Mapping of the Danish pop music industry
Mark Lorenzen & Lars Frederiksen
DYNAMO,
Danish research Unit on Industrial Dynamics (DRUID),
Department of Industrial economics and strategy (IVS),
Copenhagen Business School, Denmark
In the 1990s the heterogeneous firms involved in the production of pop music1 within the Danish
pop music industry2 experienced rapid growth related both to the number of people employed in the
segment, sales as well as to a development of impressive export rates relative to the total Danish
economy. This over-all trend working in tandem with the economic success of single Danish artists
– role models - as, for example, Aqua and Safri Duo as well as particular sensations as for example
the Dogma 2000 movies (i.e. von Triers; Breaking the waves and Vinterbergs; the Celebration), laid
the foundation for an amplified both economic and political awareness and interest concerning the
activities and knowledge of the rather broad industrial arena of the creative industries – the
entertainment business. Naturally such economic success is generated in close relationship with a
more creative or artistic evaluation and critique of the products both from peers and from laymen –
the public demand. The activities of the innovation and production of music together with film
making, books and other media related aspects emerged as a significant economic factor linking,
what previously was understood as merely cultural elements to policies of trade and industry
(Kulturministeriet og Erhvervsministeriet 2000). Thus, the Danish pop music industry developed
from being regarded as a cultural bearer of certain social and political beliefs and values and as such
a policy resort area of the Ministry of Cultural Affairs into an industry seen as a potential lever for
small open relative low-tech economies, hence containing the potential to increased Danish export
rates in the setting of a new knowledge- and experienced-based global economy (Pine & Gilmore
1999).
Such tendencies of importance are to a certain degree reflected in the activities in a national and
even regional setting, where quite a number of initiatives during the last five years have been
launched for instance the ‘Musicon valley’ project in Roskilde and the development of Holmen - a
renewed part of the harbour area in Copenhagen now hosting both the rhythmical conservatory, the
school of architecture, the art school for acting and performance as well as other newly established
institutions for incubating entrepreneurs bridging art and business activities and visions. Hence, the
significance of the activities and knowledge of the creative industries as both generator of economic
Pop music industry denotes here commercialised and often mass produced music with the broad genres of
rock, funk, soul, R&B, folk, blues, latino, rap, hip hop, punk, techno, house, etc. (see www.allmusic.com for
an extreme outline of the number of various genres that may be characterised as pop music). However, the
data presented here is to a large extent not separable from the rest of music industry (e.g. classical; jazz; and
folk music).
1
Whereas Eurostat (2002) pictures the music industry as only including the firms involved in activities
classified under the NACE codes for publishers of sound recordings and industry for the reproduction of sound
recording, we take a broader and more systemic view, focusing upon whole the commercial part of the
production of music (i.e., “entertainment”)  spanning from artists, publishing, record companies, music
stores, to sound recording studios, - as well as firms that produce and sell equipment like musical
instruments, gear, services, etc., and the agents involved in distribution and retail of music.
2
1
growth as well as an important factor as a side-effect beneficial for the general development of
innovations etc. and hence economic growth in certain cities and regional (Florida 2002), has broad
attention to the term and activities of cultural/creative entrepreneurs (Leadbeater & Oakley 1999).
However, there tend to be an overall agreement that the attention to a few particular Danish music
acts and Danish music artists in general is far from enough to create a stabile platform for
continuously profiting from the Danish music industry on an international level. This since the
business often seems driven by a few very influential key persons in various positions and therefore
may appear vulnerable. Knowledge and talent seems often embodied more than embedded in a
common socio-economic structure. An overall attempt of the research project ‘Behind the music’ is
to develop a few policy recommendations that are more grounded in institutional settings.
In addition, it is worth remembering that the products originating from the Danish music industry at
first manoeuvre within a relative little Danish market embedded in a global market of music
products, which however, in 2000 was estimated to approximately 37 billion US$ (IFPI 2001).
The broad overview presented below intent to map and, thus, only describe various aspects of the
Danish pop music industry. The point from where the overview emerge is deriving from a systemic
approach to innovation and production activities (Edquist 1997) which suggests a coherence and
several integrated relations of these activities and as such, a need for description of the industry in
general. This includes a portrayal of the key actors, the products, some main economic parameters,
significant institution, hints at the most vital knowledge-bases and elements of the development
history of the industry. Mainly quantitative data is provided even though elements of a more
speculative character derived from interviews with key actors of the industry3 are included in this
mapping exercise. The mapping exercise is structured as outlined below.
The output of the music industry is in wide terms related to three main economic parameters
illuminating the industry’s performance and to some extend competitiveness:
 Figures on sales per year: value and units
 Figures on turnover of firms in the industry
 Export rates
The production activities of the industry and description of key players activities are characterised
according to two main factors:
 Labour market data
 Industry system (size, industry structure, firm relations and localisation)
Finally, is offered a note on the supporting institutional set-up.
An note on output
There are broadly speaking three avenues of receiving profits from the production of music:
 Products: sound recording like CDs or MC’s, LP’s or sound recording involved with
DVD’s, videos, etc. (mechanical rights). These activities include: invention or creative
In 20002 and 2003 some 25 interviews with key agents of the industry has been conducted, however related
specifically to the case study work presented in this publication.
3
2


effort, production, promotion, distribution, sales, etc. The main actors are: artists, producers,
remixers, staff related to recording studies, staff of record companies, managers, publishers,
the tangible production of CDs and tapes, etc. We find an increase overlap of the actors
undertaking the various activities both within the artistic field as well as within the more
business related ones.
Performances: live or recorded concerts and other gigs. This segment can be said to
comprise musicians, booking agencies and institutions/persons involved with arranging
concerts. The two latter groups are to a large degree overlapping concerning activities. The
institutions arranging concerts include: large music halls (Cirkusbygningen, Musikhuset i
Aarhus, Falkonerteatret), festivals (Midtfyns, Roskilde and Skanderborg), concert halls (KB
hallen, Forum, Herning hallerne), regional concert halls (Baltoppen, Portalen,
Forbrændingen), traditional clubs (Vega, Copenhagen Jazzhouse, Magasinet) and minor
clubs (cafés, medborgerhuse, etc.). A relative large portion of the artists sees giving live
performances as their main business domain.
Royalties: deriving from playing on: TV, radio, films, and live performances etc. and do as
such include both the mentioned arenas of profiting. The size of royalties depend basically
on frequency of use, lengths of time the music is in use, estimated size of listening audience,
synchronization fee for use in TV, films, licensing deals.
Various activities of both an artistic and more humdrum character are involved in these three
aspects, as such; composing, playing and publishing, promotion and distribution are related both to
selling a good, for example, a recording and sheet music as well as to performance and to collecting
royalties. However, we also find profits in the music industry generated by associated elements like
sales of merchandises, sponsorships and advertisements, media writings of the music industry and
its actors, etc. Also, a lot of related services are gaining rent like video-production, management,
booking activities, etc.
Additionally, from the three bullet points presented above we can identify three groups benefiting
from the various profit providing elements:
 Creating and performing artists,
 The industry that manage, produce, package, reproduce, promote and distribute their
products
 The finished products.
These relates to three bearing points of measures the profits from the products:
 The performed work
 The published work
 The recorded work
Moreover, an important group to acknowledge regarding influencing the activities of the music
industry is the consumers; record buyers, live audiences, media, etc.
Still, the economic output factor of the industry is here described by the three main parameters of
sales, turnover and exports.
Danish record sales
The market for music recordings is relative small accounting only for approximately 0,1 percent of
the general Danish economy (TI 2000). Therefore, it is the increasing growth rates of export and
3
turnover and not the figures of turnover relative to the general national economy that makes the
industry segment an interesting case. A note of importance here is the fact that the growth rates of
the industry to a large extend appears to be initiated by an increase in export revenues and not by an
increase in spending from domestic consumers on sound recordings (TI 2000).
From table 1 we identify that there has not been large changes over the last 10 year regarding the
consume of domestic and international pop releases as well as classical phonograms.
Table: (1): Repertoire origin percentage of value from sales of albums and singles on the Danish
market (1991-2000)
Years
1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000
29
25
26
29
30
34
36
32
35
31
Domestic
69
69
67
67
62
59
60
59
65
International 65
6
6
5
4
3
4
5
8
6
4
Classical
Also, it must be emphasised that the Danish music industry is only a very partial element compared
to the main actors on the market. The Danish music industry amounts to be the 20th. largest market
in the world according to IFPI (2000). This is illustrated by the table below of the sales of music
recordings in 1998 (thousand units).
Table (2)
EU 15
890.713
Total
711.624
CD
9.543
Turnover (Mil. US$)
(source: EUROSTAT, 2002)
DK
17.468
16.900
234
US
1.038.167
847.000
11.777
UK
236.623
175.715
2.549
The figures below in table (3) originate from IFPI Denmark, whose member’s both majors and
associations representing the independents account for approximately 95 - 99 percent of the
turnover related to sales of sound recordings in Denmark. The value of the domestic record sales
experienced growth from 1991 to its peak in 1996 on around 67%. However, from 1996 to 2002 we
find a drop in sales on more than %. A change that may many is interpreted to some extent to be
explained by an increase in internet-based copying.
Table (3): Value of the record sales (millions of USD) and number of units sold in Denmark 19912000 (millions)
1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 199 2000
9
Total Value (singles and 182,5 192,0 190,0 265,6 306,3 306,8 273,2 266,5 263, 233,
9
3
albums)
Total Units (3 singles =1 11,2 10,3 11,0 15,8 15,3 17,9 18,4 17,8 18,8 19,5
album)
(Source: IFPI 2002)
The increase of sales and units may be explained by the traditional parameters of an enlarged
consumer interest in music, a general growth in disposable income and the increasing release rates
4
of new products. Also, to some extend we still see some consume related to people who buy certain
CDs to substitute their old LPs, MCs.
