数理化，相信会有点用……
CHEMISTRY
Prefix
Power
Meaning
Examples of measurements
nano (n)
10-9
one-billionth
nanometer (nm): wavelength of light
micro (m)
10-6
one-millionth
micrometer (mm): width of a hair
milli (m)
10-3
one-thousandth
milliliter (mL): volume of acid in burette
centi (c)
10-2
one-hundredth
centimeter (cm): length of paper
deci (d)
10-1
one-tenth
deciliter (dL): amount of liquid
kilo (k)
103
one thousand times
kilogram (kg): your weight
1 gallon equals 4 quarts, 12 inches equals 1 foot,
Nomenclature 系统命名法
binary ionic compounds 二元离子化合物
Ammonium ion
NH4+
Acetate ion
C2H3O2-
Cyanide ion
CN-
Hydroxide ion
OH-
Nitrate ion
NO3-
Chlorate ion
ClO3-
Sulfate ion
SO42-
Carbonate ion
CO32-
Phosphate ion
PO43-
HCO3-is called either the bicarbonate ion or the hydrogen carbonate ion
HPO42-and H2PO4-.These are named hydrogen phosphate and dihydrogen phosphate,
When the acid has only an element following the H, use the prefix hydro-, followed by the
element’s root name and an -ic ending.hydrocyanic acid.HCN
If the acid has an -ate polyatomic ion after the H, that makes it an -ic acid. H2SO4 is sulfuric acid.
When the acid has an -ite polyatomic ion after the H, that makes it an -ous acid
Me eat peanut butter.” This corresponds to meth-, eth-, prop-, and but-, which correspond to one,
two, three, and four carbons, respectively.

-ane = alkane (all single bonds and saturated); CnH2n+2; saturated: it contains the
maximum number of H’s


-ene = alkene (contains double bond, unsaturated); CnH2n
-yne = alkyne (contains triple bond, unsaturated); CnH2n-2; polyunsaturated: it contains
more than one double or triple bond
Naming positive ions (usually metals)

Monatomic, metal, cation: simply the name of the metal from which it is derived. Al3+ is
the aluminum ion (these are often referred to as group A metals).

Transition metals form more than one ion; Roman numerals (in parentheses) follow the
ion’s name. Cu2+ is copper (II) ion. Exception: mercury (I) is Hg22+, that is, two Hg+
bonded together covalently.

NH4+is ammonium.

Roman numerals are not usually written with silver, cadmium, and zinc 银镉锌. Arrange
their symbols in alphabetical order—the first one is 1+ and the other two are 2+.
Naming negative ions (usually nonmetals or polyatomic ions)

Monatomic, nonmetal, anion: add the suffix -ide to the stem of the nonmetal’s name.
Halogens are called the halides. Cl- is the chloride ion.

Polyatomic anion: you must memorize the polyatomic ion’s name. NO2-is the nitrite ion.
Naming Binary Molecular Compounds
a molecular compound? a combination of nonmetals, both of which lie near each other on the
periodic table. Use the following set of prefixes, and don’t forget the -ide ending to the name.
Subscript
Prefix
1
mono- (usually used only on the second element, such as carbon monoxide or
nitrogen monoxide)
2
di-
3
tri-
4
tetra-
5
penta-
6
hexa-
7
hepta-
8
octa-
9
nona-
10
deca-
butane 丁烷 C4H10
propane 丙烷 C3H8

1–4 carbons tend to be gases at room temperature; butane and propane are among the
lightest hydrocarbons and are used for fuel

5–10 carbons tend to be in the liquid state at room temperature; compounds that fall in
this size range are used to make gasoline and solvents
12–18 carbons make up jet fuels and kerosene 煤油
More than 18 carbons tend to be solids at room temperature


polymer 聚合物
monomer 单体
Amino acids 氨基酸
polypeptide 多肽
Starch 淀粉
Polyethylene 聚乙烯
Polypropylene 聚丙烯
Polyethylene—Many ethenes strung together with covalent bonds (ethylene is another name for
ethene); shopping bags and plastic bottles are made of polyethylene.


