A4: Th e Road to War in Europe, 1870 to 1914
The Alliance System
Why did Prussia win the Franc-Prussian War?

Bismarck changed the wording of the Ems telegram sent by King Wilhelm I to the
French ambassador to make it appear as if the ambassador had been insulted.

The French government was forced to declare war.

The Prussian railway network enabled troops to reach the border as quickly as
possible.

The French army was no match for the Prussians. The Prussian army had fought two
wars in the previous six years.

The Prussian Dreyse rifle was far more efficient than the French rifle.
What were the terms of the Treaty of Frankfurt?

France had to agree to hand over the provinces of Alsace-Lorraine. These included
the cities of Strasbourg and Metz and contained valuable agricultural land and iron
ore fields.

France had to pay an indemnity of 5,000,000,000 francs to Germany and some areas
of northern France were to be occupied by the German army until the sum was
handed over.

A triumphal parade of the German troops was held in Paris on 1 March 1871.
What were the effects of the Franco-Prussian War?

The German Empire was created. Bismarck emerged as a hero and chancellor of the
Empire was secure. The south German states all agreed to join the German Empire.

Germany was now the most powerful country in Europe. The German army had
proved itself invincible.

Bismarck feared the French desire for revenge.

His aim was to ensure that Germany always had plenty of allies, while France
remained isolated.

So Bismarck set himself the task of trying to ensure that France could never be a
threat to Germany. He did this by creating the Alliance System.
How did Bismarck try to keep on good terms with Russia?

Bismarck wanted avoid at all the costs the possibility of a war on two fronts.

For the next twenty years, Bismarck tried to ensure that France and Russia would
never form an alliance and that Russia would always be linked to Germany in one
way or another.

In 1873 the DreiKaiserBund (League of Three Emperors) was signed by the
Emperors of Germany and Austria-Hungary and the Tsar of Russia.

The three great powers of central and eastern Europe were now linked in a loose
agreement, which was intended to maintain the status quo.
Why did the DreiKaiserBund not work?

But it was only a vague agreement rather than a formal alliance, but it also involved
two countries that were rivals for influence in the Balkans.

Russia wanted to extend its empire south towards the Mediterranean, and, when that
proved impossible, to protect the Slav peoples in the Balkans.

The Austrians wanted to extend their empire into the Balkans, and that meant
occupying Bosnia-Herzegovina, where the majority of the population was Serb.

In 1877 Russia declared war on Turkey in 1877 and then tried to create a ‘Big
Bulgaria’ at the Treaty of San Stefano in 1878. What could Bismarck do to keep the
peace between the two Great Powers?
Why were the Congress and Treaty of Berlin important?

After the Treaty of San Stefano between Russia and Turkey, Bismarck stepped in as
an ‘honest broker’.

Bismarck wanted to try to make sure that both Austria and Russia remained allies of
Germany.

He invited the Great Powers to Berlin to try to sort out the problem.

Russia agreed to Bulgaria being split up into three parts. The southern part remained
under Turkish rule. Roumelia became independent and the remainder became the new
state of Bulgaria.

Russia retained southern Bessarabia and Austria retained control of Bosnia and
Herzegovina
Why was the Treaty of Berlin unpopular in Russia?

Bulgaria had been split up.

Bismarck had appeared to support Austria against Russia.

To keep the situation under control Bismarck signed the Dual Alliance (with Austria)
in 1879.
Why did Bismarck sign the Second DreiKaiserBund?

The Treaty of Berlin and the Dual Alliance isolated Russia.

The Second DreiKaiserBund contained a series of clauses which attempted to bind
the three empires together.

In the case of one of the three empires being attacked by a fourth power, the other two
powers would remain neutral.

Russia agreed to respect the interests of Austria-Hungary arising from her new
position in the Balkans as set out in the Treaty of Berlin.

Austria also reserved the right to annex Bosnia and Herzegovina in the future.

The Second DreiKaiserBund was renewed in 1884, but in 1887 Russia refused to sign
because of events in Bulgaria.
Why did Bismarck sign the Mediterranean Agreements and the Reinsurance
Treaty?

He wanted to prevent Russia and France drawing closer together.

In March 1887 Bismarck formed the First Mediterranean Agreement with Britain,
Italy and Austria.

The Royal Navy would protect Italy if France attacked, and Italy would support
Britain if France interfered in Egypt.

The Reinsurance Treaty was designed to prevent Russia forming an alliance with
France.

The Second Mediterranean Agreement was signed in December 1887, Germany,
Italy, Austria and Britain agreed to support Turkey if it was attacked by Russia.

The two Mediterranean Agreements were desperate attempts by Bismarck to protect
Germany if France and Russia formed an alliance.
Why was the resignation of Bismarck important?