When we look isolated on the numbers of sold units the downturn in value of record sales is
difficult to register in a longer timeframe since sales of units show a continuing increase from 1991
to 2000 on almost 75%. Yet, recent figures from IFPI, Denmark indicate a severe drop in 2001 both
in sales of units and in value. IFPI, Yet, more recent figures from IFPI, Denmark indicate a severe
drop both in sales of units and in value. These figures on value of sales and number of units sold
suggest a serious drop concerning for example sold units on the Danish market in 2001 to 15,2
millions and in 2002 only 11,9 million units. This does of course hold grave implications also for
the value of sales. Thus, IFPI figures for 2002 put forward a decrease amounting to approx. 32%
from 2000 to 2002 and approx. 28% for the period from 1996-2002.
By comparing value form sales from June last year with value from sales from June this year 2002
the table below (4) shows to some extend the problems currently facing the firms of the industry.
Regarding the international sales we discover a critical decrease in value of sales on approximately
40%. Value of sales for Danish produced music increased during the same period. A development
that appears quite difficult to explain but may be made clearer by the suggestion that Danes are
more loyal to Danish artists considering purchase as well as regarding the respect of the property
rights of Danish artists and thus, do not download and copy their work to the same extend as they
copy the work of international artists. Table 4 furthermore, provide some indication on the ratio
between the value of sales of domestically produced and internationally produced music. The sales
of works of Danish produced artist relative to sales of international produced recordings on the
Danish market was last year about one third of the latter, while the recent situation has effected this
pattern so, that Danish produced sound recording account for almost the same market share as the
internationally produced work.
Table (4): The sales of recordings of the Danish IFPI members in Denmark in June 2002
Total sales in
Month this Month last
Accumulated year to Accumulated year to date
millions DKK
year
year
date
last year
Danish sales
(The producer is
19.06
13.15
119.86
120.58
domiciled in
Denmark)
International sales
(The producer is
24.22
41.84
214.57
290.85
domiciled outside
Denmark)
43.28
54.99
334.43
411.44
TOTAL
(Source: IFPI Danmark, 2002)
Turnover
The table below illustrates the figures of the turnovers for the Danish music industry as well as the
general turnovers for the whole Danish economy.
Table (5): Figures on turnover for the Danish music industry and the total Danish economy
Year
Turnover music Turnover
Percent of the
Index of growth Index of growth
5
industry (mil.
US $)
general Danish
economy (mil.
US$)
turnover of the of the turnover
music industry in the music
relative to the
industry
general
(1992=100)
turnover (Mil.
US$)
523,9
177745,5
0,29
100
1992
755,2
200154,5
0,38
144,2
1995
769,8
222038,1
0,35
147
1997
856,1
234046,4
0,37
163,4
1999
(Source: The Danish Statistical Office 2002, US$: 2002 currency)
of the turnover
in the general
Danish
economy
(1992=100)
100
122,6
125
131,7
As the table shows the turnover from the music industry only make up for about 0,37 % of the
general turnover of the Danish economy. The Danish music industry turnover rates have increased
significantly during the 1990s (TI 2000). Particular interesting is to compare the index figures on
growth of turnovers in the music industry segment with the general Danish turnover figures since
the former clearly illustrates much more significant growth rates. Figures from Institute of
Technology (DK) regarding the huge growth rates particular in the period from 1992 –1997 in
turnovers point especially to the segment of: Publishing of sound recordings (NACE 221400) and
Reproduction of sound recordings (NACE 223100) of the music industry.
Compared to other European numbers (Eurostat 1997) on turnover per. firm, we find that Danish
firms within the music industry (defined as only NACE 2214 and 2231) do quite well having an
average on 0,4 million US$ compared to Sweden on 0,2 and Finland at 0,1 while the UK turnover
per firm is 0,9 mill. US$. This might indicate that the Danish music industry is more concentrated
in terms of being constructed by fewer larger firms than in the other Nordic countries. Also, the
figures on turnover per employed show that the Danish firms do well - 156,1 thousand US $ per
employed compared to Sweden (111,1) and Finland (111,7). Again the UK firms hold an
impressive turnover per employee at 197,7 thousand US $ per employed.
Exports
A salient indicator looking at competitiveness either from a firm or industry level of performance is
export rates4. Such figures inform us about how well Danish music does on the international market
of music products in rivalry with products and artists from the US, UK and the other Nordic
countries.
Table (8): Export rates of the Danish music industry relative to the total Danish export (1992-1999)
Export, music
Export, general Percent of the
Index of growth Index of growth
industry (mil.
Danish
export of the
of the export in of the export in
US $)
economy (mil.
music industry the music
the general
US$)
relative to the
industry
Danish
general
(1992=100)
economy
turnover (Mil.
(1992=100)
US$)
4
Of cause import is equally an important factor talking about competitiveness and export rates.
6
44,2
41849,2
1992
95,7
48713,0
1995
81,1
51454,1
1997
96,7
54478,6
1999
(Source: The Danish Statistical Office 2002)
0,11
0,20
0,16
0,18
100
216,5
183,5
218,8
100
166,4
123,0
130,2
The total export of the Danish music industry is estimated to account to approximately 0,18 of the
total Danish export of goods and services. Nevertheless, an interesting dynamic element is that the
growth rates of the export of the industry between 1992-1999, which show a huge increase also
compared to the figures describing the increase of export rates of the total Danish economy in the
same period of time. This relative pattern between the Danish music industry and the aggregated
Danish economy is found also in the estimates on the related figures on firm start-ups and growth
rates regarding full-time employed (TI 2000). See table presented later).
Another figure illuminating aspects of the Danish music export rates are the numbers of artists,
which received royalties (income) from abroad.
Table (9): Number of receivers of royalties from 1997-1999
Years
1997 1998 1999
2.176 2.489
Number of
2.717
receivers
(Source: The Danish Music Information Center, 2002)
These figures underline a tentative increase of the use of Danish music abroad. Also, it proposes a
somewhat broader export potential for the Danish music industry. Connected to the development of
the Danish industry seen in a wider perspective the numbers suggest that it is not only a few standalone hit records, which are important and single-handed account for the Danish music export5.
Table (10): Export revenues of music products in 1998 and 1999
1998
1999
Mil. US$ Mil. US$
Export revenues from music
38,44
28,01
Music products total (CD’s, etc.)
2,13
2,40
Performance rights (KODA)
0,36
0,13
Radio/TV- rights (GRAMEX)
0,85
0,85
GRAMEX,
1,47
Mechanic rights: Via NCB
9,07
5,13
Mechanic rights: (direct from publisher)
3,98
9,98
NCB’s affairs abroad
15,09
12,07
Concert-bookers, managers, etc.
3,02
3,62
Danish artists signed abroad
15,70
16,30
CD production
88,64
79,96
Music exports total
(Source: The Danish Music information Center)
5
Neither Aqua nor Safri Duo released material in 1999
7
Musical products relates to the producing firms’ gathered export. In general income from abroad is
generated by sales of finished products and licensing, the latter is the most common. Yet, important
to keep in mind is the fact that performance measures must take into account that the general profit
includes costs connected to producing, the producing firm’s part of the license deal and the artist’s
share of the license deal. Payment of the performance and publishing rights derives from the
collecting societies of KODA6 and NCB (see later). Remember however, that certain parts of the
export market not naturally connect to the business of KODA. Some of this income related to
performance, which is paid from this point, can be found under the label: concert bookers and
managers. Yet, the figures above only suggest - understood at an aggregated level - an increase in
the use of Danish pop music internationally.
In the context of generating an extended export rate we may claim that the issue of domestic
competent demand plays an important role. Therefore, it seems interesting to note the fact that the
number of sound recordings7 sold per inhabitant 1998 (units) in Denmark was 3,3. A purchase rate
only matched by the consume rate in the US (4,0) and UK (3,9). Sweden (2,9) follows Denmark.
This may imply that the critical mass in these countries are potential higher and hence act as more
alert for identifying new trends and genres in music than countries where people buy less music.
Moreover, an interesting aspect concerning the use of music (demand side) is to be found in a new
Eurobarometer survey (2002). This point among other things out that almost 60% of all Europeans
listen to the radio every day and of these persons 86,3 % prefer to listen to music. Actually, we find
that the highest rates of music listeners in Europe are found in Sweden and Denmark.
Demand
The Danish market for music products appears in terms of tastes to be of a rather mainstream
character and not as diverse into many sub-markets as somehow characteristic for the rest of the
Nordic countries. A glace on the hit-list facts of 2000 reveals a strong position of domestically
produced records on the home market. We find that within the 10 best selling CD’s we find 5
Danish produced records featuring Danish artists and on the single top 50 the 5 best selling singles
are Danish of origin (IFPI, 2002).
Still, regarding what kind of music people listen to a European barometer survey (2002) finds that
Danes are the country within the European Union where most people listens to pop and rock music.
In the context of generating an extended export rate we may claim that the issue of domestic
competent demand pushing the limits for good music plays an important role. Therefore, it seems
interesting to note that the number of sound recordings8 sold per inhabitant 1998 (units) in Denmark
was 3,3. A purchase rate only matched by the consume rate in the US (4,0) and UK (3,9). Sweden
(2,9) follows Denmark. This may imply that the critical mass in these countries are potential higher
and hence act as more alert for identifying new trends and genres in music than countries where
people buy less music.
