WMO/IOC/UNEP/ICSU
GLOBAL CLIMATE OBSERVING SYSTEM
______________
GCOS STEERING COMMITTEE
TWELFTH SESSION
GENEVA, SWITZERLAND, 15-18 MARCH, 2004
GCOS SC-XII
Doc. 7
(10.III.2004)
________
Item 4
Draft GCOS Implementation Plan
(Submitted by the Secretariat)
Summary and Purpose of Document
Attached hereto is a first draft of GCOS Implementation Plan (GIP). It is at this stage very much
a work in progress. The planned schedule calls for the GIP to be submitted to SBSTA-21/COP10 in final form by September 2004, following a period of open review via the GCOS Web site,
nominally from end April to end June.
ACTION PROPOSED
The SC is invited to review the general structure and content of the draft GIP and provide
comments and advice to the SC and Panel Chairmen and the Secretariat for incorporation into
the next draft.
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GCOS Implementation Plan
10 March 2004
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Executive Summary ................................................................................................................................ 3
GCOS Implementation Plan .................................................................................................................... 4
1.
Background and Introduction ....................................................................................................... 4
2.
The Strategic Approach to Implementation .................................................................................. 6
2.1. Basis provided by Second Adequacy Report (2AR) ................................................................. 6
2.2. Agents for Action ...................................................................................................................... 6
2.3. Criteria Used to Assign Priority ................................................................................................. 7
2.4. Phased Approach ..................................................................................................................... 7
2.5. Global and Integrated Approach ............................................................................................... 7
2.6. Building Capacity ...................................................................................................................... 8
2.7. Measuring Progress - Assessing GCOS Implementation ........................................................ 9
3.
Over-Arching/Cross-Cutting Actions .......................................................................................... 10
3.1. Planning and Reporting .......................................................................................................... 10
3.1.1.
National and regional planning ........................................................................................ 10
3.1.2.
National reporting ............................................................................................................ 10
3.2. Transforming research networks and systems to systematic observation ............................. 11
3.3. International Support for Critical Networks - Technical Cooperation ..................................... 12
3.4. Earth Observation Satellites ................................................................................................... 12
3.5. Integrated Climate Products ................................................................................................... 13
3.6. Historical Data Sets ................................................................................................................ 16
3.7. Data Management and Stewardship ...................................................................................... 17
4.
Implementation of Key Global Networks, Systems and Facilities .............................................. 18
4.1. ATMOSPHERIC DOMAIN CLIMATE OBSERVING SYSTEM ............................................... 19
4.1.1.
Atmospheric Domain – Surface....................................................................................... 19
4.1.1.a.
General ........................................................................................................................ 19
4.1.1.b.
Specific issues – surface ECV ..................................................................................... 19
4.1.2.
Atmospheric Domain – Upper-Air.................................................................................... 24
4.1.2.a.
General ........................................................................................................................ 24
4.1.2.b.
Specific issues – Upper-air ECV.................................................................................. 26
4.1.3.
Atmospheric Domain – Composition ............................................................................... 31
4.1.3.a.
General ........................................................................................................................ 31
4.1.3.b.
Specific Issues – Composition ECV ............................................................................ 32
4.2. OCEAN DOMAIN CLIMATE OBSERVING SYSTEM ............................................................ 35
4.2.1.
Oceanic Domain – Surface ............................................................................................. 37
4.2.1.a.
General ........................................................................................................................ 37
4.2.1.b.
Specific issues – surface ECV ..................................................................................... 39
4.2.2.
Oceanic Domain – Subsurface........................................................................................ 48
4.2.2.a.
General ........................................................................................................................ 48
4.2.2.b.
Specific issues – Oceanic Sub-surface ECV ............................................................... 49
4.2.3.
Ocean Domain – Data Management ............................................................................... 52
4.2.4.
Oceanic Domain – Integrated Global Analysis Products ................................................ 56
4.2.5.
Oceanic Domain – Synthesis and Consolidation of Actions .......................................... 56
4.3. TERRESTRIAL DOMAIN CLIMATE OBSERVING SYSTEM ................................................ 58
4.3.1.
General ............................................................................................................................ 58
4.3.2.