Polypropylene—Many propenes strung together; glues and carpets
Polystyrene 聚苯乙烯—A clear, hard, brittle polymer used in CD cases; if you blow
carbon dioxide into it during manufacture and you get the soft, opaque, foamy polymer
used in a coffee cup.
Functional Groups 官能团
Hydroxyl group, —OH
Carboxylic acid group, —COOH
trichloroethanoic acid 三氯乙醇酸
Amine group, –NH2
Isomer 同分异构体
substitution reaction 取代反应
addition reaction 加成反应
muriatic acid (HCl)
Brass: copper and zinc
Sterling silver: silver and copper
Steel: iron and carbon
Bronze: copper, tin, and other metals
Pewter 白蜡: mixture of tin, copper, bismuth, and antimony
wooden splint 小木条
burning splint 燃着的木条
colorless, odorless 无色无味
fire extinguisher 灭火器
Chlorofluorocarbons, or CFC 氟氯化碳
stratosphere 平流层
moisture 湿度
Rules for Basic Laboratory Safety
Safety goggles must be worn at all times in the laboratory.
No eating or drinking in the laboratory.
Never taste or touch the laboratory chemicals.
Always wash your hands before leaving the laboratory.
Wear proper clothing—safety glasses, closed-toed shoes, and an apron; tie long hair back and
remove all jewelry.
Always follow the written directions, and never perform an unauthorized experiment.
Always add acid to water. This prevents the acid from spattering.
Point heating test tubes away from others and yourself, and heat them slowly.
Never return unused chemicals to their original containers. This prevents contamination.
Always use a pipette bulb or a pipetter to transfer when using a pipette 吸液管.
Never use your mouth.
Always use a fume hood when working with toxic substances. Never inhale fumes directly.
Never use an open flame near flammable liquids.
Dispose of chemicals in the designated disposal site—not in the sink or trash can.
fume hood 通风橱
Common Laboratory Equipment
when obtaining the mass of solid chemicals, always use some type of weighing paper to protect
the pan of the balance.
Burette 量滴管 tube for measuring liquid:a glass tube with measurements marked on the side
and a stopcock at the bottom. Use: in laboratories to release an accurately measured quantity of
liquid.
beakers are not accurate measuring instruments
Remember always to take measurements of liquids from the bottom of the meniscus
filtrate 滤出液
颜色反应
Ion
Flame color
Li+, Sr2+, Ca2+
Red
Na+
Yellow
K+
Purple (pink)
Ba2+
Light green
Cu2+
Blue-green
Fe3+
Gold
Ion
Solution color
Cu2+
Blue
Fe3+
Yellow to orange (rusty)
Ni2+
Green
Purple
Yellow
Orange
色谱法 Chromatography
graduated cylinder 量筒
A titration (also called volumetric analysis) is a laboratory procedure that usually involves either
an acid and base neutralization reaction or a redox reaction
The burette must be rinsed 润湿 with the solution to be placed in it before filling.
The equivalence point is the point in the reaction where enough titrant has been added to
completely neutralize the solution being analyzed.
The end point is the point during the titration where the indicator changes color. It is important to
choose an indicator that has an end point that is at the same pH as your expected equivalence point.
titrant 滴定剂
coffee-cup calorimeter
The sum of all of the potential and kinetic energy in a system is known as the internal energy of
the system.
Potential energy, in chemical terms, is the energy stored in chemical bonds.
Enthalpy 焓
the change in enthalpy of the system, DH

Enthalpy of reaction (DHrxn)—The amount of heat absorbed or released by the chemical
reaction

Enthalpy of combustion (DHcomb)—The amount of heat absorbed or released by
combustion (burning; usually in the presence of O2)

Enthalpy of formation (DHf)—The amount of heat absorbed or released when 1 mole of
a compound is formed from elements in their standard states

Enthalpy of fusion (DHfus)—The amount of heat that must be absorbed to melt 1 mole of
solid to liquid at the normal melting point