6
7
8
KODA is the main body of the Danish society for collecting royalties.
In this measurement three singles count as one sound recording unit (Eurostat 2000).
In this measurement three singles count as one sound recording unit (Eurostat 2000)
8
In addition, an attention-grabbing aspect concerning the use of music (demand side) is to be found
in a new Eurobarometer survey (2002). This points out that almost 60% of all Europeans listen to
the radio every day and of these persons 86,3 % prefer to listen to music. The survey further finds
that the highest rates of music listeners in Europe are found in Sweden and Denmark.
Releases
The number of phonogram releases provides us an indication about how many new products that
are yearly commercialised in Denmark. A figure on the number of from artists, producers, firms etc.
related in some way to Denmark has not been possible to collect. A tentative figure has however
been develop through the use of the Danish libraries database, which suggested that there were
about 1200 releases of rock music in 2001 in Denmark. Also, such figures combined with
statements from interviews propose an increase of the rate of Danish releases since 1990.
New works and members of the collecting societies
Related to the figures presented in table 6 and 7, it is interesting to identify how many songs that
each year are reported to the collecting societies as well as the overall picture of collected songs and
member. These figures tell us something about what we might term the rate of invention that could
in a longer time frame be turned into releases by various producers and record companies.
Table (6): New Danish works reported to KODA from 1997-2001
Year
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
Total
27.764 28.333 27.376 26.915 26.256 136.644
New Danish works
319.403 348.375 373.519 399.359
Total reported Danish works
764.490 829.312 882.769 932.224
Total reported works
(Source KODA 2002)
Table (7): New Danish members of KODA from1997-2001
Year
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
Total
New members
Members total
1.962
20.585
2.049
22.634
964
23.598
973
24.571
983
25.554
6.931
116.942
(Source KODA 2002)
As the latter figures show the rate of new Danish members decrease relative to the total amount of
members. Yet, the Danish proposition of all reported works relative to the total reported works
seems to stay relative stabile.
Numbers deriving from collecting societies put forward that the number of new members, of new
reported songs, of the relationship between new reported Danish developed songs and international
ones are all status quo over the past 5 years (KODA).
Employment and firms of the Danish pop music industry
A first issue to underline in this context is the relative low barriers to entry concerning the artistic
related activities we find for firms and persons in this industry. This is of cause due – among other
things - to low costs of various equipments (i.e. recording, instruments, mixing), and as such related
to changes in technology and distribution (i.e. for example on the internet). Yet, it is recognised, on
the other hand that we detected a recent growth concerning marketing and costs of promoting a
9
release or artist nationally as well as internationally. These two trends seem to be working along
side each other – particularly linked to different genres. And might explain why many independent
labels currently are doing well at a certain level of developing artists and records but need the
resources and capabilities of major record companies when wanting to move to a higher level of
record sales.
According to The Danish Statistical Office, 2002 the number of firms within the music industry has
increased over the last decade. In 1999 we found 1918 firms in the industry, which is estimated to
account for about 0,59 percent of the full population of firms in Denmark. Compared to the same
figure from 1992 we find that the numbers of firms in the music industry answered for only 0,47
percent.
The figures below describe the change in the number of firms and the number of full-time employed
in the industry segment from 1992 to 1999.
Table (11): Changes in the number of firms and full-time employed in the Danish music industry
(1992-1999)
1992 1995 1997 1999
1618 1735 1803 1918
Number of firms
4948 5432 4983 5429
Employed in total
Full-time employed 3.109 3.205 2.834 3.057
(Source: The Danish Statistical Office, 2002)
The main interest is not so much the general increase in the number of firms in the music industry
or the explained increase of the number of firms related to the general number of firms in the
general Danish economy –but the fact that the growing number of firms is not matched by an equal
increase in the number of full-time employed in the industry. It is in the current paper left un-touch
to explain this pattern.
Employment
On a general level, the organisation of non-professional rhythmic music in Denmark: Fajabefa
estimates in the autumn 2002 that approximately 290.000 persons above 16 years play music in
Denmark.
As the figures of table (11) above reveal we find from 1992 to 1995 a small increase of persons fulltimed employed in the music industry in Denmark. Yet, we may identify a server drop from 1995 to
1997 on 371 persons and just a weak recovery in 1999. The 3057 persons employed in the industry
segment account only for 0,26 percent of the number of full-time employed in the total Danish
economy in 1999.
The figure on the total number of employed in the Danish music industry shows a slow increase
from 1992 to1995 then a drop back to around 5000 persons and yet, again a slight growth in 1999 to
reach 5429 employed, which is an increase from 1992 amounting to approx. 10%.
Table (12): Absolute number of employed in various sectors of the Danish music industry (19921999)
Branch (NACE code)
1992
1995
1997
1999
10
Creation
923110 Performing artists, producers of artistic and
literary work
Industry:
221400 Publishers of sound recordings
221500 Other publishers
223100 Industry for the reproduction of sound
recording
246500 Industry for prepared unrecorded media
Distribution:
514330 Wholesale (CDs, tapes, records, videotapes
524530 Stores for records & videotapes
524540 Stores for music, instruments & music scores
923200 Theatre & concert hall companies etc
Machinery & equipment:
363000 Industry for music instruments
Total number of employed of the music industry
Total number of employees in DK incl. the music
industry
(Source: The Danish Statistical Office 2002)
268
801
776
675
61
2763
190
1872
198
1174
450
1427
29
169
188
172
346
376
17
469
272
460
326
736
383
426
352
768
439
484
306
809
485
453
431
300
4948
315
5432
320
4983
306
5429
1554948 1585432 1634983
1685429
If we look at the single segments within the music industry we find that particularly the category
’Other publishers’ has experienced a decrease in employment. On the other hand we observe an
increase of employment in sectors as ‘Wholesale’ (514330) and ‘Publishing of sound recording’
(221400) as well as ‘Industry for the reproduction of sound recording’ (22310). Furthermore, we
identify an increase concerning the number of employed within ‘Performing artists, producers of
artistic and literary works’ at 152%.
However, it is important to note that the production of music often is related to matters of microbusinesses, self-employment, part-time employment, freelancing, semi-professionals, etc. This
makes accurate statistics rather difficult to create, as data is hard to collect. Besides, when
individuals of the firms of the industry find themselves un-employed both concerning so-called
humdrum and artistic activities they frequently seek employment in other more or less related
industry sectors.
Moreover, to undermine the credibility of the data from The Danish Statistical Office (2002) figures
originating from the Danish music information center (MIC) estimates that there are around 7500
professionally organised musicians, singers, composers, etc. in Denmark. The majority are
organised in the Danish musicians union (DMF) (approximately 6000 members) or the Danish
artists association (approximately 1500 members).
An interesting figure also from Eurostat 1997 concerns average number of employed per enterprise.
Again figures only concern firms involved in activities under NACE 221400 and 223100. The
figure informs us about firm size for the firms of the music industry. The average number of
employed pr. firm is in Denmark 2,3, while Sweden holds 2,0, Finland 1,1 and the UK 4,6.
11
Firms in the music industry
If we focus on the development between 1992-1999 concerning the number of firms in the various
sectors of the music industry in Denmark, we find the following picture. In general, there has been
an increase in the number of firms within the industry (table 11) accounting for approx. 19%.
Table (13): Absolute number of firms in the different sectors of the Danish music industry (19921999)
NACE
1992 1995 1997 1999
Creation:
923110 Performing artists producers of artistic and
literary work
Industry:
221400 Publishers of sound recordings
221500 Other publishers
223100 Industry for the reproduction of sound
recording
246500 Industry for prepared unrecorded media
Distribution:
514330 Wholesale (CDs, tapes, records, etc.)
524530 Stores for records &videotapes
524540 Stores for music, instruments and music
scores
923200 Theatre and concert hall companies
Machinery & equipment
363000 Industry for music instrument
Total
(Source: The Danish Statistical Office, 2002)
129
180
185
219
12
600
150
464
219
434
244
417
7
19
5
33
5
39
7
43
41
85
127
106
128
107
158
255
420
224
361
208
369
196
416
111 120 116 115
1618 1735 1803 1918
What is particular interesting to infer from the table above is the extreme growth in the number of
record labels (NACE:221400) growing from 12 in 1992 to 244 inn 1999 (more than 200%), while
we see a drop in the number of ‘other publishers’ (NACE: 221500) around 35% in the same period
of time. Moreover, the general picture of the music industry is a slow growth or status quo in the
number of firms in most sectors yet, excluding categories as other publishers and stores for music
instruments and music scores.
Table (14): Size and number of firms in the various parts of the Danish music industry, 1999
100(+
Number of employed – Firm size
0
1-9 10-49 50-99)
Total
(NACE)
Creation
92310 Performing artists producers of artistic and
169 42 8
219
literary work
Industry
224 17 2
1
244
22140 Publishers of sound recordings
319 86 8
3
1
417
22150 Other publishers
12
22310 Industry for the reproduction of sound
recording
24650 Industry for prepared unrecorded media
51433 Wholesale (CDs, tapes, records, videotapes
Distribution:
52453 Stores for records & videotapes
52454 Stores for music, instruments & music scores
92320 Theatre & concert hall companies etc
Machinery & equipment:
36300 Industry for music instruments
Total
(Source: The Danish Statistical Office, 2002)
31
5
57
5 2
1 1
33 14
1
2
1
39
7
107
121 31 4
132 57 7
375 40 1
2
158
196
416
96 13 5
1529 325 52
1
8
115
1.918
4
The figures above table 14 show that most firms involved in activities of the music industry are
small and medium sized enterprises (SMEs) having less than 9 employed. Moreover, more than
80% are one-person firms. As such, many of the firms are one-person firms only established to
manage a single artists work and economy. The average number of persons employed (not fulltime) in a firm of the Danish music industry in 1999 was 2,8. However, as we know a few of these
SMEs are connected to multinational companies and as such to view more in the realm of major
firms. We find that the most firms according to this industry segment are located within the
categories: ‘Other publishers’ and ‘Theatre & concert hall companies’ etc. These categories both
include a number of firms not directly related to the industry in scope.
