Chapter 7 - Motivation
What Is Motivation?
 Define motivation.
 Explain the energy, direction, and persistence aspects of motivation.
Motivation is the process by which a person’s efforts are energized, directed, and
sustained towards attaining a goal. The energy element is a measure of intensity or drive.
The effort needs to be channeled in a direction that benefits the organization. Finally,
motivation includes a persistence dimension in that employees need to persist in putting
forth effort to achieve goals.
Early Theories of Motivation
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Describe Maslow’s hierarchy of needs and how it can be used to motivate.
Discuss how Theory X and Theory Y managers approach motivation.
Describe Herzberg’s motivation-hygiene theory.
Explain Herzberg’s views of satisfaction and dissatisfaction.
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs proposes that there are five need levels
(physiological, safety, social, esteem, and self-actualization) arranged in a hierarchy.
Once a need level has been generally satisfied, it no longer serves to motivate behavior.
(See Exhibit 16-1.)
According to McGregor, a Theory X manager assumes that people don’t like to
work and must be threatened, forced, and directed to work. A Theory Y manager assumes
that people like to work and exercise self-direction.
Herzberg’s motivation-hygiene (two-factor) theory proposes that the hygiene
factors (those associated with job context) keep people from being dissatisfied, but don’t
motivate. The motivators (those job factors associated with job content) are the ones that
motivate employees. (See Exhibit 16-2.)
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Herzberg viewed satisfaction and dissatisfaction as two separate concepts. (See
Exhibit 16-3.) Those factors that led to job satisfaction and job dissatisfaction were
separate and distinct.
Contemporary Theories of Motivation
 Describe the three needs McClelland proposed as being present in work settings.
 Explain how goal-setting and reinforcement theories explain employee
motivation.
 Describe the job characteristics model as a way to design motivating jobs.
 Discuss the motivation implications of equity theory.
 Contrast distributive justice and procedural justice.
 Explain the three key linkages in expectancy theory and their role in motivation.
McClelland’s three needs were the need for achievement (the drive to excel,
achieve, and succeed), the need for affiliation (the desire for friendly and close
interpersonal relationships), and the need for power (the need to make others behave in a
way they would not have behaved otherwise).
Intention to work towards a goal is a major source of job motivation. Goal-setting
theory says that specific goals increase performance and that difficult goals, when
accepted, result in higher performance than do easy goals. (See Exhibit 16-5.)
Reinforcement theory says that behavior is a function of its consequences. Behavior that
is reinforced is likely to be repeated.
The Job Characteristics Model (JCM) describes jobs in terms of five core job
dimensions: skill variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy, and feedback. When
these dimensions are designed into a job, positive personal and work outcomes will
result. (See Exhibits 16-6 and 16-7.)
Equity theory proposes that employees compare their outcomes/inputs ratio to
others to see if there is equity. (See Exhibit 16-8.) If they perceive that inequity exists,
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they will do something about it. In addition, employee motivation is influenced
significantly by relative rewards and absolute rewards.
Distributive justice is the perceived fairness of the amount and allocation of
rewards among individuals. Procedural justice is the perceived fairness of the process
used to determine the distribution of rewards.
Expectancy theory proposes that individual effort leads to individual performance
which leads to organizational rewards which influence individual goals. (See Exhibit 169.) The theory proposes that an individual tends to act in a certain way based on the
expectation that the act will be followed by a given outcome and on the attractiveness of
that outcome. The three key linkages are effort-performance (expectancy or the
probability that a given amount of effort will lead to a certain level of performance);
performance-reward (instrumentality or the degree to which the individual believes
performing at that level is instrumental in attaining the desired outcome); and rewardgoal (valence or attractiveness of the reward or how important that reward is to the
person).
Current Issues in Motivation
 Describe the cross-cultural challenges of motivation.
 Discuss the challenges managers face in motivating unique groups of workers.
 Describe open-book management, employee recognition, pay-for-performance,
and stock option programs.
The cross-cultural challenges of motivation have to do with whether the
motivation theories are appropriate for that culture.
Employees differ in their motivational requirements. Managers must deal with
groups such as: a diverse workforce (the key is flexibility); professionals (the key is
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time work or education/training); and low-skilled, minimum wage workers (the key is
using employee recognition programs).
Open-book management is sharing financial information (opening up “the
books”) so employees can see how their work affects the financials. Employee
recognition programs are motivational programs consisting of personal attention and
expressing appreciation for a job well done. Pay-for-performance programs are variable
compensation plans that pay employees on the basis of some performance measure. Stock
options are financial instruments that give employees the right to purchase shares of stock
at a set price.