Enthalpy of vaporization (DHvap)—The amount of heat that must be absorbed to change
1 mole of liquid to gas at the normal boiling point
enthalpy is a state function, meaning that its value is fixed when temperature, pressure,
composition, and physical form are specified
Entropy (DS)熵
pellets 硬丸
A calorie is defined as the amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of 1.00 gram of water
by 1.00ºC, and joules are the SI units for energy; 1 calorie = 4.184 joules.
molar heat capacity (J/mol-K or J/mol-ºC)
specific heat (J/g-K).
q = mCpDT
where
q = quantity of heat (joules or calories)
m = mass in grams
DT = Tf - Ti (final – initial)
Cp = specific heat capacity (J/g ºC)
the specific heat of liquid water is 4.184 J/g ºC (or 1.00 cal/g ºC), which is unusually high (this is
due to hydrogen bonding).
DH = Hfinal - Hinitial
All diatomic molecules are assigned zeros for the same reason, they are in the free state
葡萄糖 glucose
DH = bonds broken - bonds formed
The third law of thermodynamics says that the entropy of a perfect crystal at 0K is zero
we can calculate the entropy of any substance that’s at a temperature higher than 0K
The greater the disorder or randomness in a system, the larger the entropy.
The entropy of a substance always increases as it changes state from solid to liquid to gas.
When a pure solid or liquid dissolves in a solvent, the entropy of the substance increases.
When a gas molecule escapes from a solvent, there is an increase in entropy.
Entropy generally increases with increasing molecular complexity.
Reactions that increase the number of moles of particles often increase the entropy of the
system.
The units of entropy（s） are J/K. The higher the S value, the more disordered the system, so a
positive (+) S value is more disordered, and a –S value is less disordered.
Gibb’s Free Energy 吉普斯自由能 DG = DH - TDS
If G is negative, the reaction is spontaneous in the forward direction.
If G is equal to zero, the reaction is at equilibrium.
If G is positive, then the reaction is nonspontaneous in the forward direction, but the reverse
reaction will be spontaneous.
for elements at standard state (pure elements at 25ºC and 1 atm are assigned a value
of zero).
During a phase change, equilibrium exists between phases, so if the G is zero
The units for DG are the same as the units as for enthalpy: J/K.
Standard state(25ºC and 1 atm)
STP(0ºC and 1 atm)
factors that influence reaction rate again:
Concentration of the reactants
Temperature (It’s a general rule of thumb that a 10˚C increase in temperature will double the
reaction rate.)
Presence of a catalyst
Physical state of the reactants
activation energy 活化能
The activation energy is defined as the minimum energy needed to initiate a chemical reaction,
and it is symbolized by Ea.
At the peak of the activation energy hump, the reactants are in the transition state, halfway
between being reactants and forming products. This state is also known as an activated complex.
活化复合物
Kc symbolizes the equilibrium constant in an aqueous solution, Kp symbolizes the partial pressures
of gases in equilibrium, and Ksp symbolizes the solubility product of solids classified as insoluble.
K > 1 means that the reaction favors the products at equilibrium, while a K < 1 means that the
reaction favors the reactants at equilibrium
Pure solids do not appear in the equilibrium expression.
Pure liquids do not appear in the equilibrium expression.
Water, either as a liquid or solid, does not appear in the equilibrium expression.
When a reactant or product is preceded by a coefficient, its concentration is raised to the
power of that coefficient in the Keq expression.
When the Keq of a reaction has been multiplied by a number, the K is raised to the power of
the multiplication factor (Kn) ( so if it has been multiplied by 2, K is squared, if it has been
multiplied by 3, K is cubed, and so on. )
The Keq of a reaction occurring in the reverse direction is simply the inverse of the Keq of the
reaction occurring in the forward direction (1/Keq).
The Keq of a net reaction that has two or more steps is found by the product of the Keq s for
each of the steps: Ks = (K1
K2
K3 . . .).
forward direction 正反应方向
reverse direction
The activation energy is the energy that must be overcome for the reaction to proceed. Also
remember that for a reaction to occur, the collisions between molecules must be sufficiently
energetic and of the proper geometric orientation.（Two conditions must be met in order for a
chemical reaction to occur. First of all, the molecules must collide with sufficient energy, and
second, the molecules must collide with such an orientation that the product bonds can be
formed.）
Stoichiometry 化学计量学
Formula weight（amu）
molar mass （g）
empirical formula 实验式经验式
propane 丙烷
Baking soda (NaHCO3)
antacid 解酸剂
The limiting reactant or reagent is the one that is consumed first in the chemical reaction, and its
consumption halts the progress of the forward reaction.
The theoretical yield of a reaction is the amount of product formed once the limiting reactant has
been completely consumed. This assumes perfect conditions and gives a maximum amount. The
actual yield is what actually occurs in the course of the reaction—how much product is actually
formed. Finally, the percent yield is the ratio of the actual yield to the theoretical yield
sodium bromide NaBr
aluminum sulfate AlSO4
elements or compounds 单质化合物
Single replacement or displacement reaction 置换
Double replacement or displacement reaction 复分解
precipitate 沉淀
Combustion reaction 燃烧反应
(Bunsen burner reaction):
CH4(g) + 2O2(g)
CO2(g) + 2H2O(g)
Hydrolysis reaction 水解反应
spectator ions 旁观离子
Most alkali metal compounds and
compounds are soluble.
Cl-, Br-, I- compounds are soluble, except when they contain Ag+,
, or Pb2+.
F- compounds are soluble, except when they contain group 2A metals.
,
,
, and CH3COO- compounds are soluble.
compounds are soluble, except when they include Ca2+, Sr2+, Ba2+, Ag+, Pb2+, or
,
,
,
.
, S2-, OH-, and O2- compounds are insoluble.
Group 2A metal oxides are classified as strong bases even though they are not very soluble.
Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs, or Fr,
soluble
completely ionize: HCl, HBr, HI, HNO3, H2SO4,All other acids are weak and are written together,
as molecules.
halide 卤化物
potassium iodide KI
hydronium (H3O+)
monoprotic 一元酸
diprotic
polyprotic
amphiprotic
All acids have a conjugate base, which is formed when their proton has been donated; likewise, all
bases have a conjugate acid, formed after they have accepted a proton.
A strong acid or base dissociates or ionizes completely in aqueous solution. A weak acid or base
does not completely ionize.