How is the size relationship within the different elements of industry then? As the table (15) below
shows in percentage of the full population of firms, turnover and employment split up on the sublevels of branches of the industry the largest parts of the industry’s employment in 1999 were firms
located within categories ‘other publishers’ and ‘wholesale’. Concerning turnover the main bulk
(52%) arrived from sales of CD’s, tapes, etc.
Table (15): The percentage of firms, employed and turnover from various sectors of the Danish
music industry, 1999:
Branche
Employment Firms Turnover
221400 Publishers of sound recordings
8
12
6
221500 Other publishers
24
22
13
Industry for the reproduction of sound
223100 recording
10
2
7
363000 Industry for music instruments
7
6
2
514330 Wholesale (CDs, tapes, records, etc.)
21
6
52
524530 Stores for records &videotapes
9
8
8
Stores for music, instruments and music
524540 scores
8
10
5
923110 Performing artists
9
11
5
923200 Theatre and concert hall companies
4
22
2
I alt
100
99
100
13
(Source: The Danish Statistical Office, 2002)
Firm location
Table (16): The spatial distribution of firms in the Danish music industry from 1992 to 1999
Absolute number
1992
1992
1995
1995
1997
1997
1999
1999
of firms
Music
Music
Music
Music
Location
industry Total
industry Total
industry Total
industry Total
(council):
CPH and
30,81
FRDBRG
435
30,143 479
29,672 550
1
649
32,206
Municipality
29,51
212
29,100 228
29,321 229
8
238
30,188
Copenhagen
21,89
120
21,609 120
21,503 124
8
129
22,557
Frederiksborg
12,90
71
13,305 55
13,081 41
2
55
13,138
Roskilde
19,02
63
19,983 63
19,104 72
7
77
19,098
Vestsjællands
16,21
44
17,551 45
16,524 44
3
42
16,072
Storstrøms
12
3,677
10
3,248
15
3,076 15
2,977
Bornholms
26,87
98
28,510 118
27,502 120
0
115
26,721
Fyns
17,00
47
17,934 52
17,387 62
1
52
16,566
Sønderjyllands
15,09
44
16,422 40
15,416 43
4
46
14,918
Ribe
21,66
74
22,510 89
21,669 72
6
70
21,720
Vejle
21,05
43
23,145 49
21,567 51
1
50
20,490
Ringkøbing
36,93
204
38,740 231
37,200 236
8
238
36,910
Århus
19,72
38
21,723 45
20,351 38
6
35
19,445
Viborg
32,23
113
36,258 111
33,352 106
3
106
31,639
Nordjyllands
340,81
326,89
324,0
324,64
1618
3
1735
9
1803
51
1918
5
Total
(Source: Danish Statistical Office 2002)
As the figures (table 16) reveal, there is a clear concentration of firms connected to the music
industry within the Greater Copenhagen area (Copenhagen and Frederiksberg municipality and
Copenhagen council) accounting for no less than 46% of all firms of the Danish music industr. A
minor concentration of firms is found around the city of Aarhus (Aarhus Council) accounting for
12% of all the firms within the music industry. If we relate the music industry figures to the figures
14
of the total number of Danish firms in all industries we learn that the music industry concentration
within the Greater Copenhagen area are more significant than the general concentration rate (19%).
Besides, the growth in the number of firm start-ups in the Copenhagen region from 1992-1999 is
larger than in other parts of Denmark.
Key players of the music industry
Record Companies
The record companies are the segment within the music industry in Denmark that properly makes
most money. The trend characterising the record companies’ industry structure is: 1) the strong
tendency towards an organised division of labour and knowledge due to a high level of
specialisation between the firms, 2) the development of a large number of differently related
industries 3) the strong market concentration dominated by the five majors with only relative few
Danish independent labels. In Denmark the majors represent approximately 75- 90 percent of the
total Danish market of sales of phonograms. It is furthermore, difficult to say to what extend the
income stays in Denmark or is shipped to the mother company. This said, it is important to keep in
mind that the music industry in Denmark perhaps by economic numbers are dominated by
multinational global players but that the firms as showed by table (14) in general are SMEs.
The members of IFPI, DK account for approximately 95-98% of the record sales in DK per year.
IFPI represents 37 companies9 including the majors and umbrella organisations of the major
independent labels. The firms are involved in various aspects of the processes of production of
music - various NACE codes – but mainly involved in activities of production and reproduction of
sound recordings (NACE 221400 and 514330). IFPI represents as such a major bulk of record
companies relative to economic size concerning the whole population estimated by musicnet.dk to
approximately 60 – 80 labels represented on the Danish market (www.musiknet.dk). However,
more is represented since some of the firms mentioned represent more than one label. This goes, for
example, for Playground Music Scandinavia, which have distribution and to some extend marketing
activities for approximately 50 minor or medium sized labels from all over the globe. The number
of recoding labels changes rapidly as small independent labels constantly enter and exit the market
(e.g. relative low entry costs for small scale production). Yet, some interviews imply that the
majority of these labels survive only for a very short period of time or is merged into existing ones.
Moreover, many labels are under the same ownership control (see the description of the majors
below).
The majors
All the five recognised multinationals; EMI, BMG/Bertelsmann, Sony/CBS, Universal/Vivendi and
AOL Time Warner – the majors dominate the global entertainment business environment and
especially the music industry. All of them are represented in Denmark. The majors are, almost
rudimentary to say, part of huge media conglomerates involved – and to some extend partial - with
the production of music but have core activities within hardware production (PC, TV, Hi-Fi, etc.),
film-making, publishing, and internet services, etc.
The majors situated in Denmark can be said to have two basis tasks. First, the majors have the
mission to do activities related to marketing, distribution, promotion and sales of products from
international artists – initiated by strategy of the mother company within the Danish market.
9
These include associations of a number of independent labels
15
Secondly, to search and discover Danish talents and hence, if possible produce, marketing, promote,
distribute and sell this nationally produced (Danish) music both on the home market as well as in
the global marketplace.
A glance at the web pages of the majors in Denmark and related to interviews revealed that the first
objective seems currently to have the strongest priority. However, several of the people of the
industry mentioned when interviewed that only one or two firms among the majors really were
interested in producing Danish pop music, namely EMI and to some extend Universal. The other
major companies located in Demark are of cause interested in making money from selling music
produced in Denmark – they do produce some recording of Danish origin - but are not as such
deeply involved in producing national artists. A number of labels as, for example, BMG, Sony
Music Denmark and Universal appear over the last years to have narrowed down the number of
yearly releases of Danish produced music.
In general, we can state that the Danish pop music industry has developed closely aligned to the
main trends identified in the UK and US segments of the industries. That is market concentration,
particularly regarding the marketing, financing and distribution elements.
In common for all the majors are that they own or are involved both internationally and nationally
in a wide range of various labels specialised in certain genres or which are country specific. Also,
the Danish part of the majors shares the features that each company consists of highly composite
conglomerate of mergers and acquisitions of various national labels and furthermore, that the
ownership relations are rather complex involving a number of holding companies, etc. The Danish
located majors employ around 20 – 40 persons each.
Brief - The five majors in Denmark
The figures presented below on the activities of the majors in Denmark are presented in thousand
Danish Kroner. All data of the majors are found using Greens on-line business information service.
EMI Music Denmark A/S
The company took over Skandinavisk Grammophon Aktieselskab (founded in 1903) in 1967 to
establish itself in Denmark. In 1992 EMI took over the major Danish independent label Medley
Records. In 1999 the company merged with EMI Invest. The company is owned 100% by the EMI
Group Denmark. EMI Music Denmark is connected to local labels CMC, Recact, Chrystalis, as well
as more internationally known labels as; Capitol Records, Virgin records, and other labels.
Corporate mother: EMI Group, UK.
Tabel (17)
1996/97
1997/98
1998/99
1999/00
2000/01
273384
206712
172964
207227
178630
Turnover
40769
-15062
-66701
3674
-17754
Revenue
73133
36397
24423
45781
26376
Export
43
44
39
44
45
Number of employed
Universal Music A/S
The company started business in Denmark in 1920 under the name of Polygram Records, In 1991
the company bought the main activities of Sonet/Dansk Grammofon A/S, In 1995 the companies
distribution was moved to Germany. Owns Universal Pictures Denmark A/S. Universal Trading
16
Company B.V. Nederland owns the Danish company 100 percent. Universal Music Denmark is
associated with among others the following labels: Polydor Music, MCA Music Entertainment,
Magnet Music Production, Sonet, Mercury Records, Mercury and Polygram Records. Corporate
mother; Vivendi Universal (France-US).
Table (18)
1996
1997
1998/99
1999/00
2001
178813 197166 226627
354365
253760
Turnover
17051
17592
7329
6504
9370
Revenue
X
X
X
X
X
Export
35
34
34
42
42
Number of employed
BMG Denmark
In Denmark founded in 1988 under the name of BMG Ariola A/S. In 1993 the company merged
with Genlyd Grammofon (a ‘major’ Danish independent label form Aarhus). In 1995 the company
merged with Reinhardt Mohn Scandinavia and in 1999 with Replay records. The company is
associated with the label: BMG Ariola Records, BMG Publishing Denmark, BMG Ariola Denmark.
