This page was copied from Nick Strobel's Astronomy Notes. Go to his site at www.astronomynotes.com
for the updated and corrected version.
Kepler's Laws of Planetary Motion
Johaness Kepler (lived 1571--1630 C.E.) was hired by
Tycho Brahe to work out the mathematical details of
Tycho's version of the geocentric universe. Kepler was
a religious individualist. He did not go along with the
Roman Catholic Church or the Lutherans. He had an
ardent mystical neoplatonic faith. He wanted to work
with the best observational data available because he
felt that even the most elegant, mathematicallyharmonious theories must match reality. Kepler was
motivated by his faith in God to try to discover God's
plan in the universe---to ``read the mind of God.''
Kepler shared the Greek view that mathematics was
the language of God. He knew that all previous models
were inaccurate, so he believed that other scientists had
not yet ``read the mind of God.''
Since an infinite number of models are possible, he had to choose one as a starting point.
Although he was hired by Tycho to work on Tycho's geocentric model, Kepler did not
believe in either Tycho's model or Ptolemy's model (he thought Ptolemy's model was
mathematically ugly). His neoplatonic faith led him to choose Copernicus' heliocentric
model over his employer's model
Kepler tried to refine Copernicus' model. After years of failure, he was finally convinced
with great reluctance of an revolutionary idea: God uses a different mathematical shape
than the circle. This idea went against the 2,000 year-old Pythagorean paradigm of the
perfect shape being a circle! Kepler had a hard time convincing himself that planet orbits
are not circles and his contemporaries, including the great scientist Galileo, disagreed
with Kepler's conclusion. He discovered that planetary orbits are ellipses with the Sun at
one focus. This is now known as Kepler's 1st law.
This page was copied from Nick Strobel's Astronomy Notes. Go to his site at www.astronomynotes.com
for the updated and corrected version.
An ellipse is a squashed circle that can be drawn by punching two thumb tacks into some
paper, looping a string around the tacks, stretching the string with a pencil, and moving
the pencil around the tacks while keeping the string taut. The figure traced out is an
ellipse and the thumb tacks are at the two foci of the ellipse. An oval shape (like an egg)
is not an ellipse: an oval tapers at one end, but an ellipse is tapered at both ends (Kepler
had tried oval shapes but he found they did not work).
There are some terms I will use frequently in the rest of this book that are used in
discussing any sort of orbit. Here is a list of definitions:
1. Major axis---the length of the longest dimension of an ellipse.
2. Semi-major axis---one half of the major axis and equal to the distance from the
center of the ellipse to one end of the ellipse. It is also the average distance of a
planet from the Sun at one focus.
3. Minor axis---the length of the shortest dimension of an ellipse.
4. Perihelion---point on a planet's orbit that is closest to the Sun. It is on the major
axis.
5. Aphelion---point on a planet orbit that is farthest from the Sun. It is on the major
axis directly opposite the perihelion point. The aphelion + perihelion = the major
axis.
6. Focus---one of two special points along the major axis such that the distance
between it and any point on the ellipse + the distance between the other focus and
the same point on the ellipse is always the same value. The Sun is at one of the
two foci (nothing is at the other one). The Sun is NOT at the center of the orbit!
As the foci are moved farther apart from each other, the ellipse becomes more
eccentric (skinnier). See the figure below. A circle is a special form of an ellipse
that has the two foci at the same point (the center of the ellipse).
7. The eccentricity (e) of an ellipse is a number that quantifies how elongated the
ellipse is. It equals 1 - (perihelion)/(semi-major axis). Circles have an eccentricity
= 0; very long and skinny ellipses have an eccentricity close to 1 (a straight line
has an eccentricity = 1). The skinniness an ellipse is specified by the semi-minor
axis. It equals the semi-major axis × Sqrt[(1 - e2)].
Planet orbits have small eccentricities (nearly circular orbits) which is why astronomers
before Kepler thought the orbits were exactly circular. This slight error in the orbit shape
accumulated into a large error in planet positions after a few hundred years. Only very
accurate and precise observations can show the elliptical character of the orbits. Tycho's
observations, therefore, played a key role in Kepler's discovery and is an example of a
fundamental breakthrough in our understanding of the universe being possible only from
greatly improved observations of the universe.
This page was copied from Nick Strobel's Astronomy Notes. Go to his site at www.astronomynotes.com
for the updated and corrected version.
Most comet orbits have large eccentricities (some are so eccentric that the aphelion is
around 100,000 AU while the perihelion is less than 1 AU!). The figure above illustrates
how the shape of an ellipse depends on the semi-major axis and the eccentricity. The
eccentricity of the ellipses increases from top left to bottom left in a counter-clockwise
direction in the figure but the semi-major axis remains the same. Notice where the Sun is
for each of the orbits. As the eccentricity increases, the Sun's position is closer to one side
of the elliptical orbit, but the semi-major axis remains the same.
To account for the planets' motion (particularly Mars') among the stars, Kepler found that
the planets must move around the Sun at a variable speed. When the planet is close to
perihelion, it moves quickly; when it is close to aphelion, it moves slowly. This was
another break with the Pythagorean paradigm of uniform motion! Kepler discovered
another rule of planet orbits: a line between the planet and the Sun sweeps out equal
areas in equal times. This is now known as Kepler's 2nd law.