Hydrohalic acids: HCl, HBr, HI
Nitric acid: HNO3
Sulfuric acid: H2SO4
Perchloric acid: HClO4
In general, the greater the number of oxygen atoms in a polyatomic ion, the stronger the acid.
hydroxides (—OH), oxides of 1A and 2A metals (except Mg and Be), H-, and
strong
base
the stronger the acid, the weaker its conjugate base, and the converse is also true.
autoionization:自电离
2H2O
ion-product constant,离子积常数 is 1
H3O+ + OH-
10-14
Redox 氧化还原 oxidation-reduction reaction
Electrochemistry 电化学
Oxidizing agent (OA)氧化剂
Reducing agent (RA)
Oxidation number: The assigned charge on an atom 价态
Half-reaction 半反应 An equation that shows either oxidation or reduction alone.
peroxide 过氧化物
in metal hydrides, H has an oxidation state of -1.
The half-reaction would look like this: Zn0
Zn2+ + 2eVoltaic (or Galvanic) Cells 伏打电池
anode 阳极
cathode 阴极
salt bridge 盐桥 it may be filled with agar, which contains a neutral salt, or be replaced with a
porous cup.
electron flow always occurs from anode to cathode
electrode 电极
Each half-cell has a known potential, called its standard reduction potential (Eº).
The cell potential is a measure of the difference between the two electrode potentials, and the
potential at each electrode is calculated as the potential for reduction at the electrode. That’s why
they’re standard reduction potentials, not standard oxidation potentials.、
On this reduction potential chart, the elements that have the most positive reduction potentials
are easily reduced and would be good oxidizing agents
Electrolytic Cells 电解池
electroplating 电镀
the voltaic cell is a battery, the electrolytic cell needs a battery.
Also unlike voltaic cells, which are made up of two containers, electrolytic cells have just one
container.However, like in voltaic cells, in electrolytic cells electrons still flow from the anode to
the cathode.
phosphoric acid H3PO4
iron (III) nitrate Fe(NO3)3
Equimolar solutions 等摩尔溶液
a strong Brønsted-Lowry acid will not be a strong Brønsted-Lowry base.
The flow of electrons from anode to cathode takes place through a wire, not the salt bridge. The
salt bridge is present in order to retain electrical neutrality in the cells.
diatomic molecule 二原子分子
tetrahedral 5
trigonal pyramid4
monoprotic acid 单质子酸
titration 滴定
concentration 浓度
nuclei 原子核
isotopes 同位素
one atomic mass unit is equal to amu=1.66054
10-24 g.
A neutron is composed of a proton and an electron fused together
Positron emission 正电子放射
cascade radioactive series.放射性系列
fusion 聚变
fission 裂变
bombard 轰击
quanta 量子
photon 光量子
electromagnetic radiation 电磁辐射
ground state 基态
excited state 激发态
uncertainty principle 不确定性关系
quantum numbers 量子数
if the value of l is 0, it is expressed as s; if l = 1 = p, l = 2 = d, and l = 3 = f.
azimuthal quantum number 角量子数
ml from -l through 0 to l
ms -+1/2
Pauli exclusion principle, no two electrons in an atom can have the same set of four quantum
numbers.
Hund’s rule 洪特法则 the most stable arrangement of electrons is that which allows the
maximum number of unpaired electrons.
The day of the test, as soon as you get your periodic table (which comes in the test booklet), label
the rows as shown in the art above. The number at the top of each of the rows (i.e., 1A, 2A, etc.)
will tell you how many valence electrons each element in that particular row has, which will be
very helpful in determining Lewis dot structures.
Orbital notation 轨道式
metalloid 类金属
cation 阳离子
actinides 锕系元素
lanthanides 镧系
Uranium is the last naturally occurring element; the rest are man-made.
Alkaline earth metals used in batteries
radii 半径
effective nuclear charge of the atom (Zeff)有级效核电荷
anion 阴离子
isoelectronic 等电子体
Ionization Energy (IE)
The ionization energy of an atom is the energy required to remove an electron from the atom in
the gas phase
Which of the following elements has the highest ionization energy: K, Ca, Ga, As, or Se?
As
there is a drop in IE in spite of increasing Zeff due to the increased electron-electron repulsion in
the family that contains oxygen, since they are np4.
electron affinity 电子亲和势 is the amount of energy released when an electron is added to the
atom in its gaseous state
Most often, energy is released as an electron is added to an atom, and the greater the attraction
between the atom and the electron added, the more negative the atom’s electron affinity.
Electron affinities do not change very much as you go down a group
Electronegativity 电负性
octet rule 八隅规律
table salt 食盐
We say that covalent bonds are nonpolar if the electronegativity difference between the two atoms
involved falls between 0 and 0.4
double bonds are shorter than single bonds and triple bonds are shortest of all.
if the central atom is from the third or higher period, it can accommodate more than four electron
pairs since it has d orbitals in which to place them.
form double bonds: only C, N, O, P, S