Specific issues- Terrestrial domain ECVs ....................................................................... 59
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Executive Summary
[Executive Summary – to be prepared based on the major high priority elements in the IP. The
content of the Executive Summary will include:
a)
Response to the basic conclusions and findings of 2AR and to the responses of Parties
to the 2AR.
b) Current degree of implementation of the observing systems needed for the
implementation of GCOS varies widely as summarized for a representative set of
variables (See table xx).
c) Blueprint for balanced actions for networks, satellite data, data systems and products
presented in the body of the report.
d) Priority actions in accord with UNFCCC needs, feasibility and cost effectiveness are:
 Operational data management and institutional arrangement
 Integrated products
 Networks, Satellites and standards
 Global participation]
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GCOS Implementation Plan
1. Background and Introduction
This Plan responds to the request in decision 11/CP.9 adopted by the UNFCCC’s Conference of Parties
at its ninth session (COP-9) to coordinate the development of a phased five- to ten-year implementation
plan for the integrated global observing systems for climate, using a mix of high-quality satellite and in situ
measurements, dedicated infrastructure and targeted capacity-building. The plan is to draw on the
Second Report on the Adequacy of Global Observing Systems for Climate in Support of the UNFCCC 1 (or
Second Adequacy Report) completed by GCOS in April 2003 and submitted to the COP’s Subsidiary
Body for Scientific and Technological Advice (SBSTA) at its twenty-first session (June 2003) and to
consider the views of Parties of the UNFCCC on the Report. In preparing the plan, GCOS has been
asked to:
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Consider existing global, regional and national plans, programmes and initiatives;
Consult extensively with a broad and representative range of scientists and data users, including the
conduct an open review of the implementation plan;
Collaborate closely with the ad hoc Group on Earth Observations in developing their respective
implementation plan;
Identify implementation priorities, resource requirements and funding options
Include indicators for measuring its implementation;
Global Climate Observing System was requested to submit the final implementation plan to SBSTA at its
twenty-first session.
The Second Adequacy Report provides a basic structure for an implementation strategy through the 4
overarching conclusions arising from the Report and the multiple findings within the Report. The
overarching conclusions from the Report relate to:

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Free and unrestricted exchange and availability of the Essential Climate Variables (ECV) required for
global-scale climate monitoring, which are contained in Table 1 and in Appendix 1.
Availability of integrated global climate-quality products and improvement and maintenance of the
global networks and satellites sustaining these products
Internationally accepted standards for terrestrial data and products;
System improvements and capacity-building in developing countries, especially in the least
developed countries and small island developing states (SIDS).
The goal of the Plan is to map out ways to realizing a comprehensive observing system:

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To characterize the state of the global climate system and its variability.
To monitor the forcing of the climate system, including both natural and anthropogenic contributions.
To support the attribution of the causes of climate change.
To support the prediction of global climate change.
To project global climate change information down to regional and local scales.
To characterize extreme events important in impact assessment and adaptation, and to assess risk
and vulnerability.
Observing Climate requires an integrated strategy of land, oceanic, and atmospheric observations from
both in situ and remote-sensing platforms, which then must be transformed to information through
1
Appendix 1 provides background on the goals, findings and conclusions of the Second Adequacy Report as well as related
activities with the UNFCCC Conference of Parties (COP) and its Subsidiary Body on Scientific and Technological Advice (SBSTA).
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Table 1. Essential Climate Variables that are both currently feasible for global implementation and
have a high impact on UNFCCC requirements
Domain
Atmospheric
Essential Climate Variables
Surface:
Air temperature, Precipitation, Air pressure, Surface radiation budget, Wind speed
and direction, Water vapour.
Upper-air:
Earth radiation budget (including solar irradiance), Upper-air temperature
(including MSU radiances), Wind speed and direction, Water vapour, Cloud
properties.
(over land, sea
and ice)
Composition: Carbon dioxide, Methane, Ozone, Other long-lived greenhouse gases2, Aerosol
properties.
Surface:
Sea-surface temperature, Sea-surface salinity, Sea level, Sea state, Sea ice,
Current, Ocean colour (for biological activity), Carbon dioxide partial pressure.
Sub-surface:
Temperature, Salinity, Current, Nutrients, Carbon, Ocean tracers, Phytoplankton.
Oceanic
Terrestrial
River discharge, Water use, Ground water, Lake levels, Snow cover, Glaciers and ice caps,
Permafrost and seasonally-frozen ground, Albedo, Land cover (including vegetation type), Fraction
of absorbed photosynthetically active radiation (FAPAR), Leaf area index (LAI), Biomass, Fire
disturbance.
atmosphere and ocean, although spatial and temporal requirements vary with the specific application.
