Rafał Kłeczek
Tomasz Ochinowski
Toward a cross-cultural approach to pro-entrepreneurial myths.
Merchants’ behavior and wealth in Pūrṇ abhadra's Pañcatantra.
1. Against postcolonial thinking in cross-cultural management
A researcher willing to discover and analyze the deepest cultural roots of
entrepreneurial activity to enrich the cultural background of contemporary
business practices undoubtedly faces the so-called postcolonial thinking
syndrome. This phenomenon, particularly visible in Africa, also applies to other
“provinces” of modern capitalism, such as India, where current economic
development is still surprising for some analytics. “Postcolonial thinking” is
a category that Ewa Thopmson, a Polish-American Slavic studies professor from
Rice University in Texas, suggested to apply not only to literature, but also to
analysis of some political issues, such as “new” Member States of the EU. We
propose to use this perspective to business. In this context, “postcolonial
thinking” would refer to the adjustment of activities of one nation to the
actions of bigger and more powerful countries (hegemony). This type of approach,
in the undermentioned example, refers to situations where smaller countries do
not bring forward their ideas/suggestions and do not articulate their own
interests. It is a clear example of a leader and follower relationship. The
follower always waits for the leader’s approval. The rupture of such a way of
thinking by politicians who represent given countries is a very important step
towards normalcy that has to do with the democratic concept of “fair game”.
It is not difficult to find hegemonic
practices in intercultural business
resulting from postcolonial thinking. As an example, we can take the so-called
“American dream”, the pro-entrepreneurial
myth, which is usually presented as
a universal cultural pattern of values and practices for effective business in
all the globalized world.
The aim of the presented article is to show, relying on a case study of
Hindu/Jaina cultural archetype of trade and entrepreneurship, how analysis of
provincial (from the centuries of globalization perspective) pro-entrepreneurial
myths can enrich the discourse of cultural background of business practices and
break down the post-colonial thinking at the same time.1
2. Cultural capital as a framework for pro-entrepreneurial myth
interpretation
We adopted the definition of the myth by Michel de Certeau (1988: 133), who
states it is a “fragmented discourse which is articulated on the heterogeneous
practices of a society and which also articulates them symbolically”. We
compare this way of understanding the myth with the already classical research
of Michèle Lamont (1992, 33-54), who considers the cultural capital of the
workplace. The author employs Bourdieu’s concept of cultural capital for the
purpose of the analysis of business phenomenon. His research shows that both
French and American executives tacitly expect that their employees would behave
in the certain ways and profess special values which construct the morality of
work. These two dimensions, behavioral and axiological, create the cultural
capital of the workplace. For those people who do not possess such capital
(although officially they are not mentioned at any stage of the recruitment
process) it is very difficult, or perhaps impossible, to be promoted, or even to
survive at the workplace in the System of Western capitalism. The behavioral
aspect of cultural capital of the workplace is represented by such principles as
being punctual at work, being dressed appropriately for interviews, or
displaying courteous manners in relation to clients and superiors.
On the other hand, work ethics (as an axiological dimension) within the
presented concept, in reality, come down to beliefs of a particular employee
1
The idea of employing historical study for the purpose of explaining contemporary behaviors
is by no means a new one. Comp. Thompson (2000, 1-24). The analysis of pro-entrepreneurial
myths has been employed by one of present authors to explain models of economic behavior in
Polish context (Ochinowski 2013, 161-222).
that allow him to answer the existential question: “Why do I work?”. According
to William Lockhart (2002), whose paper became the main intellectual inspiration
for this article, in the American version of the axiological dimension of the
cultural capital of the workplace, there are two alternative aspects. The
components of employees’ success are both ascetic and in the form of expressive
moralism.
The first, ascetic, component is a contemporary and secularized form of the
traditionally understood Protestant work ethos. It stems from a belief
developing since the beginning of Protestant Reformation, namely, that work,
just like a prayer, brings the human being closer to God. Today, in many cases,
God’s place is taken by persons’ own growth potential. Ascetic moralism can be
brought down to the thesis: “I work because my work is the way of my personal
development.” A derivative of this approach is a moral directive: “Avoid sloth
and don’t be focused on material enjoyment, but instead – save and invest in
future profits.” “Material pleasure and leisure should be avoided. Instead of
this the better option is reinvestment of assets and thrift for future profit.”
Expressive moralism also has religious roots. Lockhart (2002) alongside other
authors, places its origin in the concept formulated by American Protestant
preachers’ teachings from the turn of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries,
deriving inspiration from European Romanticism as well. They preached that
natural for human soul (given by God) is the need for play and pleasure. From
this perspective, economic activity is aimed at securing the basic necessities
of life. It is considered not only desirable, but also inevitable. On the other
hand, economic activity devoted to the pursuit of wealth or emanating from a
desire to outdo one’s peers is regarded as undesirable. The goal of making
money is no longer a mere multiplication of profits, but pursue of welfare. In a
modern version, meaningful also to those who do not share religious beliefs,
expressive moralism is the belief that one works to make one's life more
pleasant. We leave the discussion aside of whether the problem of the genesis of
both types of moralism is related only to the Protestant culture, as it is not
part of the paper. Authors’ point of interest is particularly focused on the
parallel between the concept of the expressive moralism and the “otium”, a
Latin term employed by European Renaissance creators and thinkers. This concept
is widely discussed regardless of interlocutors’ religious beliefs. It denotes
performing a useful activity stemming from an attitude of personal independence.
The concept of “otium” was adopted e.g. in the Polish language by Wespazjan
Kochowski in XVII c., who used the poetic translation of the term “non-idle
idleness.” People of the Renaissance period widely discussed the dilemma of
whether activity like this is considered work. Today the “otium” category is
employed again, for example by the “Slow Down” movement ideology (Laskowska–
Otwinowska 2010). In the management area, we propose to regard it as a sign of
its present “flow” phenomenon together with its contribution to motivating,
coaching, innovation and other similar issues (Csíkszentmihályi 2003, 107).
Moreover, both of the moralisms have recently been placed closely to the
psychological research on work attitudes. Amy Wrzesniewski proved that among
representatives of practically every profession2 it is possible to distinguish
people who treat their work activity mainly as an occupation from those who see
it as a way to pursue their careers and those who are guided by their
“calling” (Seligman 2002, 168-169). Content wise, the term “career”
corresponds with ascetic moralism, and “calling” - with expressive3. The
“occupation” attitude, to the contrary, is a clear psychological operation of
a different than described type of work ethic, which comes down to the belief:
“I work because I have to”. Even though it is shared by the employees, it is
2
The research on Prison Guards, successively carried out in Poland under my (T.O.)
guidance (using experimental translation of Wrzesniewski’s questionnaire) shows that also in
this occupational group diversity of attitudes towards work does exist.