The firm is owned by Bertelsmann Music Group GmbH, Germany, 100%.
Table (19)
1996/97
1997/98
1998/99
1999/00
2000/01
106636
105771
87293
90208
80556
Turnover
12852
5236
2991
-1572
1566
Revenue
X
X
X
X
X
Export
28
29
27
23
21
Number of employed
Sony Music Entertainment (Denmark) A/S
The firm begun activities in Denmark in 1971 by the name of CBS Records. Changed in 1991 to the
current name and form of company. Merged in 1995 with (the third largest independent Danish
label) Pladecompagniet. The company is associated with products from Pladecompagniet, Sony
music Nordic A/S and is owned by Sony Software Nordic Aps, 100 %. Corporate mother; Sony
Corporation, Japan.
Table (20)
1996/1997
1997/98
1998/99
1999/00
2000/2001
169506
172783
162619
159835
131751
Turnover
26308
16143
12119
8613
575
Revenue
X
X
X
X
X
Export
31
34
37
40
40
Number of employed
Warner Music Denmark A/S
The firm was created in Denmark in 1988 under the name of Wes records, it changes its name in
1990 to the current one. The company is owned by Warner Music Holding Denmark A/S, 100 %.
Corporate mother; AOL Time Warner, US.
Table (21)
1996/1997
1997/98
1998/99
1999/00
2000/2001
111770
141252
143190
150796
107292
Turnover
3262
7142
5523
5129
-4171
Revenue
X
X
X
X
X
Export
17
Number of employed
20
20
21
21
21
On a global scale EMI is the smallest company of the five majors, yet, EMI, DK claims, when
interviewed, today to hold about 47% of the market share of sales in Denmark of Danish produced
music and the firm is as such a dominating force on the domestic market. In addition EMI, DK is an
example of a major record label buying stakes in other Scandinavian independent companies (Pogo,
Finland, Virgin, CMC, Medley) as well as having many licensing deals (‘mainly marketing and
distribution’) with minor now up coming Danish indies like: Crunchy Frog, Auditorium and
Musicmatters. Also, Universal DK is involved with minor companies of A&R, management, eventcoordination, etc. This is particular occurring related to artists originating out of a Universal effort,
but the artist only has a distribution and marketing arrangement with the firm everything else is so
far and to some extend detached from this major company.
Table (22): Market shares of the majors in Denmark (1992-2002)
Company/years
1994 1995 1996 1999 2000
2002
BMG/Ariola
EMI/Medley (CMC, Virgin)
MCA Music entertainment
Polygram Records
Universal (MCA, Polygram)
Virgin Records
Warner Music
Sony/Pladecompaniet
CMC
Total
14,2 9,6 10,7 9,2
19,3 15,1 17,9 29,5
1,8 4,3 3,5
18,1 17,2 14,4
17,2
6,5 5,4 6,4 7,3
11,2 9,3 10,2 11,4
17,1 16,7
17 13,2
6,5 5,5
88,2 84,1 85,6 87,8
7,9
27,5
8,7
31,9
21,3
9
12,1
11,6
26,5
89,4
92,6
9,9
15,6
(Source: IFPI, DK)
(The company names in brackets are companies bought by some of the majors over time – see
description above)
As table 22 shows, the majors in Denmark from 1994 to 2002 have increased their shares of the
Danish music market (IFPI members sales equal 100% of the market). Furthermore, due to mergers
and take-overs a concentration of ownership has occurred in the Danish music market. The largest
companies are EMI and Universal have both experienced growth in market shares during the latest
years. BMG and Warner Music are the smallest firms of the majors in Denmark. Only Warner
Music has experienced a decrease of market shares during the last 2 years.
The independent labels - indies
Table (23): The most important labels represented in the Danish market
Company name
Company mother or associated to, main
decision-making location
Edel, Germany
Edel/Mega
Sweden, Edel
Playground
Sweden
MNW
Nordic
Bonnier
Musiklærerforenings forlag Denmark
Denmark
Steeplechase
18
Market share (2002)
2,6
0,95
1,43
0,95
0,12
0,03
Sundance
Trust
Olufsen
Pineapple
Dacapo
Egmont/Litas
EMG
Exlibris
Kick A/S
Cruncy Frog
(Source: IFPI)
Denmark
Denmark
Denmark
Denmark
Denmark
Denmark
Denmark
Denmark
Denmark
Denmark
0,02
0,06
0,19
0,02
0,08
0,09
0,25
The staffs of the major record companies in DK are mainly consisting of people from many former
Danish independent record companies: Medley (integrated in EMI), Pladecompagniet (bought by
Sony), Genlyd (taken over by BMG). These were acquired/merged to majors who used this as an
entry strategy to the Danish music market.
The value chain (soup) is as mentioned characterised by a strong division of labour. TI (2000)
argues that about 67% of the firms of the Danish music industry collaborates as sub-suppliers and
almost 50% as direct customers. This ‘flexible’ organisation of the industry seems to provide an
organisational form, which can handle a huge variance in demand. So, competition and
collaboration looks to be a distinct feature of the Danish music industry (Darmer 1998). For
example, various strategies for survival among the indies exist according to Darmer 1998. The
conclusion offered by Darmer is that the indies are not really independent of the majors but to a
large degree interpret themselves as being so. Furthermore, the indies are not independent in an
economical rationality but can be considered independent concerning their self-perception and to
some extend also regarding the space for decision-making ‘given’ by the relation to the majors
(Hesmondhalgh 1996). The latter, since the majors often offer the indies very broad space for selfgovernance and self-organisation since this form of interdependency is understood to be the best
device supporting the entrepreneurial and not least artistic innovative spirit. Also, the majors could
be seen as offering the indies a pathway to the global music market. Moreover, we find very little
formal horizontal relations in the industry and as such only few initiatives benefiting the whole
industry segment.
It must also be underlined that matters of venture capital financing music production is rather weak
in the Danish music industry. This is in the conducted interviews explained by pointing to the fact
that demand is characterised to be quite uncertain and thus, only very little security in investments.
Outside the arena of the majors and a few sponsoring deals, we therefore mainly find public and
labour union driven support initiatives involved in the promotion and developing activities of the
music industry.
The relationship between the majors and the indies
Darmer (1998) advocates that competition is weak in the Danish pop music industry compared to
the UK. According to Darmer the industry is not as developed and big as the latter, and hence, he
argues reputation-effect mechanisms and trust within the community of the actors involved in the
industry are essential. The indies and majors depend on each other in an market organised way,
since a division of labour seems to has developed. Darmer maintains that the indies has specialised
19
due to the interpretation of a remaining integrity and authentic. They contain a certain cultural
capital and credibility for doing pure true music. This interpretation since they often have close
relationships to the people and firms of the underground scenes and thus, to the non-commercialised
and pure artistic output, which is not done to make money. Sometimes the indies due to they
relationships and embeddedness in the local environment also hold an early sense of new trends
mushrooming. The indies can be said to perform activities the remind to a certain degree of smaller
R&D units, which core competencies is finding and developing talent. The majors appear to a large
extend to have their key capabilities within marketing, financing and distribution activities.
The development path for many independent labels has usually been that a major would take over
when the label has experienced growth and success. This process may also occur the other way
round since some indies or related activities (e.g. A&R consultancy, talent discovery and
development, management, event production) are spin offs by employees from majors. Several
interview made it explicit that this latter trend within the last 5 years has been identified in Denmark
and is a growing tendency. When a major interact with an indie label – mainly via licensing deals –
the independent label stays in the public eye un-touched by the major company due to the
possibility of erosion of integrity and decreased branding effect. Still, some independent labels
remain outside the sphere of the majors because mainly of either a particular strong political
ideology or simply the strategic decision that the label does not have intentions to grow or become a
bigger label.
A current trend recognized seems to be that the major record companies sell or outsource many of
the elements forming, what we usually consider some main parts of the complex chain of activities
of a record company. This relates for example to A&R functions, event coordination – marketing
and promotion elements -, connected recording studio, etc. This trend seems also detected in the US
one, two or three decades ago, when record companies appeared a more coherent vertical integrated
firm built around for example a recording studio (i.e. Motown records) and thus, also employed a
set of actors closely related to the production process of a sound recording; musicians, producers,
songwriters, etc. This process of disintegration links well to a tendency towards an increasing
specialisation and hence new skills needed to be coordinated to be successful in the business. For
example pushed forward by technology development. This had let to some organisational
fragmentation since all – divers knowledge assets seems not easily to be integrated in house. The
apparent answer to the specialisation and increase of capabilities that need to be integrated appears
to be the proliferation of several small project-coordination firms that in a dynamic market organise
a lot of the artistic activities as well as more marketing related issues connected to the production of
a new record or launching of a new artist. While the typical coordinators - the major record
companies concentrate on providing capital, some promoting activities and the channels of
distribution and retail.
Recording studios
Another part of the value creating parts of the industry is the recording studio. It is estimated by
musicnet.dk that there are around 60 professional recording studios in Denmark. However, since a
recording studio for a professional release today can be located in the bedroom and done with the
equipment of a lab-top, at a cost that can be meet by most people, this figure only relates to big and
more established recording sites holding a certain expertise on sound recording, mixing and other
related technologies (e.g. computer-based skills) as well as some particular high quality equipment.
20
CD producers
The physical production of CDs in Denmark is located mainly in two firms: SDC DanDisc, which is
not a Danish owned firm and the Danish firm Tocano.
Distributors
Distribution is for Sony, BMG, EMI, Universal and some indies in DK arranged through the
partnership of the company GDC, which cover 90 % of the Danish distribution market of audio and
video. These mentioned players are the key suppliers and part of the ownership.