ozone 臭氧
Resonance structures
trigonal pyramidal 三角锥
sp3d hybridization
trigonal bipyramidal
octahedral molecule
Dipoles are molecules that have a slightly positive charge on one end and a slightly negative
charge on the other
there is an optimum distance, the observed bond distance, at which the total energy is at a
minimum.
sigma (s) bonds are single bonds. They result from the overlap of two s orbitals, an s and a p
orbital, or two head-to-head p orbitals.
sulfur hexafluoride SF6
In general, the ionization energy increases with increasing Zeff, and the same is true for second
ionization energies.
dipole-dipole force 取向力
Dipole-dipole attractions take place when two or more neutral, polar molecules are oriented such
that their positive (+) and negative (-) ends are close to each other.
London dispersion forces 分散力
London forces are relatively weak forces of attraction that exist between nonpolar molecules and
noble gas atoms
octane c8h18
instantaneous dipole formation
polarizability 极化率
This means that larger nonpolar molecules tend to have stronger London dispersion forces
Crystalline solids are those in which the atoms, ions, or molecules that make up the solid exist in
a regular, well-defined arrangement
unit cell 晶胞
Amorphous solids do not have much order in their structures
sucrose 蔗糖
Covalent-network (also called atomic) solids 原子晶体
graphite 石墨
fullerenes 富勒烯
heat of fusion (symbolized Hfus) kJ/mol
Point X represents the critical point, and at the critical point and beyond, the substance is forever
in the vapor phase.
Water and other liquids that have low vapor pressures are said to be nonvolatile
rubbing alcohol 外用酒精
dashed line 虚线
Gases are often discussed in terms of standard temperature and pressure (STP), which means
273K (or 0ºC) and 1 atm.
760 mmHg
760 torr
1.00 atm
101,325 Pa
101.325 kPa
barometer 气压计
Gas pressure = atmospheric pressure - h (height of the mercury)
open-tube manometer
closed-tube manometer the difference in mercury levels (in mmHg) is equal to the pressure in
torr
Boyle’s law
P1V1 = P2V2
Keep in mind that you must use only the Kelvin temperature scale when working with temperature
in all gas law formulas
Charles’s law that you should memorize:
Avogadro’s law Equal volumes of gases under the same conditions of temperature and pressure
contain equal numbers of molecules. 气体同温同压 V1/V2=n1/n2
PV = nRT
where P = pressure (atm), V = volume (L), n = number of moles (mol), R = 0.08206
L · atm/mol · K, and T = temperature (K).
To calculate the density of a gas at standard temperature and pressure, you take the molecular
formula weight of the gas (grams per mole—from the periodic table) and divide that by the
standard molar volume for a gas, which is 22.4 L per mole:
If conditions are not standard, we can use this expanded version of the ideal gas equation:
Another really handy rearrangement of the ideal gas equation can be used to find the molecular
weight of an unknown gas
Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressures Ptotal = P1 + P2 + . . . Pn
Graham’s Law of Diffusion and Effusion Rate 比=M 反比的平方
Graham’s law states that the rates of effusion of two gases are inversely proportional to the square
roots of their molar masses at the same temperature and pressure
The general rule of thumb for solutions is the idea that like dissolves like. Polar, ionic substances
are soluble in polar solvents, while nonpolar solutes are soluble in nonpolar solvents.
carbon tetrachlorideCCL4
colloid 胶体 100 to 1000 nm
Suspension 悬浊液
The process of expansion, for both the solute and solvent, involves a change in the energy of the
system: this process can be either exothermic or endothermic.The separation of the solute
particles from one another prior to dissolving is an endothermic process for both solvent and
solute (steps 1 and 2), but when the solute and solvent combine with each other, this is an
exothermic process (step 3). If the energy released in step 3 is greater than the energy absorbed in
steps 1 and 2（net exothermic）, the solution forms and is stable.
After dissolving, the solute is said to be fully solvated (usually by dipole-dipole or ion-dipole
forces)or hydrated
The more concentrated solution before the dilution is performed is known as the stock solution.
The molality of a solution is a measure of the number of moles of solute per kilogram of
solvent.(mole/solvent's kg)
sodium hydroxide (NaOH)
Certain solutions are capable of conducting an electric current and these solutions are referred to
as electrolytes:acids, bases, and salts
hydrochloric acid HCL and acetic acidHAC
barium chlorideBaCL2
colligative properties 依数性 Properties of solutions that depend on the number of solute particles
present per solvent molecule are called colligative properties including its freezing point, boiling