3
The weakness of the technique proposed by Wrzesniewski is that clearly it does not
distinguish those with the “calling” from workaholics.
not a component of the workplace cultural capital. With this kind of attitude,
an individual finds it difficult to assimilate, or even to keep up with, the
Western market.
Lokhart (2002) warns about excessive idealism, pointing out that even in the USA
numerous middle (and upper) class people can assume that all adults have the
workplace cultural capital. This is an illusion. The cited author postulates
that teaching the skills connected to workplace cultural capital can be
initiated through training focused on practical aspects. Nonetheless, Lokhart
(2002) concludes that work ethics is a form of a described capital.
Remembering the restrictions of Lokhart (2002), it is not difficult to notice
the importance of both ascetic and expressive moralism as cultural foundations
of development in capitalism. With the exclusion of subtleties, which we leave
for the disputes of economic historians, it can be suggested without a high risk
that the first type of work ethic supported especially the European version of
the eighteen and nineteenth century capitalist system, and the other one, its
contemporary American form, somewhere during the turn of the nineteen and
twentieth century.
We propose to accept both of the moralisms as axiological content of the
“American Dream” myth. What we are trying to prove is that it was not only
dreamed, but effectively accomplished far from the USA, independent from
American influences and implemented before receipt of global recognition. The
foundation of the mentioned timid thesis is at the moment a contributory
reinterpretation of the ancient pro-entrepreneurial myths born in Sanskrit
tradition, thousands
years before “American dreams” ages, on the land
currently treated as the province of globalization.
We reinterpret the content of the myth in the spirit of workplace cultural
capital reaching to Pañcatantra editions, using the thesis of an American
economist, a researcher of the history of Economics, but also a Professor of
Rhetoric
- Deirdre McCloskey, that nothing helps to understand economic reality
better than the work of writers. According to this author, “[t]he main cause of
bad writing in economics is that economists don't read good writings. If
economists would read Jane Austen or George Orwell (…), in bulk, habitually,
they would improve” (McCloskey 1999: 239). In our article we suggest, using the
example of Pañcatantra, that economists could benefit greatly also from reading
ancient writings. This could be useful not only for improving the quality of
economic writing, but also, more generally, for deepening of our understanding
of economic reality – an idea also developed by McCloskey (see e.g. McCloskey
2001). The relevance of this approach is especially visible when we consider the
cultural aspect of the economic reality. An intellectual endeavour of
rediscovery of ancient crosscultural roots of cultural capital is valuable not
only for those willing to research the “pre-history” of free market. It also
serves as a way to enrich intellectual culture of contemporary entrepreneurs,
since no one can deny that qualities such as imagination are an important asset
in modern business environment (Kociatkiewicz, Kostera 2012).
3. Socio-cultural context of the creation of Pūrṇ abhadra's edition of
Pañcatantra
Pañcatantra, one of the famous pieces of Sanskrit literature, is a collection of
fables that was most likely created between 2nd century CE, when the political
treatise Arthaśāstra was written4, and the year 550, the date of Pañcatantra's
translation into Pahlavi. The scholarly consensus, as indicated by Olivelle
(1997, xii), places it around 300 CE. The edition of Pūrṇ abhadra, which is the
point of focus of this article, can be dated much more precisely, to the year
4
It is noticed by many that the author of Pañcatantra hwas, most probably, acquainted with
Arthaśāstra (see e.g. Singh 2011, 42). It is difficult to state, though, that there is a
consensus as to the date of this treatise. Indian authors tend to associate it's author,
Kauṭ ilya, with Cāṇ akya, minister at the court of Candragupta Maurya living in the second
part of the fourth century BCE (Mital 2004). Some claim that the text of Arthaśāstra,
originally written in the fourth century BCE, was subject to major redaction in 3rd or 4th
cent. CE (Thapar 2012, 344-347). We accept as a likely hypothesis the one of Trautmann,
situating the creation of Arthaśāstra around 150 CE (Trautmann 2012, 26).
1199 CE.5 Pūrṇ abhadra, the editor of this recension, was a Jaina monk, and his
edition was based, among other versions, on a slightly earlier Jaina recension
of Pañcatantra, referred to by scholars as textus simplicior (Olivelle 1997,
xli; Taylor 2007, 21-22). Confusingly, both textus simplicior and Pūrṇ abhadra's
recension are also referred to as Pañcākhyānaka, or “Small [treatise] of five
lessons” (Olivelle 1997, xli; Pūrṇ abhadra 1908, 289.15). Pūrṇ abhadra composed
the recension following the order of the minister Soma (Pūrṇ abhadra 1908,
289.18).6
When it comes to the question of the author of Pañcatantra, it does sound
trivial at first, since he is directly mentioned in the introduction to the
narrative. The text is ascribed to Viṣ ṇ uśarman, a Brāhmaṇ a at the court of
the king Amaraśakti, living in the city Mahilāropya. The agency of Viṣ ṇ uśarman
in the creation of the text is negated by Taylor (2007, 106), who proposes a
theory of four levels of authorship of Pañcatantra. First level would include
many anonymous authors of stories that were later to compose Pañcatantra, as
well as authors of verses contained within it. Second level is that of, still
anonymous, authors who composed various early versions of Pañcatantra. Third
level would contain editors of literary versions, e.g. Pūrṇ abhadra. Fourth is
the mythical level of authorship, where Taylor sees Viṣ ṇ uśarman himself. The
narrative of Viṣ ṇ uśarman composing the collection of fables, taken from this
perspective, would be a fiction, incorporated in the collection to give
authoritativeness to the text.7
The theory proposed by Taylor draws readers' attention to the significant aspect
of what he calls the “truth-effect of the character of Viṣ ṇ uśarman”. The
circumstance of creating Pañcatantra by a Brāhmaṇ a is giving authority to the
5
6
7
Or even more precisely, to either Sunday 17 January 1199 CE, or Tuesday 19 January 1199 CE
(Taylor 2007, 24).
An exposition of the creation of Pūrṇ abhadra's recension is available in: Taylor 2007, 2326.
