Chapter 3 – Culture and Society
Culture is the totality of learned, socially transmitted customs, knowledge, material objects and behaviors; it includes
ideas, values, and artifacts of groups of people. Culture does not simply refer to the fine arts and refined intellectual
taste. Each people has a distinctive culture with its own characteristic ways of gathering and preparing food,
constructing homes, structuring the family, and promoting standards of right or wrong. Sharing a similar culture with
others helps us to define the group or the society to which you belong. Having a common culture simplifies many dayto-day interactions.
Language is a critical part of culture; members of a common society generally share a common language.
A fairly large number of people are said to constitute a society when they live in the same territory, are relatively
independent of people outside their area, and participate in a common culture. It is the largest form of human group,
consisting of people who share a common heritage and culture. Members learn culture and transmit it from one
generation to the next.
Development of Culture Around the World
Cultural Universal
All societies have certain common practices, called cultural universals; they are basically adaptations to meet essential
human needs. i.e.: sports, cooking, funeral ceremonies, medicine, marriage, sexual restrictions, etc. The manner by
which they are expressed varies across cultures. Human culture change and expand through the process of innovation
and diffusion.
Innovation
The process of introducing a new idea or object to a culture is known as innovation. Discovery involves making known
or sharing the existence of an aspect of reality. An invention results when existing cultural items are combined into a
form that did not exist before.
Globalization, Diffusion, and Technology
Globalization is the worldwide integration of government policies, cultures, social movements and financial market
through trade and exchange of ideas. Developments outside a country are as likely to influence people’s lives as
changes at home. Some observers see globalization and its effects as the natural result of advances in communications
technology, particularly the internet and satellite transmission of mass media. Others view it more critically, as a
process that allows multinational corporations to expand unchecked.
Diffusion refers to the process by which a cultural item spreads from society to society; through explorations, military
conquest, missionary work, mass media, tourism, and the internet. “McDonalidization of society” – How the principles
of fast-food restaurant have come to dominate more and more sectors of societies throughout the world.
Observers believe the McDonaldization and globalization serve to dilute the distinctive aspects of a society’s culture.
Technology in its many forms has increased the speed of cultural diffusion and broadened the distribution of cultural
elements. Gerhard Lenski defined technology as “cultural information about how to use the material resources of the
environment to satisfy human needs and desires.” Technology also transmits culture; and may even influence the
direction of diffusion of culture.
Material and Nonmaterial Culture
Material culture refers to the physical or technological aspects of our daily lives.
Nonmaterial culture refers to ways of using material objects and to customs, beliefs, philosophies, governments, and
patterns of communication.
The period of maladjustment when the nonmaterial culture is struggling to adapt to new material conditions, is called
cultural lag.
Sociobiology
Sociobiology stresses the universal aspects of culture. Sociobiology is the systematic study of how biology affects human
social behavior. Many cultural traits are rooted in our genetic make-up. It is founded on Charles Darwin’s theory of
evolution. Sociobiologists assume that particular forms of behavior become genetically linked to species if they
contribute to its fitness to survive. In the extreme form, sociobiology suggests that all behavior is the result of genetic or
biological factors and that social interactions play no role in shaping people’s conduct.
Elements of Culture
Each culture considers its own distinctive ways of handling basic societal tasks to be “natural.” However, they are
learned and transmitted through human interaction within specific societies. There are some major aspects of culture
that shape the way the members of a society live.
Language
Language is the foundation of every culture. It is an abstract system of word meanings and symbols for all aspects of
culture. It includes speech, written characters, numerals, symbols, and non-verbal gestures and expressions. Language
reflects the priorities and values of a culture. i.e.: palay, bigas, kanin, bahaw, mumo, tutong which pertains to various
states of rice.
The ability to speak other languages is crucial to intercultural relations. While language is a cultural universal, striking
differences in the use of language are evident around the world.
Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis
Language does more than simply describe reality; it also serves to shape the (interpretation of the) reality of a culture.
Since people can conceptualize the world only through language, language precedes thought; thus, the word symbols
and grammar of a language organize the world for us. It is culturally determined and encourages a distinctive
interpretation of reality by focusing our attention on certain phenomena. For example, feminists have noted the
gender-related language can reflect the traditional acceptance of men and women in certain occupations.