Later, scientists found that this is a consequence of the conservation of angular
momentum (see “Applications” section attached). The angular momentum of a planet is
This page was copied from Nick Strobel's Astronomy Notes. Go to his site at www.astronomynotes.com
for the updated and corrected version.
a measure of the amount of orbital motion it has and does NOT change as the planet
orbits the Sun. It equals the (planet mass) × (planet's transverse speed) × (distance from
the Sun). The transverse speed is the amount of the planet's orbital velocity that is in the
direction perpendicular to the line between the planet and the Sun. If the distance
decreases, then the speed must increase to compensate; if the distance increases, then the
speed decreases (a planet's mass does not change).
Finally, after several more years of calculations, Kepler found a simple, elegant equation
relating the distance of a planet from the Sun to how long it takes to orbit the Sun (the
planet's sidereal period). (One planet's sidereal period/another planet's sidereal period)2
= (one planet's average distance from Sun/another planet's average distance from Sun)3.
If you compare the planets to the Earth (with an orbital period = 1 year and a distance = 1
A.U.), then you get a very simple relation: (a planet's sidereal period in years)2 =
(semimajor axis of its orbit in A.U.)3. This is now known as Kepler's 3rd law.
For example, Mars' orbit has a semi-major axis of 1.52 A.U., so 1.523 = 3.51 and this
equals 1.872. The number 1.87 is the number of years it takes Mars to go around the Sun.
This simple mathematical equation explained all of the observations throughout history
and proved to Kepler that the heliocentric system is real. Actually, the first two laws were
sufficient, but the third law was very important for Isaac Newton and is used today to
determine the masses of many different types of celestial objects. Kepler's third law has
many uses in astronomy! Although Kepler derived these laws for the motions of the
planets around the Sun, they are found to be true for any object orbiting any other object.
The fundamental nature of these rules and their wide applicability is why they are
considered ``laws'' of nature.
Select the image to show an animation of Kepler's 3 laws.
(http://www.astronomynotes.com/history/orbit.htm)
This page was copied from Nick Strobel's Astronomy Notes. Go to his site at www.astronomynotes.com
for the updated and corrected version.
A nice java applet for Kepler's laws is available on the web (link is
http://csep10.phys.utk.edu/guidry/java/kepler/kepler.html)
The UNL Astronomy Education program's Planetary Orbit Simulator allows you to
manipulate the various parameters in Kepler's laws to understand their effect on planetary
orbits (link is http://astro.unl.edu/naap/pos/pos.html).
Vocabulary
angular momentum
ellipse
Kepler's 2nd law
semi-major axis
aphelion
focus
Kepler's 3rd law
eccentricity
Kepler's 1st law
perihelion
Review Questions
1. What shape are planet orbits and where is the Sun with respect to the orbit?
2. What happens to a planet's orbital speed as it approaches its farthest point from
the Sun and as it approaches its closest point? How is it related to angular
momentum?
3. How were Kepler's laws of planetary motion revolutionary or a radical break from
earlier descriptions of planetary motion?
4. A moon's closest distance from a planet is 300,000 km and its farthest distance is
500,000 km. What is the semi-major axis of its elliptical orbit?
5. How will the semi-minor axis compare with the semi-major axis for an ellipse
with eccentricity = 0.1, 0.5, 0.8, 0.99? Find the value of (semi-minor/semi-major)
for each of the eccentricities.
6. How will the perihelion compare with the aphelion for an ellipse with eccentricity
= 0.1, 0.5, 0.8, 0.99? Find the value of (perihelion/aphelion) for each of the
eccentricities. [Hint: using the relation that the perihelion + aphelion = 2× semimajor axis and a little algebra, you can find that (perihelion/aphelion) = (1e)/(1+e).]
7. How is the average distance between a planet and the Sun related to the planet's
orbit period?
8. Which planet has a shorter period---one with a large average distance, or one with
a small average distance?
9. What is the semi-major axis of an asteroid orbiting the Sun with a period of 64
years? (Kepler's third law works for any object orbiting the Sun.)
This page was copied from Nick Strobel's Astronomy Notes. Go to his site at www.astronomynotes.com
for the updated and corrected version.
Applications
1) Kepler's Second Law of orbital motion
The area swept out by a line connecting an orbiting object and the central point is the
same for any two equal periods of times. That line is called a radius vector in the
following discussion.
The rate of change of the swept-out area does NOT change with time. The line along
which gravity acts is parallel to the radius vector. This means that there are no torques
disturbing the angular motion and, therefore, angular momentum is conserved. The part
of the orbital velocity (v-orbit) perpendicular (at a right angle) to the radius vector (r) is
vt. The rate of change of the swept-out area = r×vt/2.
To calculate the orbital angular momentum use vt for the velocity. So, the angular
momentum = mass × vt × r = mass × 2 × (rate of change of area). That value does not
change over time. So if r decreases, v-orbit (and vt) must increase! If r increases, v-orbit
(and vt) must decrease. This is just what Kepler observed for the planets!