Socialization and Human Learning
3.3 investigate the relationship between socialization and the process of human learning
Examine various theories of human learning

Piagetʼs Cognitive Development Theory

Erikson`s Psychological Development

Kohlbergʼs Moral Development Theory

Gilliganʼs Theory on Gender and Moral Development
Piagetʼs Cognitive Development Theory
Stage 1: Sensorimotor stage (birth to age 2)
 − Understand through sensory contact and
immediate action
 − Cannot engage in symbolic thought or use language
 − Gradually comprehend object permanence
Stage 2: Preoperational stage (ages 2 to 7)
 − Begin to use words as mental symbols
 − Limited in ability to use logic to solve problems or realize physical objects may
change but retain physical properties
Stage 3: Concrete operational stage (ages 7 to 11)
 − Think in terms of tangible objects and actual events
 − Can draw conclusions about likely physical consequences
 − Begin to take the role of others (empathy starts)
Stage 4: Formal operational stage (age 12 through adolescence)
 − Potential to engage in highly abstract thoughts and understand places, things, and
event never seen
 − Think about the future and evaluate options
Kohlberg – Stages of Moral Development
- Preconventional level (ages 7-10):

Perception based on punishment and obedience

Evil behaviour is likely to be punished

Good conduct based on avoidance of unwanted consequences
- Conventional level (age 10 through adulthood)

Concerned about how they are perceived and how one conforms to rules
- Postconventional level (few adults read this stage)


View morality in terms of individual rights
Moral conduct is judged by principles based on human rights that transcend
government and laws
Gilliganʼs Theory on Gender and Moral Development
Stage 1: Women are motivated primarily by selfish concerns (“This is what I want ... this is
what I need.”
Stage 2: She increasingly recognizes her responsibility to others
Stage 3: She makes her decision based on her desire to do the greatest good for both herself
and for others.
Men are socialized to make moral decisions based on a justice perspective (“What is the
fairest to do?”), while women are socialized to make such decisions on a responsibility and
care perspective (“Who will be hurt least?”)
Erikson`s Psychological Development
 Stage 1: Trust vs. Mistrust (birth to 1)
 Stage 2: Autonomy vs. Shame and doubt (ages 1-3)
 Stage 3: Initiative vs. Guilt (ages 3-5)
 Stage 4: Industry vs. Inferiority (ages 6-11)
 Stage 5: Identity vs. Role confusion (ages 12-18)
 Stage 6: Intimacy vs. Isolation (ages 18-35)
 Stage 7: Generativity vs. Self-absorption (ages 35-55)
 Stage 8: Integrity vs. Despair (maturity and old age)
Evaluation of Piaget
(+) Useful insights into childrenʼs logical thinking and how they invent/construct the rules that
govern their understanding
Asserts that children move from being totally influenced by external factors to being more
autonomous
(-) critics point out Piaget fails to address individual differences, including how gender or
culture may influence beliefs and actions
Evaluation of Kohlberg
(+) present interesting ideas about the moral judgments of children
(-) critics challenge the universality of his stages of moral development
(-) critics suggest the elaborate “moral dilemmas” he used are too abstract for children. When
questions are made simpler, or when children are observed in natural settings, they often
demonstrate sophisticated levels of moral reasoning
Evaluation of Gilligan
(+) Subsequent research comparing womenʼs and menʼs reasoning about moral dilemmas
has support some of Gilliganʼs assertions
(-) Some research has not supported Gilliganʼs assertions. Some researchers have not found
women to be more compassionate than men.
(+) Gilliganʼs argument that people make moral decisions according to both abstract principles
of justice and principles of compassion and care contributes to our knowledge about moral
reasoning.
Evaluation of Erikson
(+) The eight stages broaden the framework of Freudʼs theory by focusing on social and
cultural forces and by examining development throughout the life course.
(+) The psychosocial approach encompasses the conflicts that coincide with major changes in
a personʼs social environment and describes how satisfactory resolution of these conflicts
results in positive development.
(-) Critics point out that his research was limited to white, middle-class respondents from
industrial societies.
(+) Other scholars have used his theoretical framework to examine ethnic variations in the
process of phychosocial development. Most conclude that all children face the same
developmental tasks.
(-) But children of colour often have greater difficulty in obtaining a positive outcome because
of experiences with racial prejudice/discrimination.
Establishing identity is difficult for most adolescents, especially those who experience stress
related to conflicting value systems and lifestyles.