point, and vapor pressure.
DTf = Kf
where
DTf = the change in freezing point
msolute
i
Kf = molal freezing point depression constant for the substance (for water = 1.86ºC/m)
m = molality of the solution
i = number of ions in solution (this is equal to 1 for covalent compounds and is equal to the
number of ions in solution for ionic compounds)
atmospheric pressure 大气压
DTb = Kb
msolute
i
where
Kb = molal boiling point elevation constant (for water = 0.51˚C/m)
Vapor pressure down, freezing point depression and boiling point elevation.
distilled water 蒸馏水
In group 2A, only barium, strontium, and calcium hydroxides are considered to be strong(Ba Sr
Ca)
Alpha particles are the least penetrating form of radiation: these particles can be stopped by paper,
skin, and clothing.
α<β<γ 穿透性
Leakage 泄漏
As you move across a period on the periodic table, the atoms do not have an increased number of
principal energy levels; therefore shielding stays constant.
石油提取物是什么？沥青,燃料油,石蜡,润滑油--->重油--->柴油-->煤油--->汽油--->石油气
Gases are often discussed in terms of standard temperature and pressure (STP), which means
273K (or 0ºC) and 1 atm.
Boyle’s Law
P1V1 = P2V2
Charles’s Law
As the temperature of the gas increases, the gas molecules will begin to move around more
quickly and hit the walls of their container with more force—thus the volume will increase.
larger nonpolar molecules tend to have stronger London dispersion forces.
Larger molecules have more electrons that can polarize; thus they have a greater chance for more
attractive forces.
Nuclear transmutation is the conversion of one chemical element or isotope into another, which
occurs through nuclear reactions. Natural transmutation occurs when radioactive elements
spontaneously decay over a long period of time and transform into other more stable elements.
Artificial transmutation occurs in machinery that has enough energy to cause changes in the
nuclear structure of the elements. Machines that can cause artificial transmutation include particle
accelerators and tokamak reactors as well as conventional fission power reactors. Nuclear
transmutation is considered as a possible mechanism for reducing the volume and hazard of
radioactive waste.
The strength of the acid formed when each of these hydrogen halides is dissolved in water is
dependent on the size of the molecule and the strength of the bond in the molecule.
Fe(NO3)3 is an acidic salt. In order to be neutral, the salt must have been formed from a strong
acid and a strong base (or from a weak acid/base that have the same Ka/Kb values). Since you
know that nitric acid is a strong acid and Fe(OH)3 is not a very soluble hydroxide (it is a weak
base), the resulting salt must be acidic.
Alpha particles are the least penetrating form of radiation: these particles can be stopped by paper,
skin, and clothing.
Shielding
transmutation decay
Electronegativity is the ability of an atom to attract a shared pair of electrons when a chemical
bond is formed.
Electron affinity is the attraction that an atom has for electrons
The balanced complete ionic equation is
Mg2+(aq) + 2Cl-(aq) + 2Ag+(aq) + 2NO3-(aq) Mg2+(aq) + 2NO3-(aq) + 2AgCl(s) .
Zinc is used to galvanize metals, and galvanization makes metals resistant to oxidation (rusting).
This is a useful process since it does things like make nails or screws suitable for use outdoors.
The definition for enthalpy of formation states that you form one mole of a compound from its
elements in their standard states.
Elements are assigned an enthalpy of formation of zero when in their standard states.
Volume versus temperature
V=y
T=x
vapor pressure
Arrhenius base
When a solute is added to a solvent, the freezing point of the resulting solution is depressed
(lowered) due to the drop in vapor pressure. If the solute ionizes, this effect is even greater, and
the more ions released, the larger the drop in the freezing point.
MATH LEVEL2
抱歉这个看得比较少……
如何使用 CASIO 学生用计算器……（本人认为完全不用 TI 等高级货…中国小孩儿～手绘
快～）
MODE 2SD 统计，
输入方法：A;B
M+ 一组……………………之后 SHIFT 【S-VAR】
standard deviation 标准偏差 Xon-1
其他不用说了
MODE3REG 求回归函数吧……
常用的是 LIN 线性，LOG 对数，QUAD 二次,（废话……）
输入方法 A,B
M+ 一组…………………………之后 SHIFT 【S-VAR】
线性：Y= a+ bX
二次：Y=a+bX+cX2
对数：Y=a+bInX
indirect proof 反证 In an indirect proof of “if p, then q,” you assume the negative of the conclusion
rhombus 菱形
parallelogram 平行四边形
slant height 斜高
pentagon 五边形
挑几个我当时觉得有问题的给大家找找自信……
41.
If
and
, then AB =
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
(E)
You left this question blank. You should have selected B.
Explanation
The number of rows in A equals the number of columns in B. Accordingly
form product matrix AB, multiply each row of B by each column of A,
arranging the six resulting entries in a 3-row, 2-column matrix as follows:
(B row 1)(A col. 1) = (3)(4) + (0)(1) (B row 1)(A col. 2) = (3)(–
= 12
= –9