The Reinsurance Treaty was not renewed.

The alliances that Bismarck had created now had the effect of dividing Europe into
two armed camps.

The Alliance System, which Bismarck had so carefully created and maintained, fell
apart.
The creation of the Triple Alliance

In 1879 Bismarck signed the Dual Alliance between Germany and Austria-Hungary.

The Dual Alliance became the most important part of Bismarck’s attempts to give
Germany security. It was clearly aimed at Russia.

In 1882 the Dual Alliance was extended to become the Triple Alliance with the
inclusion of Italy.

Austria and Germany promised to support Italy if it was attacked by France.

If any one of Austria, Germany and Italy was attacked by two or more countries, the
others would support it.

The first clause was obviously a threat to France and the second was a warning
against a possible alliance between France and Russia.

The Triple Alliance was renewed in 1887, 1891, 1902 and 1912 and it became one of
the alliances by which the great powers of Europe were divided into two armed
camps by 1914.
The creation of the Triple Entente

In the 1890s relations between Russia and France grew much closer.

In 1892 there was a military agreement between the two countries.

The Dual Entente was signed in 1894. The Entente was a defensive agreement like
the Triple Alliance.

Russia agreed to support France if it was attacked by Germany, or by Italy supported
by Germany. France agreed to support Russia if it was attacked by Germany or
Austria supported by Germany.

The Dual Entente created possibility of a war on two fronts, with Germany caught
between the armies of France and Russia.

In 1904 Britain and France signed The Entente Cordiale, the ‘friendly agreement’.

The Entente led subsequently to discussions on naval issues. The two navies agreed to
divide responsibility for European waters. In 1912 the British navy withdrew its
forces from the Mediterranean and the French navy withdrew its forces from the
Channel.

In 1907 Britain signed an Entente with Russia. This helped to create the Triple
Entente.

The Triple Entente did not commit Britain to defend or support the other two powers,
but it did make British support for them much more likely in the event of war.

Europe was now divided into two armed camps, each made up of three powers and
each with a series of built in clauses, which involved automatic and immediate
military action. The stage was now set for a showdown, should the situation arise.
International Rivalry
What was Weltpolitik?

Kaiser Wilhelm II wanted to increase Germany's prestige both in Europe and abroad
and this ran the risk of making enemies.

Wilhelm wanted to expand the German Empire in Africa and the German navy.
Wilhelm wanted to challenge France and Britain.

In 1890 Wilhelm refused to renew the Reinsurance Treaty and this decision helped to
bring about the Dual Entente which was signed in 1894.

In 1896 Wilhelm began to use the term ‘Weltpolitik’, meaning world policy.
Germany would be taking part a full part in international affairs.

The ‘Drang nach Osten’ suggested that Germany was going to expand in an easterly
direction.

A scheme for a Berlin to Baghdad railway appeared to threaten Britain’s influence in
the Middle East and Asia

Wilhelm also demanded a ‘Place in the Sun’ for Germany, which suggested that he
wanted to expand the German Empire in Africa and other parts of the world.

The significance of these changes in policy was more to do with what might happen
than what actually did happen

The British suspected that the Kaiser and Germany were up to something and did not
know what.

In December 1895 Cecil Rhodes sent a raiding party into the Transvaal in the belief
that an uprising was about to take place.

In January 1896 the Kaiser sent a telegram to President Kruger congratulating him on
defeating the Jameson Raid. This did not go down well in Britain.
Why were the German Navy Laws important?

These laid out plans to build a navy to challenge the Royal Navy over a period of
twenty years.

In 1898, the First Navy Law announced that Germany would build a fleet strong
enough to combat the strongest navy in the world.

In 1900 the Second Navy Law provided for a fleet of thirty-eight battleships to be
built in the next twenty years.

The British government believed that the Germans were planning to challenge
Britain’s command of the seas.

If the Germans began to build a larger navy, Britain would have to respond and build
more ships.

The Germans also announced the building of the Kiel Canal. This would link the
Baltic with the North Sea and would allow German warships to sail from the Baltic to
the North Sea.

From 1902 Britain began to build battleships to stop the Germans getting a lead.

In 1906 the British launched HMS Dreadnought, a battleship which made all existing
battleships obsolete. It carried ten twelve-inch guns and had a top speed of twentyone knots.

The German navy replied by building ‘Dreadnoughts’ of its own and a Naval Arms
Race began.
What was the Naval Arms Race?

From 1906 to 1914 the British built twenty-nine Dreadnoughts and the Germans built
seventeen.

By 1914 the ships carried fifteen-inch guns and their oil-fired turbine engines could
reach a top speed of twenty-five knots.

A Navy League was formed to campaign for more and more ships.