Chapter 7 – Key Terms
motivation
The process by which a person’s efforts are
energized, directed, and sustained towards attaining
a goal.
hierarchy of needs theory
Maslow’s theory that there is a hierarchy of five
human needs: physiological, safety, social, esteem,
and self-actualization.
physiological needs
A person’s needs for food, drink, shelter, sexual
satisfaction, and other physical needs.
safety needs
A person’s needs for security and protection from
physical and emotional harm.
social needs
A person’s needs for affection, belongingness,
acceptance, and friendship.
esteem needs
A person’s needs for internal factors such as selfrespect, autonomy, and achievement, and external
factors such as status, recognition, and attention.
self-actualization needs
A person’s need to become what he or she is
capable of becoming.
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Theory X
The assumption that employees dislike work, are
lazy, avoid responsibility, and must be coerced to
perform.
Theory Y
The assumption that employees are creative, enjoy
work, seek responsibility, and can exercise selfdirection.
motivation-hygiene theory
The motivation theory that intrinsic factors are
related to job satisfaction and motivation, whereas
extrinsic factors are associated with job
dissatisfaction.
hygiene factors
Factors that eliminate job dissatisfaction, but don’t
motivate.
motivators
Factors that increase job satisfaction and
motivation.
three-needs theory
The motivation theory that says three acquired (not
innate) needs—achievement, power, and
affiliation—are major motives in work.
need for achievement (nAch)
The drive to excel, to achieve in relation to a set of
standards, and to strive to succeed.
need for power (nPow)
The need to make others behave in a way that they
would not have behaved otherwise.
need for affiliation (nAff)
The desire for friendly and close interpersonal
relationships.
goal-setting theory
The proposition that specific goals increase
performance and that difficult goals, when accepted,
result in higher performance than do easy goals.
self-efficacy
An individual’s belief that he or she is capable of
performing a task.
reinforcement theory
The theory that behavior is a function of its
consequences.
reinforcers
Consequences immediately following a behavior
that increase the probability that the behavior will
be repeated.
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job design
The way tasks are combined to form complete jobs.
job scope
The number of different tasks required in a job and
the frequency with which those tasks are repeated.
job enlargement
The horizontal expansion of a job by increasing job
scope.
job enrichment
The vertical expansion of a job by adding planning
and evaluating responsibilities.
job depth
The degree of control employees have over their
work.
job characteristics model (JCM)
A framework for analyzing and designing jobs that
identifies five primary job characteristics, their
interrelationships, and their impact on outcomes.
skill variety
The degree to which a job requires a variety of
activities so that an employee can use a number of
different skills and talents.
task identity
The degree to which a job requires completion of a
whole and identifiable piece of work.
task significance
The degree to which a job has a substantial impact
on the lives or work of other people.
autonomy
The degree to which a job provides substantial
freedom, independence, and discretion to the
individual in scheduling work and determining the
procedures to be used in carrying it out.
feedback
The degree to which carrying out work activities
required by a job results in the individual’s
obtaining direct and clear information about his or
her performance effectiveness.
equity theory
The theory that an employee compares his or her
job’s input-outcomes ratio with that of relevant
others and then corrects any inequity.
referents
The persons, systems, or selves against which
individuals compare themselves to assess equity.
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distributive justice
Perceived fairness of the amount and allocation of
rewards among individuals.
procedural justice
Perceived fairness of the process used to determine
the distribution of rewards.
expectancy theory
The theory that an individual tends to act in a
certain way based on the expectation that the act
will be followed by a given outcome and on the
attractiveness of that outcome to the individual.
compressed workweek
A workweek where employees work longer hours
per day but fewer days per week.
flexible work hours (flextime)
A scheduling system in which employees are
required to work a certain number of hours per
week, but are free, within limits, to vary the hours
of work.
job sharing
The practice of having two or more people split a
full-time job.
telecommuting
A job approach where employees work at home and
are linked to the workplace by computer and
modem.
open-book management
A motivational approach in which an organization’s
financial statements (the “books”) are shared with
all employees.
employee recognition programs
Personal attention and expressing interest, approval,
and appreciation for a job well done
pay-for-performance programs
Variable compensation plans that pay employees on
the basis of some performance measure.
stock options
Financial instruments that give employees the right
to purchase shares.
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