(B row 2)(A col. 1) = (1)(4) + (5)(1) (B row 2)(A col. 2) = (1)(
=9
=7
(B row 3)(A col. 1) = (–2)(4) +
(4)(1) = –4
Topic:
(B row 3)(A col. 2) = (–2)
(4)(2) = 14
46. What is the
least positive
integer n for
which 2n has 16
digits?
(A) 48
(B) 49
(C) 50
(D) 51
(E) 55
You left this question blank. You should have selected B.
Explanation
Since this problem asks you to solve for n when n is an exponent, you need
to use logarithms in your solution. Your first step, though, should be to set
up an inequality. The smallest positive integer with 16 digits is 1015, since it
is a 1 followed by 15 zeros. Since 2n must be equal to or greater than the
smallest positive 16-digit integer, you can set up the following inequality:
Now take the logarithm of each side:
Apply the power rule of logarithms to the inequality to get:
Thus the least positive integer n is 50.
15. The height of the pyramid in the figure below is three times the height of the box. The area of
the base of the pyramid is half the area of the base of the box. If the volume of the pyramid is V,
what is the volume of the box in terms of V?
(A V
)
(B V
)
(C 2V
)
(D V
)
(E 4V
)
B is not the correct answer. You should have selected C.
Explanation
Let the height of the pyramid be x and the base area of the pyramid be y. So: volume of
the pyramid = 1/3 xy.Then, let the height of the box be p and the base area of the box be
q. The volume of the box is thus pq. From the information given, x = 3p and y= 1/2 q, so
it’s possible to solve for the volume of the box in terms of x and y:
volume of box = pq
=
2y
=
xy
Since V = 1 /3 xy, the volume of the box in terms of V is 2V.
36. A two-sided coin is flipped four times. Given that the coin landed heads up more
than twice, what is the probability that it landed heads up all four times?
(A
)
(B
)
(C
)
(D
)
(E
)
A is not the correct answer. You should have selected C.
Explanation
It is given that the coin landed heads up more than twice—in other words, it
landed heads up either three times or four times. To find the probability that it
landed heads up four times given that it landed heads up more than twice, it
is necessary to divide the probability that it landed heads up four times by the
probability that it landed heads up more than twice, i.e., P(4)/P(>2)= P(4)/P(3)+P(4).
The probability that the coin landed heads up four times out of four tosses is
easy: (1 /2)4 = 1/16. Now the probability that the coin landed heads up three
times is a little more complicated: the first toss could have been tails and the
rest heads, or the second toss could have been tails and the rest heads, and so
on. In all, any of the four tosses could have been the tails toss, with equal
probability, 1 /16. So, the probability that the coin lands heads up exactly three
1/
4
1
times is 4
(4/ 16 + 1 /16) = 1/16
16 = /16. Thus, the answer is /16
5
/ 16 = 1 /5.
Probability
Topic:
40. In an arithmetic sequence, a5 = a10 – 3 and a3 = –2. Between which two
consecutive terms does 0 lie?
(A a4 and a5
)
(B a5 and a6
)
(C a6 and a7
)
(D a7 and a8
)
(E a9 and a10
)
B is not the correct answer. You should have selected C.
Explanation
Because this is an arithmetic sequence, the difference between consecutive terms is
constant. The first step in answering the question is finding this common difference.
By knowing a5 = a10 – 3, set up and solve the equation an+1 – an = 3/10–5 = 0.6. Now
list the terms of the sequence, starting with a3. a3 = –2, a4 = –1.4, a5 = –0.8, a6 = –0.2,
a7 = 0.4, and so on. The question is answered: 0 lies between the sixth and seventh
terms of the sequence.
Topic:
Sequences
49. What is
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
(E)
0
1
–2
4
The limit does not
exist.
?
A is not the correct answer. You should have selected C.
Explanation
Since the denominator of this expression is 0 at x = –2, the
expression is undefined at that value. However, it might still have a
limit. Start by factoring the numerator and denominator to see if
canceling is possible. Factoring the denominator is easy and leads to
3(x + 2). Factoring the numerator gives (x + 2)(4x + 2). Canceling the
(x + 2) out gives 4x+2 /3 . What this means is that this expression is
equivalent to the one given, except that it has the “hole” filled in
where x = –2 was undefined. The new expression is continuous, and
substituting x = –2 gives the desired limit.
=
= –2
Matrix 部分背几个公式足矣，这里不再累述…对于学过的同学更是小菜…
PHYSICS
The velocity of a wave on a string is given by the formula
v=
where T is the tension in the string and
is the linear mass density of the string.
Average velocity is a measure of total displacement over total time.
4 laws of themodynamics
Zeroth Law
If system A is at thermal equilibrium with system B, and B is at thermal equilibrium with system C,
then A is at thermal equilibrium with C.
First Law