Comp. Singh (2011, 155-185), who refers to the problem of “authorlessness” of Indian
fables from the perspective of Western literary theories.
collection that it might have never received as an authorless book. It also
gives the necessary emphasis to the fact of the existence of at least some of
these fables prior to the composition of Pañcatantra itself. It is our opinion,
though, that the original Pañcatantra was written by a single author, the
circumstance indicated by the clear purpose with which the collection of stories
has been created. The purpose is indicated in the introductory narration itself.
Pañcatantra begins with the description of circumstances of composing the
collection. According to the narrative, it was ordered by king Amaraśakti for
the purpose of education of his three sons, who were lacking interest in
learning (śāstra-vimukha). According to one of his ministers,
“Grammar should be studied for twelve years. When knowledge of it is somehow
obtained, treatises on dharma and wealth are understood.” (Pūrṇ abhadra 1908,
1.16-17)8
Teachings of Viṣ ṇ uśarman were meant to overcome this difficulty, that is, to
give students an easy way to understand the language and introduce them to
basics of vocabulary and concepts relevant to fields of economy and politics.
One reading Pañcatantra cannot but notice the fact that this single purpose is
visible on every page of the collection, to the extent that stories contained in
it might appear ridiculous to the contemporary reader. Thus, at the very
beginning, we see the lion, king of animals, moving around with his subordinates
in the military formation of “four circles” (catur-maṇ ḍ ala); later in the
text we find discussion on the importance of spies, ministers, forts, and
detailed enumeration of tactics to be adopted when facing an aggressive military
enemy. These are just several examples from this highly politicized collection
of fables.
When it comes to the role of later editions and changes, it should be noted that
Pūrṇ abhadra does not consider himself to be author, or even editor of the text.
8
dvā-daśabhir varṣ ais tāvad vyākaraṇ aṁ śrūyate. tad yadi katham-api jñāyate dharmârthaśāstrāṇ i jñāyante.
He claims to have “cleansed” the text, therefore presenting it in the
original, pure (saṁ śodhita) form (Pūrṇ abhadra 1908, 289.21). It is a
characteristic of classical Sanskrit scholars that their editorial work, or even
novel theories, are presented not as innovation, but as purifying the text or
doctrine, bringing out its forgotten, original form.
We have chosen Pūrṇ abhadra's recension of Pañcatantra for our project because
of the fascinating circumstance of its creation by the Jaina redactor. The text
most obviously belongs to the Hindu culture, the fact established by the
introductory narration telling the story of creating Pañcatantra by
Viṣ ṇ uśarman.9 At the same time, the redactor does leave subtle impressions of
Jaina doctrine, even though he claims his redaction is nothing more than
“cleaning” the text.
9
The influence of the narrative of Viṣ ṇ uśarman on the credibility of text, or “trutheffect” of the Brāhmaṇ a status of its author, is detailedly analyzed by Taylor (2007: 108111).
4. Merchants' narratives
We base the following analysis on ten narratives from Pañcatantra that contain
pro-entrepreneurial myths.10 First of these narratives is worth citing in
entirety, since it contains several motives appearing throughout subsequent
tales. It should also be noted that the story is of particular importance, since
it is the opening narrative to the collection, that is, first of the stories
told by Viṣ ṇ uśarman.11
“The great friendship between the lion and the bull [that has arisen] in
forest,
has been broken by the overly greedy, treacherous jackal.
It is heard thus, in southern provinces [there was] a city named Mahilāropya,
equal to the city of Indra, endowed with all good qualities. It was like a
diadem on the crown of the earth, resembling the peak of the mountain Kailāsa.
Its towers and gates were full of instruments meant for waging war, its great
doors with majestic arches were furnished with strong bolts of wood and iron. It
had many temples situated at skillfully arranged crossroads. It was surrounded
by a girdle of mounts, form of which resembled lofty Himalayas, enclosed within
a series of moats.
And there lived a merchant of the name Vardhamāna, possessed of many good
qualities and, because of the virtue obtained in previous births, owner of
considerable wealth. At one time, when he was wondering in the midst of night,
such thought came upon him – as follows: «Wealth, even accumulated in great
10 These are: introduction to the first chapter – story of the merchant Vardhamāna (1.0,
Pūrṇ abhadra 1908, 3-4.13), story of the merchant Dantila (1.3, Pūrṇ abhadra 1908, 1721.10), introduction to the story of camel and lion (1.13, Pūrṇ abhadra 1908, 75.21-28),
story of the merchant Dharmabuddhi and the merchant Durbuddhi (1.26, Pūrṇ abhadra 1908,
109.10-113.9), story of the merchant Nāḍ uka (1.28, Pūrṇ abhadra 1908, 114.11-116.8), story
of the prince, the merchant and the Brāhmaṇ a (1.30, Pūrṇ abhadra 1908, 118.10-122.1), story
of the weaver Somilaka (2.6, Pūrṇ abhadra 1908, 156.6-161), introduction to the story of a
barber who killed monks (5.0, Pūrṇ abhadra 1908, 257-259.26), tale of four Brāhmaṇ as (5.2,
Pūrṇ abhadra 1908, 261.8-289.11), tale of Brāhmaṇ as who have brought lion back to life
(5.3, Pūrṇ abhadra 1908, 267.10-268.17).
11 Translations from Sanskrit sources were prepared by Rafał Kłeczek.
amounts, by expenditure is diminished like the Añjana [mountain]12. Even minute,
if constantly accumulated, grows like an anthill. Thus, its very growth needs to
be provided for by numerous means. Wealth not [yet] obtained needs to be
obtained. [Wealth] obtained needs to be protected. Protected, needs to be
multiplicated and given to [worthy] recipients (pātra), it is said. It is also a
general experience that protected wealth will always perish due to various
accidents. If [it] is not invested, when gained with the intention of investing
[it], [it] is as good as [wealth] not possessed, it is said. Thus, obtained
[wealth] should be always protected, multiplicated and invested. And it is said:
Keeping acquired wealth is verily its loss,
like the outflow of waters from the receptacle of a tank.
By wealth wealth is acquired, like by elephants – elephant kings,
for it is impossible for the poor to trade by mere wish.
To whom affluence has come by the hand of fate, he has no desire for
wealth,
nor wish for the future life, he is the fool guarding [his] wealth.»
Having thus reflected, he has collected valuable merchandise to be sold in
Mathurā and, on the auspicious day of the auspicious star (nakṣ atra), with
blessing of [his] elders, with family accompanying him, preceded by the noise of
conch-shells and musical instruments they were handling, he has left the city.