Retailers
The retail of music products in Denmark (i.e. CD’s) is undertaken mainly by three forms of firms.
These three hold almost equally shares of the retail market. 1) The specialised independent record
shops (i.e. GUF records, TP music), 2) the large national or even international retail chains as;
Fona, HMV, Virgin Megastore, and 3) finally, supermarkets: FDB or Dansk Supermarket (i.e.
Brugsen, Føtex, Bilka, OBS, etc.). The latter segment is the one that have experienced the largest
growth over the last decade and it today a serious player for the record companies to negotiate with.
These firms should nit be included in the exercise.
Live performances
The volume of the live music market seems impossible to estimate as collecting the information on
this topic is difficult due to problems of defining what qualify as a live performance on the music
market (that an entrance fee is paid?), that the artist and musicians receive payment? That the live
performance is accounted for at the collecting society?). One may however take the figure on the
revenue collected by KODA for live performances as an interesting vector pointing towards a
tendency considering the overall activities of the live scene.
Still, a recent Europeanbarometer survey refers that the highest rate of people attending a pop/rock
concert during the last 12 month is found in Denmark (Eurostat 2002).
Supporting institutions
Under this heading we provide two basic elements: an outline of the dominating structure and
functions of the formal supporting institutions influencing the activities of the Danish music
industry scene. Additionally, we have selected to describe some of the formal institutions that we
find of particular interest in the given context, such as, the new music manager education as well as
organisations as The Danish music information center (MIC), ROSA and FAJABEFA. The latter is
the organisation of the amateur musicians in Denmark, which represent artists and musicians from
the growth area that might possible foster and develop the next export success of the Danish music
industry.
Many both public and private institutions influence in many and rather various ways the activities
and development of the Danish music industry. This related both to the innovation and production
activities as well as more exchange related elements. As such, it is in order to draw a more
conclusive picture of the industry a need to outline the most important of these. The institutions
dealt with here are formal ones providing a wide range of services such as education, state funding
units, national, regional or local institutions of cultural affairs, industrial bodies, labour unions, as
21
well as the various collecting societies. These institutions serve as a form of support, guidance or
regulation concerning most activities of the industry. Neither descriptions nor explanations of the
existence and importance of information, knowledge and activity coordinating informal institutions
as trust relations or reputation effects are not directly addressed. Furthermore, the institutional setup is consisting of a rather large element of related and associated services as specialised layers and
accountants supporting both artistic related and more humdrum business related actors. However,
Public authorities
Government ministries
Policies deriving from at least two ministries are of direct importance for the Danish music industry,
to be exact: The Ministry of Cultural Affairs and The Ministry of Trade and Industry. However, in
this system view of the industry also policies from, for instance, the Ministry of Education are of
significant for shaping the condition of the industry.
Ministry of Trade and Industry
This ministry influences various factors of the Danish music industry since it is responsible for the
Danish trade and industrial policy, and hence the more business related aspects of the music
industry. However, the ministry does not as such have particular policies targets towards the
specificities of the music industry. Still, as mentioned before the Ministry of Cultural Affairs and
the Ministry of Trade and Industry have done a political statement on the developments of the
creative industries. The underlying assumption is that the interaction between the creative and the
business field would yield synergies.
Public support schemes:
The Ministry of Cultural Affairs supports the development, production and performance of Danish
music primarily from a cultural perspective. Funding to popular music genres is mainly allocated
through the Danish Music Council. This institution may be regarded as the main political authority
concerning the music industry in Denmark.
The Danish Music Act from 1976 is believed to be one of the first in the world. The act comes
within the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Culture and is administered by the Danish Music Council.
The Music Council advises and assist public authorities and institutions in matters related to music.
The Music Council shall hold the final administrative authority with respect to the distribution of
subsidies, yet, it holds a relative independent position regarding the Ministry of Cultural Affairs.
The Danish Music Council
The Danish Music Council is a body of 9 experts from all corners of Danish musical life. The
Minister of Culture appoints 4 members, and 5 members are elected among Danish organisations
and institutions working with music.
The main task of the Danish Music Council is to subsidize a range of different areas within Danish
musical life. Both classical and rhythmic music are subsidized. The amount fixed for the Danish
Music Council in the Finance Act of 2001 is approx. 23 million US$. From this 9,2 mil. US$ are
subsidies for the more than 200 music schools for children and young people and 3,47 mil. US$ are
subsidies for venues arranging concerts with rhythmic music.
The council has distributed subsidies to the following specialised organisations within the field of
rhythmic music. ROSA - The Danish Rock Council, The Danish Folk Council FFS, Danish Jazz
Federation and The Danish World Music Association.
22
Most of the funding from the council is not granted towards activities of pop music but other more
prioritised genres as classical music, children’s music, folk and jazz music. These are aspects of the
music scene, which do not generate the value as pop music does.
One example however is the transportation fund, which is financed by the council. This can cover
domestic travel expenses for rhythmic bands in some instances (from 2003 the fund is closed
down). Another support for pop music that the council also stands behind is the Consultancy for
Rhythmic Music. A consultant service that publishes useful handbooks such as "Spillemønter",
which is a guide through the funding-jungle. The book (in Danish) covers all forms of music and
can be ordered on-line. The possibilities for subsidisation regarding CD publishing are explained in
the brochure "CD-støtte" from the consultant service.
The county music committees and similar music committees in the municipalities of Copenhagen
and Frederiksberg support local music initiatives. Other local Danish governments also support
music initiatives within their respective areas.
If a certain music activity involves exchange between Denmark and another Nordic country, it is
possible to apply for subsidies through one of the bilateral funds. Should partners from three or
more Nordic countries become involved, it could be helpful to contact the Nordic music committee
(Nomus) or other culture supporting agreements under the Nordic Council of Ministers, where
musicians can apply for Nordic scholarships. Projects are subsidised through the Nordic culture
fund, which has a secretariat in Copenhagen.
Financing through EU-funds requires participants from several countries and a substantial selffinancing. Information on this is gathered at the Cultural Contact Point of the Ministry of Culture.
The Danish Music Information Center- MIC
An important piece in the development of both cultural and business related aspects of the Danish
music industry is MIC. This institution is a state-funded, non-profit organization for providing
information about and promoting Danish music at home and abroad.
Accordance with the by-laws MIC is supposed to: disseminate the knowledge – nationally and
internationally – of Danish music and music life, within all genres, provide existing information,
registration and documentation of Danish music and music life, coordinate the initiatives abroad to
ensure the best possible use of the public financed subsidy.
ROSA: The Danish Rock Council
ROSA is music-political umbrella organisation that represents a line of music associations and
organisations. It is a organisation with it’s own economy but yet, based on funding mainly from
public institutions schemes. ROSA’s objectives are: Support Danish rock music and related genres
via the means from the music law, Support public institutions in cultural and musical political
matters related to the rhythmic music scene, Support the distribution of Danish music nationally as
well as internationally.
The Danish musicians union, The Danish artist association, Spillested DK etc. are involved in
organising ROSA activities. To estimate any direct effect of the ROSA initiative is rather difficult
but from the normative standpoints picked up under the interview round there seem to be a general
23
agreement that the organisation has been rather successful in its support particular concerning
helping and developing upcoming bands and artists.
Public education institutions
On the highest level of education focusing on music Denmark has six institutions. These are
engaged in educating professional musicians, singers, composers, music teachers, etc. This takes
place at the conservatories:
 The Royal Danish Academy of Music, Copenhagen
 Rhythmic Music Conservatory, Copenhagen.
 The Carl Nielsen Academy of Music Odense, Odense.
 The West Jutland Academy of Music, Esbjerg.
 The Royal Academy of Music, Århus. Centre for Improvised Music and Movement
(Silkeborg) is a section of the conservatory, which educates music teachers and educators in
the rhythmic field.
 The North Jutland Academy of Music, Aalborg.
There are tracks for rhythmic music at all the institutions.
In order to enrol at the conservatories, one must pass an extensive admission test. Last year 682
were accepted on the Danish conservatories. One can qualify by taking the preparatory class for
conservatories, musikalsk grundkursus - MGK , which is a two year part-time education (20 lessons
pr. week) offered at several public music schools all over Denmark.
Furthermore, on the gymnasium (high school/college) level there are 2 hours a week compulsory
classes concerning music understanding and practice. Over more, there is a specialised line focused
on offering music education, which add additional 3-4 hours of music a week. Furthermore, there
are a few specialised gymnasiums that offer a special music education.
Music schools for children and young people are found in almost all of the 275 municipalities in
Denmark. The classes are subsidised by the Music Council with a special grant of around 10. mil.
US$ per year. This often takes place in partnership with funding from user-payment and small
grants from the local authorities. The council has related to the development of the schools created a
consultant service in this field: The Music School Consultant.
Public school education in music begins in the first grade with one hour (45 min.) per week than it
develops into 2 hours a week from the second to fourth grade. Music education in fifth and sixth
grade is one hour a week. The education finishes as compulsory classes in sixth grade, however it
can be chosen as free classes 2 hours a week until ninth grade.
The general effect of the large public music education scheme is that playing music is a quite
common hobby among youngster in Denmark providing the possibility for further development of
talents (critique mass), which may lead to music success stories later.
Within the academic approaches to music one finds The Graduate studies in Musicology (B.A or
M.A) that take place at:
 Department of Musicology, University of Copenhagen
 Music Department, Aarhus University
 Department of Music and Music Therapy, Aalborg (the music-therapy studies aim to use
music for psychological and curative purposes.)