Consider an isolated system—that is, one where heat and energy neither enter nor leave the system.
The First Law is just another way of stating the law of conservation of energy. The Second Law
Perhaps the most intuitive formulation of the Second Law is that heat flows spontaneously from a
hotter object to a colder one, but not in the opposite direction.
1Heat flow
2no machine can work at 100% efficiency
3ordered systems are liable to fall into disorder, but disordered systems are not liable to order
themselves spontaneously.
4. time moves in the direction of entropy increase.
Third Law
It is impossible to cool a substance to absolute zero.
The equation for the gravitational potential energy of a planet in orbit is
Angular momentum l=Iw=mvr
moment of inertia of I = mr2
At very short distances, the strong nuclear force pulls protons and neutrons together with a much
stronger force than the repulsion between like charges exercised by the electromagnetic force.
Because of the strong nuclear force, a nucleus has a smaller mass than the sum of the masses of
the individual protons and neutrons that make it up. This discrepancy, or mass defect, is the
amount of matter that is converted into energy when the nucleus is formed, according to Einstein’s
principle of mass-energy equivalence.
The amplitude of the sound wave is related to how loud the sound is, and this is affected by the
medium through which it travels
Convection is a type of motion found in a gas or liquid where there is a temperature difference
between the regions
When making a measurement that involves several different quantities, the resulting measurement
can only be accurate to the number of significant digits of the quantity that has the smallest
number of significant digits.
If the Earth were of perfectly uniform composition, during a descent to the centre of the Earth,
gravity would decrease linearly with distance, reaching zero at the centre.
Heat can flow by conduction, convection, or radiation 传导,对流,辐射
angular momentum, L = mvr,
A dielectric increases the capacitance
sinusoidal wave 正弦曲线
Tungsten filament is just a fancy way of saying tungsten, which has the chemical symbol W.
声波和水波都是纵波，光波和无线电波是横波
Newton’s First Law describes how forces relate to motion:
An object at rest remains at rest, unless acted upon by a net force. An object in motion remains in
motion, unless acted upon by a net force.
Newton’s Second Law:
Newton’s Third Law
To every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction.
Electric field（E）, potential（V）, force（F）
The electric potential of a charge is given by the equation V = kq/r
the potential energy of a charge decreases as work is done on it:
a cyclic process 一个循环过程
Y vs. X
电磁感应
V = El = vBl
yank 拉
solenoid 螺线管
A positively or negatively charged ion is still an atom, even though there are more or fewer
electrons than there are protons.
The number of protons in an atom plus the number of neutrons in that atom gives the mass
number of that atom.
When a wave pulse hits a wall, it will bounce back inverted. The wavelength of the wave depends
on the linear mass density and tension of the string, neither of which are affected by the wave
bouncing off the wall, so the wavelength will remain constant.
When reporting a measurement, the last digit is always uncertain, and can be off by as much as
one-half the value of the second to last digit.2.16 2.15~2.21
v=
opposite currents repel one another
It turns out that there is a linear relationship between the value of g and the value of R between the
surface of the Earth and the center of the Earth,
Inserting a dielectric into a capacitor reduces the electric field between the plates. The electrons in
the dielectric are attracted to the positive plate, and create their own electric field in the dielectric.
This field opposes the original field in the capacitor, and the overall electric field is reduced. Since
potential difference is directly proportional to the strength of the electric field, it also decreases.
Convection is a type of motion found in a gas or liquid where there is a temperature difference
between the regions.An exchange of heat between warmer and cooler regions in a gas or liquid
Center of mass
The equation for the gravitational potential energy of a planet in orbit is
Aurora Borealis 北极光
V1/V2=N1/N2 transofrmer
reverse 颠倒
retardation 延迟
Monochromatic 单色的
Continuous 连续的
Line absorption 吸收光谱
Line spectra 发射光谱
Polarimeter 偏振器
the person willbe weightless at the center of the earth because r = 0, and all the
mass of the earth is attracting the person from outside the center
The analysis is exactly the same as in the double-slit case: there are still maxima at d
sin = n and minima at d sin
= (n + 1/2) .
copper have high thermal conductivities and conduct heat readily
任世豪 Rex Ren © All rights reserved