He has bid the family farewell at the edge of water reservoir. From there he has
set forth.
He had two auspicious bulls pulling the cart, Nandaka and Saṁ jīvaka. Their
color was resembling pale clouds, and their chest were covered with golden
bells. They have reached forest, charming with parrot trees (palāśa), acacia and
axlewood, densely overgrown with other bushes pleasant to look at. It was
12 The reference to Añjana mountain is explained by Olivelle (1997, 166): “a metaphor made
clear in a verse from Hitopadeśa (2.10) that contrasts the gradual erosion of the Añjana
mountain (…) to the gradual growth of an anthill.”
provoking fear by many elephants, gayals, buffaloes, antelopes (ruru), female
camara deer13, boars, tigers, leopards and bears. There was plenty of water
coming from slopes of mountains, and manifoldness of impenetrable caves. One of
these bulls, Saṁ jīvaka, because of the weakness of one hoof that got immersed
in mud created by water of the waterfall falling at [some] distance, worn out by
overloading of the cart, has broken the yoke and fallen down. The carter, seeing
him fallen, has quickly raised from the cart and run to the nearby merchant,
whom he adressed with hands hollowed according to the custom: «Noble one!
Saṁ jīvaka, worn out by the journey, has fallen on the ground.» Hearing this,
the merchant Vardhamāna has fallen into utter despondency. When, after five
nights of halt the [bull] has not recovered, he has left it with guards and a
[supply of] fodder with the words, as follows: «If Saṁ jīvaka lives, come with
him. If he dies, come after performing his last rites.» Having ordained them
thus, he has set out to the country of his destination. On the other day,
thinking fearfully that forest is full of dangers, they have lied to their
master, as follows: «Saṁ jīvaka has died, and we have performed his last rites,
cremation etc.» On hearing this, the merchant has fallen into sorrow, but after
a while, out of gratitude [for the departed bull], has performed rites for the
departed soul etc. and, without further delay, set out to Mathurā”
(Pūrṇ abhadra 1908, 3.2-4.13)14.
13 Confusingly, the usual meaning of the term camara is yak (Monier-Williams 2005), animal most
unlikely to be met in South Indian forest. Amarakośa, perhaps the most widely referred to
classical dictionary of Sanskrit, classifies it among the types of mr̥ga, i.e. “a forest
animal or wild beast, game of any kind” (Monier-Williams 2005) and mentions it along other
types of deer and antelopes (Amarasiṁ ha).
14 vardhamāno mahān snehaḥ siṁ ha-go-vr̥ṣ ayor vane /
jambukenâtilubdhena piśunena vināśita ḥ //
tad yathā śrūyate. dākṣ iṇ ātyeṣ u janapadeṣ u puraṁ dara-pura-spardhi sarva-guṇ asaṁ pannaṁ pr̥thivyāś cūḍ ā-maṇ i-ratna-bhūtaṁ kailāsa-śikharâkr̥ti vividha-yantrapraharaṇ âcaraṇ a-paripūrṇ a-gopurâṭ ṭ ālakaṁ visaṁ kaṭ ôtkaṭ a-dr̥ḍ ha-parigha-kapāṭ atoraṇ ârṇ alôpagatêndra-kīla-vipula-dvāraṁ suvihita-śr̥ṅ gâṭ aka-catuṣ -pathapratiṣ ṭ hitâneka-devatâyatanaṁ parikhā-parikaritôcchrita-hima-giri-sadr̥śâkāra-prākāravalaya-pariveṣ ṭ itaṁ mahilāropyaṁ nāma nagaram. tatrâneka-guṇ a-samūho janmântaradharmôpārjanâvāpta-dhana-samūho vardhamāna-nāmā sārtha-vāhaḥ prativasati sma. atha kadācic
cintayato 'rdha-rātra-velāyām īdr̥śaṁ tasya cittam abhūt. yathā. prabhūto 'pi sa ṁ cito
'rthaḥ pravecyamāno 'ñjanam iva kṣ īyate. svalpo 'pi saṁ cīyamāno valmīkavad vardhate.
The merchant Vardhamāna appears only in the above part of the tale, which
subsequently shifts point of focus on the bull Saṁ jīvaka. The name of the
merchant is itself a Sanskrit word (like many other names in Pañcatantra, or –
like many other Sanskrit names). The meaning of vardhamāna is “prosperous,
affluent, growing” – the same word has been used in the first stanza of the
quoted passage to describe the “great friendship” of the bull and the lion. It
should be noted here that the name of the merchant differs slightly from that
used in the standard edition of Pañcatantra, where his name was
“Vardhamānaka”. The suffix -ka used here is a diminutivum, indicating the
sense of lesser importance, intimacy or endearment. Pūrṇ abhadra's use of the
name “Vardhamāna” could be the result of purely aesthetic reasoning. It is our
assumption, though, that the redactor, by using the name at the beginning of
ataḥ prabhūtenâpi dravyeṇ a tasyâiva vr̥ddhiḥ karaṇ īyā. alabdhā arthā labhyāḥ labdhāḥ
parirakṣ aṇ īyāḥ rakṣ itā vivardhanīyāḥ pātre saṁ pādanīyāś ca iti. loka-mārgeṇ âpi
rakṣ yamāṇ o 'rtho bahûpadravatayā sadyo vinaśyet. aprayujyamāna ḥ prayojanôtpattau tulyo
'prāptasya iti. tataḥ prāptasya sato rakṣ aṇ a-vivardhanôpayogâdi kāryam. ukta ṁ ca.
upārjitānām arthānāṁ tyāga eva hi rakṣ aṇ aṁ /
taḍ āgôdara-saṁ sthānāṁ parīvāha ivâmbhasām //
arthair arthā nibadhyante gajair iva mahāgajā ḥ /
na hy anarthavatā śakyaṁ vāṇ ijyaṁ kartum īhayā //
daiva-vaśād upapanne sati vibhave yasya nâsti bhogêcchā /
na ca para-loka-samīhā sa bhavati dhana-pālako mūrkhaḥ //
evaṁ saṁ pradhārya mathurā-gāmīni sāra-bhāṇ ḍ āni samāhr̥tya saparijanaḥ śubhe nakṣ atre
śubhāyāṁ tithau guru-janânujñātaḥ sva-janair anuvrajyamānaḥ śaṅ kha-tūryanirghoṣ eṇ âgrataḥ kriyamāṇ ena nagarān niḥ sr̥taḥ . udakântāt suhr̥j-janaṁ nivartya
tasmād abhiprasthitaḥ .