24
In order to follow courses at university level, one does not necessarily have to meet the admission
criteria, as both "Folkeuniversitetet" and "Åbent Universitet" (alternatives to formal universities)
offer courses at a high level for interested people.
Music teachers for elementary school are educated at the teachers colleges - lærerseminarierne.
Advanced theoretical and practical studies take place at "The Pedagogical University of Denmark”
in Copenhagen, at the Institute of Aesthetic Studies and Media Education. The advanced university
institutions collaborate within the "Dansk Netværk for Musikpædagogisk Forskning".
One initial observation at this point is that in general the classical music education in Denmark is
much more institutionalised in lines of education and development. This is the case since the craft –
technical aspects in the first instance seems more important to master within this musical arena than
within the pop music context, where improvisation and expressive abilities are more significant for
both artistic and economic success. As such the educational institutions mentioned must be
recognised as being only one leg of development of talents and skills for doing profitable CDs etc.
in the pop music business.
Musical manager education
The new three-year music manager education connected to the rhythmic music conservatory in
Copenhagen started September 2002. The idea is presented simply to educate persons with an initial
understanding of both the artistic and humdrum activities of the music industry to be able to
improve amongst other elements the manager, booking and A&R functions in Danish pop music
and as such hopefully fuel innovative and creative behaviour to develop export success like Aqua.
The music manager education is initiated by recommendations from the industry and focused on
management and development activities. This relates however, not only to employment possibilities
in the music industry but in most artistic related sectors: advertising, movies, media and Internet
businesses, etc.
The education is centred in three main blocks of competencies: studies of the music industry,
general cultural studies and business studies of firms. As such the abilities to develop are described
as sound business practice, good music knowledge and perhaps capabilities as well as fine
communication skills.
There is a nearly similar education being started up in Aarhus. However, the Aarhus addition of the
education is focused on providing additional formal training to people already employed in the
business.
The third sector
There exist in Denmark numerous local culture organisations involved in arranging concerts,
educations, etc. This sector includes the following:
‘High schools’- højskoler
In Denmark there are at least 30 high-school institutions offering a wide range of training courses in
various aspects of music. Quite a number of these arrange local performances and even recordings
of the produced music. These high schools are open for every one and regarded as a free space for
self-development, yet, recognised as educational institutions. Students are between 18 -70 years.
25
Evening classes
There is a huge group of various semi-educational organisations occupied with teaching and playing
music. The main ones are related to activities provided by the large national labour in organisations
like AOF and FOF but also in Aarhus and Copenhagen the institution of the ‘rytmiske aftensskole’
is an important place for evening classes as well as a meeting place for musicians.
Music festivals
During the summer season, more than 100 festivals and concert series are held all over the country.
A comprehensive agenda - Festival Denmark - is compiled by MIC. The largest rock festivals are;
Roskilde Festival, Midtfyns Festival and Skanderborg Festival. The Tønder Festival focuses
especially on Anglo-American folk and folk-rock.
In the jazz field, there are two main summer events, the Copenhagen Jazz Festival and Århus
International Jazz Festival whose secretariat is situated in Musikhuset Aarhus. Copenhagen Autumn
Jazz is a newcomer in this field.
Concerning the effects of the festivals there is little doubt that they contribute greatly to putting
Denmark on the map regarding a ‘rocking‘ or swinging nation. Furthermore, the provide
opportunity for the customers to see and hear their favourite acts live but also offer fine
opportunities to minor Danish bands to perform for a larger audience. Associated effects of the
festivals are of cause income from tourism etc. The festivals must however also be seen as a part of
a wider cultural issues where young people from all around the North European countries gather.
Spillesteder.dk, Dansk musik kontakt og musiknet.dk
These independent web sites communicate relevant information on organisations and institutions of
the music industry: recording studies, record companies, rehearsal opportunities, bookers,
publishers, concert arenas etc. as well as provide general information on developments and changes
of the Danish pop music scene. Danish music contact is a portal mainly for artists for dealing music
equipment and instruments, getting in touch with fellow musicians and bands.
Vocation training
This hints among other elements for example to a newly started arrangement mainly developed by
the Danish Musicians Union (DMF) and thus directed towards persons that either is employed parttime by performing or creating music - or is currently unemployed. The activity is done for
professional musicians. The initiative is called Artlab (www.artlab.dk). The institution tries by new
initiatives to bridge art and business and art and technology to develop and provide its participants
with new or complementary skills to the ones already possessed. As such it is an attempt to move
some not particular successful artists to other segments of the labour market but still in another
context draw on their competencies of music. Currently around 60-70 people are engaged in
activities there.
Professional organisations, workers organisations and industrial bodies
Table (24) The key professional bodies and worker organisation of the music industry in Denmark
Core sector
Supporting organisations
Koda*
Composers, artists etc. (i.e. creators)
Danish Musicians Union (DMF)
Danish Artist Association (DAF)
26
Record companies, publishers etc. (i.e.
Industrialists)
Danish Songwriters Guild (DPA)
Danish Composers Society
The Danish Society for Jazz, Rock and Folk
Composers
( DJBFA)
Council of Danish Artists
Danish Council of Performing Artists'
Organization
International Federation of Phonographic
industries (IFPI)
Spillested.dk
Danish independent publishers
Society of Danish impresarios
Association of Danish music festivals
Association of phonogram suppliers in
Denmark
Danish Music Publishers' Association
Association of art bureaus in Denmark (FKD).
GDC
Distribution
* These organisations are also collecting societies and are described below
There are estimated about 7,500 organised professional musicians, singers, composers and
conductors in Denmark. Usually the musicians join the Danish Musicians Union or the Danish
Artist Union (DAF). Soloists also within the traditional pop music genre may be organised by the
National Federation of Danish Soloists whereas many classical soloists are members of the
Classical Soloist Association of 1921. It is within the pop0 music segment difficult to say when
someone is a professional as well as determining when a performer is an artist or musician. Matters
which un-doubtly complicate data as well as discussion.
As a composer one can chose from among three unions: Danish Composers' Society, which
organises composers within the classical tradition and score jazz. Members of Danish Songwriters
Guild (DPA) are songwriters, writers of revues and entertainment, as well as lyricists within the
popular genre; The most recent – and largest – association is The Danish Society for Jazz, Rock and
Folk Composers - DJBFA, which recruits its members on a large scale within the rhythmic field.
The three organisations support their members in various ways, and they have collaborated in
making all information concerning the members available on the Internet at komponister.dk.
In Denmark there are two umbrella organisations for performing and creating artists: Dansk
Kunstnerråd - Council of Danish Artists and Fællesrådet for udøvende Kunstnere - the Danish
Council of Performing Artists' Organization.
Finally, also people working within the education world teaching music is organised in: Dansk
Musikpædagogisk
Forening,
Gymnasieskolens
Musiklærerforening,
Seminariernes
Musiklærerforening og Folkeskolens Musiklærerforening.
27
International gatherings and showcases are important nodes in creating contacts and maintenance of
network for firms, institutions and individuals of the music business. The main ones for for the
Danish music industry seems to be: Popkomm (Cologne), Midem (Cannes) and to some extend
CMJ (US)
Industrial & professional bodies:
IFPI, Denmark
IFPI is the Danish part of the International Federation of Phonographic Industries – or in other
words the major branch organisation representing the firms of the recording industry. The members
of IFPI in both Danish and foreign owned firms, whose turnover account for more than 95% of all
sold CD’s pr. year in Denmark.
IFPI Denmark handles its members common interests among other things:
 protection of the rights of members,
 negotiations with other holder of rights,
 fight against piracy
 collecting and distribution of money til the IFPI memebers
 establishing hit lists, music awards arrangements
 export initiatives
IFPI collaborates with the collecting society of Koda and Gramex and it is the organisation that
distributes mechanical royalties to the main record companies.
There seems not to be any special industrial body representing the main part of the independent
labels in Denmark. A lack that might affect the influence of the independent scene on various
policies and initiatives shaping the dynamics of the industry (i.e. concerning education, financial
regulation and different handlings of intellectual property rights).
Collecting societies:
In Denmark the main institutions involved within this area are: Koda, Gramex, NBC, and Copydan.
Legislation governing intellectual rights, which was revised in 1998, dictates the guidelines for all
kinds of copying, presentations and publishing of music in Denmark. "Samrådet for Ophavsret"
gives information on the current regulations.
The company Koda bases its activities on this law, and collects money for artists and other
copyright holder, when music is played in public places – concerts, radio/TV, retail shops, cinemas,
Internet, etc. Koda has sole and exclusive rights in this field and is ’owned’ by the composers’
associations and the publishers’ association. The money is distributed to Danish composers and
publishers or is passed on to those companies representing the foreign copyright holders. Part of the
revenues is distributed as subsidies for music projects. Last year Koda collected 45.144 mil. US$
and redistributed 43.068 mil. US$ to holders of performance rights. About 27.8282 mil US $ was
paid concerning performance rights in Denmark in 2001 of these about 45% was received by
Danish members. Koda did in 2001 forwarded money from performance rights collected round the
world of some 2,64 mil. US$ to Koda members. Koda did last year register 51.000 new units (i.e.
songs, etc.), which about half was the work of Danish members. In 2001 11439 of the Koda
members received money from the firm.
28
The originator joints Koda when a song or other work is ready for publication. A contract is signed.
The originator has then agreed to transfer all legal rights to compensation for public performances,
recording and reproduction etc. to Koda. Koda then ensures via the contract to collect the royalties
from whoever performs the music in public. Or warrant that if the music is recorded there are
established a license to do this, and hence a fee is paid, which Koda distributes and pay the
originator to who owns the right of the music.
