive
Charge (+)
NH+4
(Ammonium – N)
Bond
9
Nitrification
Process
Lost to Atmosphere
N2O
NITROSOMONAS
Bacteria
+
NH
4
Nitrite
NO-2
Ammonium
NITOBACTER
Negatively Charged:
Repelled by Soil:
Leached to Ground Water
Bacteria
Nitrate
10
NO-3
Nitrous Oxide
Chloride Fertilizer Affect
Reducing Ammonia Volatilization from Urea
KCl, MgCl2, CaCl2 + H2O
Free Ammonia
2N
Urea
(NH2)2CO
+H2O
H3 + IO2
2NH4OH
Urea
Hydrolysis
Without Cl Fertilizer
2NH4Cl
+ H2O + Mg
or
CO3
NH4CO3 +
H2O
(Unstable)
Ammonium
Carbonate
Ca
(free Chloride)
ClWith Cl Fertilizer
11
Nitrogen Cycle:
Atmospheric Nitrogen
Nitrogen
Fixing
Bacteria in
Nodules of
Legumes:
Convert to
Nitrogen
Components
Haber Process
Air &
Denitrifying
Bacteria
Death & Decay
excretion
Animal Protein
Plant Protein
Food
Air &
Nitrifying
Bacteria
Nitrate
Ammonium Salts
s in
in Soil
Taken in through Roots
Soil
NH3
Fertilizer NO3
Fertilizer
Catalytic Oxidation
s
s
Leaching to Ground Water
12