tasya ca dvau maṅ gala-vr̥ṣ abhau dhūr-voḍ hārau nandaka-saṁ jīvaka-nāmānau pāṇ ḍ urâbhrasaṁ nikāśau suvarṇ a-kiṅ kiṇ ī-parivr̥tôraskau tiṣ ṭ hataḥ . atha dhava-khadira-palāśaśākhair mano-harām anyaiś cêṣ ṭ a-darśanaiḥ śākhibhir nirantarôpacitām aneka-gaja-gavayamahiṣ a-ruru-camarī-varāha-śārdūla-citraka-rkṣ a-bhayôdbhaṭ ām acala-nitamba-nirgatôdakaparipūritāṁ vividha-darī-gahanām aṭ avīm āsādya dūrâpāti-nirjharôdakôtpādita-kardamamagnâika-caraṇ a-vaikalyāc chaṭ akasya câtibhārād abhihataḥ kasmiṁ ścit pradeśe katham api
tayor vr̥ṣ abhayoḥ saṁ jīvak- yuga-bhaṅ gaṁ kr̥tvā niṣ asāda. tatas taṁ nipatitaṁ
dr̥ṣ ṭ vā śākaṭ ikaḥ sasaṁ bhramaḥ śakaṭ ād uttīrya tvarita-gatir anatidūre sopacāram
añjaliṁ kr̥tvā sārtha-vāham uvāca. ārya-putra adhva-pariśrāntaḥ saṁ jīvakaḥ paṅ ke
niṣ asāda. tac chrutvā vardhamāna-sārtha-vāhaḥ paraṁ niṣ ādam agamat. pañca-rātrikam
aprayāṇ akaṁ kr̥tvā yadâsau na kalyatāṁ labhate tadā tasya yavasa-sametān rakṣ ā-puruṣ ān
dattvâbhihitavān. yathā. ayaṁ saṁ jīvako yadi jīvati tad enaṁ gr̥hītvā yadi mriyate
tadâmuṁ saṁ skr̥tya yuṣ mābhir āgantavyam. evam ādiśya yathâbhila ṣ itaṁ deśântaraṁ
prasthitaḥ . anye-dyuś ca bahûpāyaṁ vanam iti bhayāt tair api gatvā svāmine mr̥ṣ ā
niveditam. yathā. mr̥to 'sau saṁ jīvako 'smābhiś câgny-ādinā saṁ skāreṇ a saṁ skr̥taḥ iti.
tac ca śrutvā kṣ āṇ a-mātraṁ duḥ khaṁ kr̥tvā kr̥ta-jñatayā preta-kr̥tyâdi-kriyāṁ kr̥tvā
mathurām avighnena saṁ prāptaḥ .
narration, could be paying homage to the great reformer of Jaina religion,
Mahāvīra Gautama – known also as Vardhamāna.
The author emphasizes ethical spirit of Vardhamāna. He is described as possessed
of good personality traits and his wealth is said to be the effect of good deeds
accumulated in his previous births. He is active, but not greedy.15 Another
aspect of the personality of Vardhamāna is his devotion to tradition. He leaves
for the journey only after obtaining blessing of his elders, and does so on a
day deemed auspicious. Family and friends accompanying him to the border of the
city he turns back at the edge of water tank, which is also a customary
practice.16 Both virtue and traditional mentality are emphasized by the fact that
he ordains people left to watch over dying bull to perform its last rites in
case it dies.
The reflection on wealth and on the need to acquire it comes to him at night and
leads to subsequent journey. The silent reflection coming at night, as opposed
to conversations with friends and family taking place during the day, appears in
at least two other narratives containing pro-entrepreneurial elements. In the
tale of merchant Vardhamāna it does not contain supernatural element, except
perhaps the possible interpretation of thoughts being caused by virtue gained in
previous births. In two other tales the supernatural element, a dream
foreshadowing what is to happen, is much more obvious. The following fragment
could serve as an example (it comes after description of nightly reflection of
the merchant Māṇ ibhadra, wherein he laments on his own poverty):
“«I will, therefore, starve myself to death – what for is this misfortune of
life without wealth?», having thus thought, he fell asleep. In his dream there
appeared a treasure in the form of a mendicant, and spoke: «O Noble One! Do not
fall into despondency. I am the treasure collected by your ancestors. In this
15 At least in Pūrṇ abhadra's version of Pañcatantra. Creation of Vardhamāna's character
differs greatly between recensions.
16 Or at least a literary motif. Comp. fragment of Kālidāsa's Śākuntala: “loved ones should
follow [the leaving person] to the edge of the water” (ā udakântāt snigdho 'nugamyata)
(Kālidāsa 2006, 204).
very form I will visit your house tomorrow morning. You have to kill me,
striking with a club to the head. By that, I will turn into inexhaustible [pile
of] gold»” (Pūrṇ abhadra 1908, 257.22-258.2)17.
The dream does come true the next morning. It should be noted here that, in this
case, it is not personal effort that leads the main character to the acquisition
of wealth, but efforts of his ancestors. This circumstance might be considered
similar to that mentioned at the beginning of the story of the merchant
Vardhamāna, where his affluence was described as the result of “virtue obtained
in previous births”. In fact, these two are strikingly different, having as
their common point the reference to past deeds. While the story of Vardhamāna
praises activism and ethical behavior, both of which would lead to future
affluence, the story of Māṇ ibhadra does not contain ethical reflection; the
fragment quoted above is rather a supernatural intervention into hereditary
rights. Both the mentioned fasting to death, and the character of the monk, are
Jaina motifs.