The German government failed to build the ships that had been planned in 1900
because the cost was simply too great.
What effects did the Naval Arms Race have?

It helped to create the impression that the two countries were bitter enemies, when in
fact relations were getting better.

In Britain there were newspaper campaigns that described the Germans as barbarians.

Books were published giving accounts of German invasions of Britain.
What effects did the Moroccan Crises have?

In March 1905 Kaiser Wilhelm visited Morocco, which had been under French
influence.

At Tangier the Kaiser made a speech in which he spoke in favour of an ‘open door’
policy in Africa.

The visit was an attempt by the German government to see how strong the Entente
Cordiale between Britain and France really was.

The German government accepted an invitation from the Sultan of Morocco to an
international conference. This seemed to make the crisis even worse.

In January 1906, the great powers of Europe met at the Algeciras Conference and
decided that France would have control of Morocco. Germany opposed the decision,
but had to accept it.

On 1 July 1911 a German gunboat, the ‘Panther’, arrived at Agadir. The German
government claimed that it had been sent to protect Germans and their property.

David Lloyd George accused the Germans of stirring up trouble and threatened
retaliation. In the next few months Britain began to prepare for war with Germany.

After several months of negotiation, the French and German governments reached
agreement in November 1911.

Germany agreed to allow France a free hand in Morocco and the French handed over
some land in Central Africa.

Relations between Germany and Britain and France began to improve and the threat
of war died down.

But as far as most British people were concerned, Britain and Germany were natural
enemies. But that was soon to change.
Why did war break out in July-August 1914?

The assassination of the Arch Duke Franz Ferdinand on 28 June 1914 suddenly
brought all of the existing rivalries to a head.

The Austrian ultimatum to Serbia was not sent until 23 July, by which time many
people had assumed that the assassination had been forgotten

The Austrians tried to stop Russian involvement by promising not to take any Serb
territory.

Britain called for an international conference to settle the matter.

Wilhelm II tried to stop the Austrians from attacking Serbia.

Russia mobilised its army on 29 July and Germany followed suit on 1 August,
declaring war on Russia on the same day.

On 2 August the German army invaded Luxembourg and then demanded the right to
pass through Belgium.

The Belgian government refused permission. On 3 August Germany declared war on
France and invaded Belgium.
What was the Schlieffen Plan?

The Schlieffen Plan was designed to cope with a war on two fronts, that is an attack
on Germany by both France and Russia.

The plan was intended to knock out France before the Russian army had had a chance
to mobilise.

It was assumed that the Russian army would prove much more difficult nut to crack.

The Schlieffen Plan involved an attack through Belgium. The German armies would
surround Paris and then attack the French from the rear.

Schlieffen assumed that when war broke out the French would immediately attack
across the border into Alsace and Lorraine.

The main plan of the French army, Plan 17, was based on an attack into AlsaceLorraine. So by the beginning of 1914 the armies of France and Germany were both
prepared for the conflict that was about to take place.
What effects did the Schlieffen Plan have?

Belgium was a neutral country and its neutrality had been guaranteed by two powers,
Britain and Prussia. The Belgian government immediately appealed to Britain for
help.

On 4 August Britain declared war on Germany.
Why was it impossible to prevent the outbreak of war in 1914?

There were a number of attempts to stop the war. The Kaiser, Tsar Nicholas II, the
British and French governments all tried to halt the process of mobilisations and
declarations. But they all failed.

The assassination of Franz Ferdinand released all the suspicions and fears that had
been bottled up for the previous forty years. The speed at which events took place
took people by surprise.

The Austrians resisted attempts to settle the dispute at a conference because they felt
that having presented the ultimatum to Serbia, they simply had to see the matter
through.

There was a general belief that the war would be short and glorious. In all European
capitals news of the outbreak of war was greeted with great enthusiasm.
B3: The Balkans, 1876 to 1914
What were the aims of Russia and Austria in the Balkans?

The collapse of Turkey created a power vacuum, of which both Russia and the
Austrian Empire tried to take advantage.

Austria wanted to extend its influence to the south and, if possible, gain an outlet to
the Mediterranean.

Russia wanted to gain control of the Straits, the entrance to the Black Sea, which
would enable its navy to sail into the Mediterranean.

The most powerful state in the Balkans was Serbia. The Serbs shared a common
language, alphabet and Orthodox religion with Russia.

Russia believed that it was the natural leader of the Slavs and wanted to protect them
against the other countries of Europe. Russia wanted to increase its influence in
Bulgaria and also protect Serbia.

The Austrian government referred to the Serbs as the South Slavs and was determined
to prevent Serbia expanding in the Balkans.

Austria wanted to take possession of Bosnia and Herzegovina, but the population was
mostly Serb. This caused conflict with Serbia.
Why was there a crisis over Bosnia and Herzegovina 1878-85?