Composers, lyrics writers and publishers also hold another right, a part from the performance rights
– the mechanical rights, which simplified is explained as the right to record or store and spread
music on media such as CD, video, film and hard disc. All collection and accounting in this field –
mechanical rights - are managed by Nordisk Copyright Bureau (NCB). Koda and NBC have
collaborated since 1936. The Nordic and Baltic owners of rights transfer all their rights to the local
copyright company, which administrate the performance rights, while mechanical rights are
managed by NCB. As such, NCB represents all protection of music in the Nordic countries
regarding recording, storage and spreading. NCB collected in total in 2001 72,476 mil. US$. In
general the collection increased across the Nordic countries by 5 % from 200 yet, on the Danish
market the collecting decreased by 16% mainly due to a weak sale of CDs in 2001. From NCB did
only 9,4 % of the earnings go to Denmark because of the concentration of publishing and record
companies primarily in Sweden. Danish holders of rights got in 2001 6,312 mil. US$. In 2001, 4535
of the Koda members received money from NCB.
Concerning tones of mobile telephony the money from the property rights are collected like
mechanical rights by the NCB.
When it comes to photo-copying note sheets for teaching purposes or the like, the copyright
holders’ interests are taken care of by Copydan.
The performing artists’ rights, in connection with the rights of the record companies are
administered by Gramex. Gramex see to that these firms and artists get paid for the music recorded
on CD, records or tape.
In 1998 Performex was founded. It is a company, which on behalf of the performing artists,
negotiates the rights for audio and images. Among other things, Performex gives information on
what is allowed on the Internet.
Export supporting institutions
Under the management of the Danish Musicians Union there was in 2000 set up an initiative
concerned with a more efficient promotion of Danish music abroad. The MXP – Danish music
export and promotion is a music promotion effort intended to benefit Danish music, musicians and
composers throughout the world. MXP annually produces a series of promotion CDs featuring a
selection of the very best of Danish music. The CDs are released for and first presented at the
annual international music industry [MIDEM] convention in Cannes and are subsequently
distributed to industry professionals around the world including radio programmers, music
journalists, publishers, record companies and managements, festivals, venues, music industry
conventions, seminars etc. The efforts and success of MXP are continuously supported by artists,
their managers, record companies and publishers and by financial support of The Musicians' Union,
The Authors' Rights Society (KODA), Danish Music Council, The national associations for Folk,
29
World, Jazz, Rock and Pop music and CD-manufacturing is sponsored by Tocano Multimedia A/S.
(see link www.mxp.dk/2002). Any direct economic or innovative effects of this initiative cannot be
identified. However, the massive support of both artist unions, artists personally and record labels
seem to hint at the importance of this institutions.
Venues and concert halls
Danish venues for rhythmic music are subsidised by the council, the Danish Music Council, by
pursuance of an amendment to the Music Act, which was passed in May 2000. Information about
the venues and their programmes are available through the association Spillesteder.dk.
There are large concert halls in every region of the country. The largest ones are Aalborg Congress
& Culture Centre in Aalborg (2,442 seats), Falconer Salen in Frederiksberg (2,150 seats), Concert
Hall of Tivoli in Copenhagen (1,860 seats), The Conert Hall Aarhus (1,477 seats ), the Music
Theatre in Holstebro (1,351 seats), Odense Koncerthus’ (Carl Nielsen hall (1,302 seats),
Musikteatret in Vejle (1,130 seats), Esbjerg Performing Arts Centre (1,100 seats) and Concert Hall
of the Radio House in Copenhagen (1,058 seats).A number of sports centres and convention halls
with extensive capacity are also used for concerts, especially rock concerts. When the Rolling
Stones, Pink Floyd or Tina Turner visit Denmark, the concerts take place in the football stadium
"Parken" which accommodates 47,000 persons.
Music prizes
The Jazzpar Prize is an honorary prizes, which is awarded to artists of international importance. The
Jazzpar Prize, the world’s largest jazz award, was instituted in 1989 and is awarded every year. The
winner performs a number of concerts with Danish musicians. Additionally there exist a long range
of various private sponsored prizes often directed to persons in the jazz environment. However,
recently some larger national competitions has developed as the Danish champignon-ship in rock
music as well as the more commercial focused TV shows of star discovery and development (i.e.
star overnight or popstars).
Each year and with massive media coverage the record business awards the Danish Grammy –
Danish music awards within many categories. This award is primarily given on a basis of votes
from the public as well as on numbers of sold entities of the various release.
Agencies for musicians and concert organisers
A wide range of private management and booking agencies manages the artists, but often work with
only a limited number of artists, usually famous names. The catalogues for the booking agencies
Arte, Danish Music Agency and Danartist are a mixture of genres. Tivoli Artists Management
operates in the classical field, whereas famous names within Danish rock music are managed by
agencies such as PDH International, Rock On and Aarhus Musikkontor.
The trade association is Sammenslutningen af Kunstnerbureauer i Danmark (FKD).
Soloists, musicians and bands often work as their own agents. More and more create their own
homepage on the Internet, and others use the project Stereonet, subsidised by the Music Council, to
make a textual or an audio-visual presentation of themselves for no charge. Links to the homepages
can be found on bandnet.dk. Foreign pop and rock names are promoted through concert organisers
such as Dansk Koncert Bureau (DKB) and Motor.
School concerts are promoted and organised by the organisation Live Music in Schools.
30
Amateur music
Rhythmic amateur music is nationally organised in Fajabefa, the association for amateur rhythmic
musicians. The organisation aims at improving the conditions for not professional musicians be it
rehearsal facilities, access top places to play own material etc. The organisation is established in
1974 and has today more than 110 local associations and 5800 members. The organisation has a
secretariat to take care of administrative work. Furthermore, Fajabefa arranges the Danish national
championships in rock, releases the promotion CD ‘starsearch’ and grants fees to posters etc. for
amateur artists. The National Music Council, subscription from members and organisations support
the Fajabefa organisation. Sponsoring deals related to the organisations activities also create the
economic foundation for Fajabefa. The organisation covers all rhythmic genres from rock to metal,
hiphop, blues, jazz, elektronik and latino.
Again the direct effects of this effort is highly difficult to measure – say describe - to a fulfilling
extend.
The media
Music is broadcasted on radio and TV by the two country-wide public service broadcasters: the
Danish Broadcasting Corporation - Danmarks Radio (DR) -with two TV-channels and several radio
stations/networks, including a special satellite channel for classical music; and, the TV channel
TV2. A comprehensive guide is presented by DR online. There is also a wide range commercial
broadcasters – some on the Internet-, and the non-commercial local stations, joined in
‘Sammenslutningen af lokale radio- og TV-stationer i Danmark’. On the pop/rock side, The Voice
is the most popular commercial radio station, whereas the idealistic Radio Jazz, with a limited
broadcast time, is found at the other end of the scale. Current live recording with Danish bands is
presented on the Internet by Concertspot.com, whose object is to market musicians and bands. The
printed media include the national daily newspapers, Berlingske Tidende, B.T., Politiken,
Ekstrabladet and Jyllands-Posten.
Dansk Musik Tidsskrift, Musikeren og Gaffa are the leading professional magazines with the widest
range in the realm of music.
Information and service
Danish Music Information Centre (MIC) offers comprehensive information about Danish music.
The centre also has specific documentation and communication tasks in the areas of new music,
music in the classical tradition and in the experimental fields.
Information on Danish jazz and the Danish jazz scene can be obtained through Danish Jazz
Federation.
The Danish Folk Council FFS, ROSA - The Danish Rock Council and The Danish World Music
Association work for and with Danish music groups. These organisations are also excellent sources
for questions within the respective genres. When it comes to practical advice within the rhythmic
field, inquire at Den Rytmiske Konsulenttjeneste. This consultant service publishes an e-mail
newsletter, to which you can subscribe.
The music industry support and hold relationships to initiatives of cultural industries, creativity and
innovativeness in general. This includes for example recent polity initiatives as the NYX network
and the entrepreneur house: LouiZ located at Holmen in Copenhagen.
31
References
Charles Leadbeater,& Kate Oakley (1999): The Independents: Britain’s new cultural entrepreneurs,
Demos, UK
Darmer, P. (1999): The Indie way: Relationship between leisure and labour among Danish
independent labels, paper presented at the ‘Leisure, labour, and urban life conference’,
Leicester University, Leicester, 29. -31. March 1999.
Edquist, C. (1997): Systems of innovation -technologies, institutions and organizations-, Pinter,
London
Eurostat (1997): http://europa.eu.int/comm/eurostat/
Eurostat (2002): Statistics on Sound Recordings, EU sound recordings market stagnating in
2000,The European Commission, Eurostat
Eurobarometer (2002): Europeans participation in cultural activities, The European Commission,
Eurostat
Florida, Richard (2002): The Rise of the Creative Class, The Perseus Books Group, New York,
Hesmondhalgh, D (1996): Flexibility, post- Fordism and the music industry in Media, Culture and
Society, vol. 18 (pp: 469-488)
IFPI (2002): Year book 2002, IFPI
IFPI (2002): www.ifpi.dk
KODA: Annual reports from 1997 to 2000
Kulturministeriet og Erhvervsministeriet, 2000: Den kreative alliance. Kulturministeriet, DK
Music information center (2002): www.mic.dk
Pine II, J. B. & Gilmore, J.H. (1999): The Experience Economy: work is theatre and every business
a stage: goods and services are not longer enough, Harvard Business School Press, Boston,
Ma, US
Teknologisk Institut (2000): En erhvervsøkonomisk analyse af fire fokusområder i de kulturelle
erhverv. Teknologisk Institut, Erhvervsanalyser Copenhagen, DK
32