Undertaking a journey, either for trade or in search of treasure, is a recurring
theme in Pañcatantra – it appears in eight out of ten mentioned narratives
containing pro-entrepreneurial myths. The importance of that element might lead
to the conclusion that it was the most prevalent, most obvious entrepreneurial
undertaking at the time of construction of these tales. The other conclusion
would be that this kind of undertaking is the one most likely to appear in
fables, as perhaps more engaging than the history of local family business built
through several generations of hard work. Journey as presented in Pañcatantra is
not necessarily a trade enterprise. Some of the tales present it as a search for
a hidden treasure, the motif well known in Indo-European fables. One of the
narratives describes the journey in search of patronage of a king, the
17 tad aham anaśanaṁ kr̥tvā prāṇ ān ujjhāmi. kim anena vyartha-jīvita-vyasanena. evaṁ
niścayaṁ kr̥tvā prasuptaḥ . atha tasya svapne padma-nidhiḥ kṣ apaṇ aka-rūpī saṁ darśanaṁ
gatvā provāca. bhoḥ śreṣ ṭ hin mā tvaṁ vairāgyaṁ gaccha. ahaṁ padma-nidhis tava pūrvapuruṣ ôpārjitaḥ . tad anenâiva rūpeṇ a prātas tava gr̥haṁ samāgamiṣ yāmi. tat tvayâhaṁ
śirasi laguḍ a-prahāreṇ a hantavyaḥ yena kanaka-mayo 'kṣ ayo bhavāmi.
undertaking that many classical Indian scholars had to embark upon (Pūrṇ abhadra
1908, 267.14-15).
Motivation towards the undertaking of a journey, as presented in Pañcatantra, is
either poverty and humiliation, or pride and search for adventure. The first
instance is presented in following stanzas:
“He is the worst among men who would stay, bereft of wealth,
in the country or place where he tasted pleasures [gained] by his own
energy.
Who wanders as a poor man
in the place he once enjoyed with pride,
he is despised by others” (Pūrṇ abhadra 1908, 114.14-18)18.
The second motivation, that of pride and adventurousness, is exemplified by
following fragment:
“The proof of heroism, knowledge, virtue, power and character
of a proud man is to be known from fruits of [his] abandoning his
1908, 119.22-23)19.
country” (Pūrṇ abhadra
This entrepreneurial attitude is compared to that of people overly cautious, who
choose to stay in their own place:
“Who, in fear of foreign lands, idle and careless,
they – crows, despicable men and deer, are reaching their end in their own
country”
(Pūrṇ abhadra 1908, 263.13-14)20.
Destination of the journey is either a city suitable for trade, or region where
18 yatra deśe 'thavā sthāne bhogā bhuktā ḥ sva-vīryataḥ /
tasmin vibhava-hīno yo vaset sa puruṣ âdhamaḥ //
yatrâhaṁ -kāra-yuktena ciraṁ vilasitaṁ purā /
dīnaṁ carati tatrâiva yaḥ pareṣ āṁ sa ninditaḥ //
19 vīra-vratasya vidyāyāḥ puṇ yānāṁ śakti-śīlayoḥ /
parīkṣ ā mānināṁ jñeyā sva-deśa-tyāgataḥ phalaiḥ //
20 subhītāḥ para-deśebhyo bahv-ālasyāḥ pramādinaḥ /
sva-deśe nidhanaṁ yānti kākāḥ kā-puruṣ ā mr̥gāḥ //
obtaining wealth by other means is likely, e.g. a mountain known for its
precious stones (Pūrṇ abhadra 1908, 119.2-3).
The importance of the element of journey as a trade enterprise should not cloud
the fact that most of these stories do not have happy ending. In fact, there is
one story that could be called a satire at the idealized vision of travel in
search of better life, the tale of the dog Citrāṅ ga who went to another country
running away from the plague of hunger, just to be attacked by other dogs
(Pūrṇ abhadra 1908, 255.11-25). The basic message of the story is given in the
thought: “Better is one's own country, where one lives hungry, but safely, and
where no one fights [others]” (Pūrṇ abhadra 1908, 255.19-20)21.
It seems to be obvious that journey stands for activism and entrepreneurial
spirit. The story of Citrāṅ ga, referred to above, stands therefore in contrast
with numerous passages praising active approach. One of the strongest statements
of activism in Pañcatantra can be found in the advice of the turtle Mantharaka
to his friend, mouse Hiraṇ ya, recently bereft of wealth:
“Success seeks out for residence a man full of determination,
conversant with business, without bad habits,
courageous, grateful and firm in friendship.
If the fortune does not attach to a man not vile, not deceitful, not rash
restrained, bereft of sorrow, wise and brave,
the fortune is verily deceived” (Pūrṇ abhadra 1908, 154.1-6)22.
Both positions, the one arguing carefulness, discouraging from dangerous
enterprise, and the one praising men of action, are explicitly stated in the
text, creating a paradox that is difficult to interpret. In the following
21 varaṁ sva-deśaḥ yatra durbhikṣ eṇ âpi sukhena sthīyate na ca ko 'pi yuddha ṁ karoti.
22 utsāha-saṁ pannam adīrgha-sūtraṁ kriyā-vidhi-jñaṁ vyasaneṣ v asaktam /
śūraṁ kr̥ta-jñaṁ dr̥ḍ ha-sauhr̥daṁ ca lakṣ mīḥ svayaṁ mārgati vāsa-hetoḥ //
akr̥paṇ am aśaṭ ham acapalaṁ yoginam aviṣ ādinaṁ budhaṁ śūram /
yadi nâśrayati naraṁ śrīḥ śrīr eva hi vañcitā bhavati //
fragment this paradox is expressed in its entirety, but not exactly resolved.
The dialogue takes place between a weaver, willing to go to another city to
trade his products, and his wife (wife is speaking first):
“«Beloved, it is not true that you will gain wealth by going elsewhere. As it
is said:
There is nothing that was not meant to be, and what was meant to be comes
without
effort;
even what has come to [one's] hand is lost, if it was not meant to be his.
As well as:
Just like a calf finds his mother among hundred cows,
so deed once done follows it's doer.
And also:
Like shadow and sun are always together,
so doer and deed are mutually connected.
Therefore, you should perservere in your enterprise here.»
To this he replied:
«Dear, you have spoken wrongly. Without effort, action doesn't bear fruit. As it
is said:
As one cannot clap with one hand,
so there is no fruit of action without effort.
What is more:
See, by the action food has been obtained at the mealtime;
but it won't enter the mouth at all if one won't use one's hand.
And also:
Duties are met by effort, not by dreams,
for deer wouldn't enter sleeping lion's mouth.
As well as:
If one exerts oneself, but doesn't reach the result,
not the man is to be blamed then, [for] his nature has been clouded by
fate»”
(Pūrṇ abhadra 1908, 156.13-157.13)23.