Language can also transmit stereotypes related to race. i.e.: black as something negative and white as something
positive.
Language can shape how we see, taste, smell, feel and hear. It also influences the way we think about the people, idea,
and objects around us. Language communicates a culture’s most important norms, values, and sanctions to people.
Nonverbal Communication
This refers to the use of gestures, facial expressions, and other visual images to communicate. Although basic facial
expressions are universal, most forms of nonverbal language are learned, and thus vary across cultures.
Norms
Norms are established standards of behavior maintained by a society. It must be widely shared and understood.
Types of Norms
Formal Norms generally have been written down and specify strict punishments for violators. i.e.: Laws
Informal Norms are generally understood but not precisely recorded. i.e.: Standard of proper dress
Mores are norms deemed highly necessary to the welfare of the society, often because they embody the most cherished
principles of a people; violations can lead to severe penalties.
Folkways are norms governing everyday behavior; violation raises comparatively little concern.
Acceptance of Norms
People do not follow norms in all situations. They can evade a norm if they know it is weakly enforced. In some cases,
behavior that appears to violate society’s norms may actually represent adherence to the norms of a particular group.
Norms are also violated because one norm conflicts with another; the same action in different circumstances can be
viewed positively or negatively. Acceptance of norms is subject as the political, economic, and social conditions of a
culture are transformed.
Sanctions
Sanctions are penalties and rewards for conduct concerning a social norm. The formality of the sanction depends on the
formality of the social norm that was adhered upon or violated.
The entire fabric of norms and sanctions in a culture reflects that cultures values and priorities.
Values
Cultural values are collective conceptions of what is considered good, desirable, and proper. They indicate what people
in a given culture prefer as well as what they find important and morally right. The members of a society do not
uniformly share its values. Values influence people’s behaviors and serve as criteria for evaluating the actions of others.
Values, norms, and sanctions of a culture are often directly related. The values of a culture may change, but most
remain relatively stable during one person’s lifetime.
Cultural Variation
Each culture has a unique character that is adaptive to specific set of circumstances, such as climate, level of technology,
population and geography. However, within a single nation, certain segments of the populace develop cultural patterns
that differ from the patterns of the dominant society.
Aspects of Cultural Variation
Subcultures
A subculture is a segment of society that shares a distinctive pattern of mores, folkways, and values that differs from the
pattern of the larger society; a culture existing within a culture. Members of a subculture participate in the dominant
culture while at the same time engage in unique and distinctive forms of behavior. Frequently, a subculture will develop
an argot, or a specialized language. This language and symbols offer a powerful way for a subculture to feel cohesive
and maintain its identity. Subcultures develop in a number of ways: certain segment of society faces problems, common
age, occupation, interest, and common belief.
Functionalists view subcultures as variations of particular social environments, and as evidence that differences can exist
within a common culture. A conflict theorist may view it as a reflection of the inequality of social arrangement within a
society. Subcultures sometime emerge when the dominant society unsuccessfully tries to suppress a practice.
Countercultures
When a subculture conspicuously and deliberately opposes certain aspects of the larger culture, it is known as a
counterculture.
Culture Shock
It refers a feeling of disorientation, uncertainty, or fearfulness when immersed in an unfamiliar culture.
Attitudes toward Cultural Variation
Ethnocentrism refers to the tendency to assume that one’s own culture and way of life represent the norm or are
superior to all others; views other cultures as deviations from what is “normal.” Conflict theorists point out that
ethnocentric value judgments serve to devalue groups and to deny equal opportunities. Functionalists point out that
ethnocentrism serves to maintain a sense of solidarity by promoting group pride.
Cultural Relativism
Cultural relativism views people’s behavior from the perspective of their own culture. It places a priority on
understanding other cultures, rather than dismissing them as “strange” or “exotic.” Cultural relativism stresses that
different social context give rise to different norms and values. While it does not suggest that we unquestionably accept
every cultural variation, it does require a serious and unbiased effort to evaluate norms, values, and customs in light of
their distinctive culture.
Xenocentrism
Xenocentrism is the belief that the products, styles, or ideas of one’s society are inferior to those that originate
elsewhere.