In 1876 Serbia and Montenegro went to war with Turkey. The war ended in total
defeat for the Serbs and the Montenegrins.

In 1877 Russia declared war on Turkey and forced the Turkish government to make
peace the following year at the Treaty of San Stefano, which created the ‘Big
Bulgaria’.

There were immediate protests because Austria and Britain and Bismarck offered to
hold a congress in Berlin to sort out the problems.

The Treaty of Berlin split Bulgaria into three parts. Bosnia and Herzegovina were
given to Austria.

In 1886 Bulgaria took control of Eastern Roumelia. The Russian government was
furious, but did nothing. From 1887 Russia and France grew closer together and
signed the Dual Entente in 1894.
Why was there a crisis over Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1908?

Bosnia and Herzegovina lay between the Austrian Empire and Serbia. Both Austria
and Serbia wanted to absorb Bosnia.

Serbia wanted to enlarge its territory, Austria wanted to expand south. In October
1908 Bosnia and Herzegovina were annexed and became part of the AustroHungarian Empire.

The Serbian government was furious. The population of the area was two-thirds Serb,
but there was little that the government could do about it.
Why did Serbia expand from 1908-14?

When Bosnia and Herzegovina were annexed by Austria in 1908, the Serbs were
horrified.

The Serbs tried to organise an alliance involving Turkey and Greece and attack
Austria.
The Serb government had to accept the annexation and peace was restored for the
time being at least.


Inside Serbia a secret society ‘Narodna Obrana’ was set up, which included generals
and politicians among its members. This organisation was a front for the Black Hand,
a terrorist group, which began to assassinate Austrian officials.

From 1908 the Austrians were looking for an excuse to crush Serbia and the Serbs
were looking for a way to reclaim Bosnia and Herzegovina, which they believed was
rightfully theirs.

In March 1912 Serbia, Bulgaria, Greece and Montenegro formed the Balkan League.

War broke out in October 1912 between the League and Turkey and ended with
complete victory for the League.

Serbia became much bigger by making gains from Turkey, but did not gain access to
the sea.

In June 1913 a Second Balkan War broke out when Bulgaria attacked Serbia and
Greece for refusing to hand over parts of Macedonia.

The war ended in August with even more land in Serb hands. Serbia had now doubled
its geographical size and its population had grown by 50 per cent. It could now put an
army of 400,000 men into the field.

The Austrian government realised that Serbia would have to be dealt with sooner or
later and that the longer the delay, the stronger Serbia would become.

But if Austria was to deal with Serbia somehow or other Russia would have to be
prevented from declaring war.
What happened in Sarajevo?

On 28 June 1914 the Archduke Franz Ferdinand, the heir to the Austrian throne, was
to make an official visit to Sarajevo, the capital of Bosnia.

Waiting for him were seven members of the Black Hand Gang, Serbian students who
were determined to kill him.

Pasic, the Serbian prime minister, had warned the Austrian government about the
likelihood of an attack on the archduke.

The Austrian government had made virtually no effort to increase security in
Sarajevo. Although there were 30,000 Austrian troops outside of Sarajevo, only 130
policemen were on duty in the city on the day.

The Archduke arrived at Sarajevo by train and was met at the station by the Governor
of Bosnia.

He was driven out of the station in an open-topped car to the town hall for an official
welcome.

On Appel Quay Nedjelko Cabrinovic stepped forward and threw his bomb. He
missed, and it exploded behind the Archduke's car.

Princip watched the car speed past him believing all was lost.

At the Town Hall, the Archduke's party decided to change the route and go straight
back along Appel Quay. But no one remembered to tell the Archduke’s driver of the
change of plan.

On Appel Quay, the driver turned right according to the original plan. He was told to
stop.

Princip was standing there. He pulled the gun from his pocket and fired two shots,
without even taking aim. One hit the Archduke and the other hit his wife, they both
died.
Why did the murder of the Archduke Franz Ferdinand lead to an international
crisis?

On 5 July the Emperor Franz Joseph wrote to Kaiser Wilhelm asking for his support
in a war against Serbia.

The Kaiser’s reply to Franz Joseph contained the famous ‘blank cheque’ in which he
promised that Germany would support Austria in every way.

The Kaiser’s reply to Franz Joseph’s letter seems to have been based on a complete
misunderstanding of the seriousness of the situation.

The Austrian government took no action for almost four weeks after the
assassination. Then on 23 July, the Austrian government presented an ultimatum to
Serbia.

The ultimatum was also intended to be unacceptable. In fact Pasic, the Serb Prime
Minister, he accepted almost all of the twenty or so conditions.

But he rejected one, that Austrian police and troops be allowed into Serbia to search
for anyone involved in the so-called plot.