The dialogue presents the fatalistic approach and the activistic approach in the
most vivid manner. It seems to be a meaningful element here that it is the woman
who stands for fatalism, position that could be regarded as feminine, in
opposition to the male activism.24 The fatalistic position is defined by
reference to the law of karman, that is, of a deed defined ethically that can
influence seemingly random circumstances of the future life or lives (we need to
remember that the concept of reincarnation is taken for granted by both authors
and first recipients of Pañcatantra). According to this theory, both the
23 bhoḥ priya mithyā prajalpitam idaṁ yad anyatra gatānāṁ dhanaṁ bhavati. uktaṁ ca.
na hi bhavati yan na bhāvyaṁ bhavati ca bhāvyaṁ vinâpi yatnena /
kara-tala-gatam api naśyati yasya ca bhavitavyatā nâsti //
aparaṁ ca.
yathā dhenu-sahasreṣ u vatso vindati mātaram /
evaṁ pūrva-kr̥taṁ karma kartāram anugacchati //
kiṁ ca.
yathā chāyā-tapau nityaṁ susaṁ baddhau parasparam /
evaṁ karma ca kartā ca saṁ śliṣ ṭ āv itaretaram //
tasmād atrâiva sva-karma-niṣ ṭ haṁ tiṣ ṭ ha. so 'bravīt. priye na samyag abhihitam.
vyavasāyaṁ vinā karma na phalati. uktaṁ ca.
yathâikena na hastena tālikā saṁ prapadyate /
tathôdyama-parityaktaṁ na phalaṁ karmaṇ aḥ smr̥tam //
tathā ca.
paśya karma-vaśāt prāptaṁ bhojya-kāle ca bhojanam /
hastôdyamaṁ vinā vaktre praviśen na kathaṁ -cana //
kiṁ ca.
udyamena hi sidhyanti kāryāṇ i na mano-rathaiḥ /
na hi suptasya siṁ hasya praviśanti mukhe mr̥gāḥ //
aparaṁ ca.
sva-śaktyā kurvataḥ karma siddhiś cen na bhaved yadi /
nôpālabhyaḥ pumāṁ s tatra daivântarita-pauruṣ aḥ //
24 This circumstance should by no means be taken for granted in classical Indian context. It is
worth remembering that two basic ontological elements of the Sāṁ khya and Yoga schools of
philosophy, male puruṣ a and female prakr̥ti, are defined contrary to the above – it is the
masculine puruṣ a who is the passive witness, and feminine prakr̥ti who is the active
principle.
circumstances of the present life, as well as fruits of current actions, result
not from this action itself, but they are consequences of ethical or unethical
deeds committed in the past.
Interestingly, the activist response does not negate the law of karman, nor does
it exclude the possibility that persistent effort might not bear fruit because
of contrary fate. The man seems to suggest that fate, or the law of karman, is
not enough for success to come, just like one cannot clap with only one hand.
Further action is necessary to reach the successful outcome.
The story continues, telling of the success of the weaver in selling his
products and of his way back to his hometown. On the way back, though, he has a
dream of two men, the doer (kartr̥) and the deed (karman) speaking one another,
the “doer” telling that he has no other choice but to give the striving man
results of his action, and the “deed” claiming that the weaver cannot possess
any more money that is necessary for his survival. The weaver wakes up, only to
discover his money to be missing. He goes back to the trade city and again gains
wealth, but the situation occurs once again – his wealth is lost. Desperate, he
tries to commit suicide, but is interrupted by vision of a divine being – the
“deed”, karman, explaining to him that he cannot possess anything more than is
necessary for his survival (Pūrṇ abhadra 1908, 157.14-163). The tale is an
example of the personification of the law of karman, dispensing the results of
action accirding to one's fate, or according to one's past conduct.
The question of accepting one's fate and of activism appears also in the very
last story of Pañcatantra, tale about four Brāhmaṇ a treasure-seekers. In the
story, three of the four friends have found, respectively, the treasure of
copper, silver and gold. The fourth Brāhmaṇ a, the one who has ventured further
than all others in spite of their warnings, ends his tale subject to macabre
torture, with a whirling wheel boring hole in his head. The reason for this is
explained in the following sentence: “Kubera (lit. Giver of Wealth, dhana-da),
fearful of having his treasure stolen by accomplished souls, has displayed this
torture, so that no one would come here. And anyone who comes will, not feeling
hunger nor thirst, not subject to old age nor death, undergo this torture”
(Pūrṇ abhadra 1908, 266.16-19)25. The usage of the name “Giver of Wealth” in
this fragment seems to be a conscious irony. Kubera, the deity presiding over
wealth, protects greatest treasures from being taken by greedy, or simply
adventurous, individuals. The mention of the deity here is indicative of the
wide variety of forces that can possibly influence an enterprise. His presence
in this tale, instead of the “Fortune”, Lakṣ mī, is easy to explain by the
circumstance of treasure-seeking. In other fragments, particularly those
concerned with business activities, it is Lakṣ mī who is usually referred to.
Final sentence of the story summarizes well the general attitude towards
fatalism found in Pañcatantra: “Good fortune always comes because of fate, but
in spite of that, man, accepting fate, should not renounce reason”
(Pūrṇ abhadra 1908, 289.7-9)26.
It should be noted here that ethical, or dharmic enterprise is, according to
Pañcatantra, more likely to be accomplished than an unethical act. The motive of
struggle between one acting in accordance with dharma and one disregarding
dharma is the subject of one more tale, that of two merchants, Dharmabuddhi
(“The one of good/dharmic mind”) and Duṣ ṭ abuddhi (“The one of foul mind”).
What is more, the tale vividly portrays the element of belief in fate/karman of
makers of Pañcatantra that we have indicated in the previous paragraph.
The tale begins with mention of two friends, merchants Dharmabuddhi and
Duṣ ṭ abuddhi, undertaking a journey in search of wealth. The undertaking is
successful, and Dharmabuddhi finds a pot with a thousand golden coins inside.
The finding of treasure is explained by the text as a result of his good
25 dhanadena nidhāna-haraṇ a-bhayāt siddhānām etad bhayaṁ darśitaṁ yena kaścid api
nâgacchati. atha katham api kaścid āyāti sa k ṣ ut-pipāsā-rahito jarā-maraṇ a-varjitaḥ
kevalam itthaṁ vedanām anubhavati.
26 daivânukūlatayā sarvatra kalyāṇ aṁ saṁ padyate. paraṁ tathâpi puruṣ eṇ a daivam aṅ gīkr̥tya nayo na tyājyaḥ ...
fortune, being itself a result of good actions done in the past.27 On returning
to the city of their origin, Dharmabuddhi wants them to divide the treasure
between them by half. Duṣ ṭ abuddhi, intending to cheat his friend, suggests
instead to hide the treasure, after taking out only two hundred gold coins, so
that the common wealth will leave their friendship intact. Dharmabhuddhi agrees
to his suggestion, ignorant of his friend's intentions because of the nobility
of his nature (sva-bhāvâryatā). In the following year, Duṣ ṭ abuddhi loses his
share of a hundred coins, the fact, again, explained by the reference to fate
not favoring him because of his lack of past merit.28 Eventually, Duṣ ṭ abuddhi
steals the entire treasure and accuses Dharmabuddhi of stealing it. In the
following legal investigation, Duṣ ṭ abuddhi convinces the court that he has a
witness in the form of a forest deity (vana-devatā), who can bear witness in the
case. Subsequently, at night, he hides his own father in the hollow of the tree
under which the treasure had been buried. The next day, when investigating
officials come to the tree along with two suspects, the father of Duṣ ṭ abuddhi,
pretending to be the forest deity, voices his judgment in favor of his son.
Dharmabuddhi, seeing through the plan of his former friend, puts fire to the
tree, from which Duṣ ṭ abuddhi's father quickly jumps out (Pūrṇ abhadra 1908,
109.10-113.9).
The story of two merchants time and again refers to the theory of karman, past
merit shaping present circumstances, creating opportunities for the good and
bringing to naught actions of the wicked. At the same time, the theory does not
discourage from action. Indeed, the final part of the story does turn to the
benefit of the good character only because of his quick, even ruthless, act.
The pursuit of wealth, as we have indicated above, is an important incentive in
many stories of the Pañcatantra collection, as well as the beginning of many of
27 sva-bhāgyôdaya-vaśāt, where bhāgya, lit. “share”, is indicative of the good fortune
favoring an individual because of past deeds (Amarasiṁ ha).
28 sac-chidra-bhāgyatā. The word bhāgya, like above in the narration, is used to refer to the
accumulation of merit of an individual. The fact of it refering to lack of merit is
emphasized by the word chidra – lit. “fault, imperfection, lack etc.”
these stories. Some of these narratives claim that wealth gives one exceptional
abilities and privileges, the fact especially visible in the tale of a mouse
that has lost its ability to jump (!) after its treasure has been stolen. The
following is the fragment of a conversation between two ascetics responsible for
stealing the treasure (the mouse has been a problem for one of the ascetics for
a long time, and stealing its treasure was his (ascetic's) policy of managing
this problem):
“Friend, do not fear, for, along with its wealth, its power to jump is gone.
This is the fate of every being. It is verily said:
What [makes] one powerful, what overcomes [other] men,
what makes speech arogant, it's all power born of wealth!” (Pūrṇ abhadra
1908, 142.17-20)29.
The stories contained in Pañcatantra portray wealth as granting social position
and prestige; its ultimate purpose is sharing it with worthy recipients, as
indicated by the introductory tale of the merchant Vardhamāna (Pūrṇ abhadra
1908, 3.13). On the other hand, many fragments describe the fear of those who
are wealthy, but afraid of losing their wealth. Their fear is caused by
unsteadiness of their social position. Loss of wealth is also considered to be a
threat to basic family bonds.
Pañcatantra does not advocate renunciation, the fact that may seem surprising,
since it contains many passages indicating troubles one has to face because of
wealth and material bonds – indeed, many of these passages may have been
borrowed from numerous writings of ascetic sects of India. On the other hand,
the text does praise composure when facing loss as the attitude of the wise.
This tranquility is explained by the reference to the doctrine of karman, the
retribution for good and evil deeds committed in the past.
29 sakhe mā bhaiṣ īḥ . vittena saha gato 'sya kūrdanôtsāha ḥ yataḥ sarveṣ ām api jantūnām eṣ ā
gatiḥ . uktaṁ ca.
yad utsāhī sadā martyaḥ parā-bhavati jaj janān /
yad uddhataṁ vaded vākyaṁ tat sarvaṁ vittajaṁ balam //
5. Conclusion
The study of pro-entrepreneurial narratives in Pañcatantra reveals important
layers of assumptions governing mercantile behaviors in ancient India. Most
important of these are: the ethical dimension of a trade enterprise, the
activist/fatalist theories on the possibility of controlling one's life
circumstances, and the theories on the significance of wealth in individual's
life. The ethical reflection contained in pro-entrepreneurial narratives is
concerned with the question of morally correct means of initiating business,
conducting it and dealing with complications arising in the process. Ethical
thought is not treated separately from the discussion on effective means. To the
contrary, ethical means are considered to be conducive to a successful
enterprise, and corrupt means detrimental to the enterprise. Fatalistic and
activistic theories are both present in narratives, the fatalistic being
explained by reference to divine influence on the development of an initiative,
most often the influence of the goddess of wealth and success - Lakṣ mī.
Fatalism is also associated and explained by the law of karman, retribution for
past deeds. Even though the theory of karman is used to explain circumstances of
an individual, the text does emphasize the need for undertaking an active
attitude, especially with regard to the activities of a merchant. The importance
of wealth is understood primarily not through the prism of its exchange value,
but as a status marker. Economic success and gaining of wealth, as presened in
the narratives, leads to the development of a social network, with the owner of
wealth as its point of focus. The loss of wealth leads not only to the loss of
this network of influences, but also threatens basic family ties.
We hope that our fragmentary study of the Sanskrit pro-entrepreneurial myths
will be helpful in the development of intercultural education and training on
workplace cultural capital. We will establish further studies in this area using
local Hindu and Jaina traditions, which have been marginalized till now in
business discourse, to improve the cultural background of business from
theoretical and practical point of view. More generally, the literary origins of
the mentioned myth also point to the usefulness of literature as a learning tool
of cultural capital, including its inherent ethical content. The real field of
the intellectual cooperation between classical Indology and management seems to
have emerged.
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Abstract
The article analyzes pro-entrepreneurial myths present in Pūrṇ abhadra's
Pañcatantra, focusing particularly on the portrayal of merchant characters. The
main points of analysis is the question of ethics and the opposition of activism
and fatalism in classical Indian thought. Authors present an inquiry into the
idea of wealth as a motive for undertaking entrepreneurial behaviour and
reconsider the meaning and use of wealth as presented in Pañcatantra. Patterns
of behavior and presentation of key concepts in the source serves as the basis
of reflection on the place of Sanskrit sources as the cultural capital for
contemporary Hindu and Jaina communities.
Keywords
Pūrṇ abhadra, Pañcatantra, cultural capital, myth