Adequate global observing systems for climate will be made up of instruments at ground stations and on
ships, buoys, floats, ocean profilers, balloons, samplers, aircraft and satellites, since no single technology
can provide all the needed information. Information on where and how the observations are taken
(metadata) is also required, as are historical and paleoclimatic records to establish baselines and set the
context for the interpretation of trends and variability.
The strategy for providing the climate data and products must be both technically and fiscally feasible
now and for the future. While the strategy is dependent on national efforts, success will be achieved only
through internationally-coordinated action. The strategy must initially focus on the global nature of the
requirements but at the same time, its data and products must also be relevant to regional and local
requirements. In the case of the monitoring of extreme events, which can be inherently of a small scale
and/or high frequency, the optimum strategy must enable global estimates of such phenomena.
The strategy for GCOS implementation depends upon close cooperation with many different
organizations and agencies with complementary responsibilities, including the international observing
programmes such as the World Weather Watch Global Observing System (GOS) and the Global
Atmosphere Watch (GAW) of the WMO; the Global Ocean Observing System (GOOS); and the Global
Terrestrial Observing System (GTOS) and their sponsors. These organizations, together with GCOS and
other relevant bodies including the Space Agencies and the international research programmes, form the
Integrated Global Observing Strategy (IGOS) Partnership for the definition, development and
implementation of an integrated global observing strategy. Each of the observing system partners is
interested in observation for a wide range of users, not only climate. Therefore GCOS works with them to
ensure that they are fully aware of the climate requirements and to help ensure that those requirements
are met.
2
Including nitrous oxide (N2O), chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs), hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs),
sulphur hexafluoride (SF6), and perfluorocarbons (PFCs).
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The first Earth Observation Summit (Washington DC, July 2003) initiated actions to develop a conceptual
framework for building a comprehensive, coordinated, and sustained Earth observation system of
systems and established an ad hoc Group on Earth Observations (GEO). GCOS will contribute directly to
this comprehensive effort by providing the implementation requirements and mechanisms required to
observe the global climate system – a major objective of the Earth Observation mandate.
2. The Strategic Approach to Implementation
2.1.
Basis provided by Second Adequacy Report (2AR)
This Implementation Plan will be a means of progressing the findings and priorities arising from the 2AR
into specific actions that can be taken by Parties, the international and inter-governmental organizations
and other national, regional, and international activities. In line with the 4 overarching conclusions from
the GCOS Steering Committee (SC), the approach will be to seek implementing actions on all the
"essential climate variables" (Table 1), which are the priority variables that are both currently feasible for
global implementation and have a high impact on UNFCCC requirements for climate change detection
and attribution, impact assessment, and adaptation.
These actions will be summarized into several categories, including:


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

Global coverage for existing in situ observing networks – this largely involves:
o Improvements in developing countries for the atmospheric and terrestrial domains, but
o Expansion of existing networks while and especially improving the density and frequency of
observations for the oceanic domain;
Effective utilization of satellite data enabled by cal/val, effective data management, and continuity of
current priority satellite observations;
Routine availability of integrated global climate-quality products from product centres and enhanced
reanalysis;
Management actions – changes or incremental enhancements in what Parties or international
organizations are currently doing, e.g., enhanced monitoring of data availability based on existing
data systems;
Continued development of new capabilities through research, development and demonstration.
2.2.
Agents for Action
GCOS is a composite of contributions from observing systems and associated infrastructure from a broad
range of existing programs often with observing mandates different from the requirements of climate. The
coordination and guidance provided by GCOS to the systems is designed to optimize the contribution of
each one to the climate observing mission.
Climate, as opposed say to weather forecasting, requires observations across and between the
atmospheric, oceanic and terrestrial domains and truly interdisciplinary analysis requiring meteorologists,
oceanographers, biologists, geologists and chemists to mutually and collaboratively address the
problems.
Appendix 2 provides a list indicating the roles of the contributing international observing systems GOOS,
WWW, GAW, WHYGOS, GTOS and the Satellite Operators, their associated international bodies that set
the standards and the technical regulations under which they operate, and their relationship to the
international organizations by which they are governed.
The international scientific community as represented largely through the WCRP, IGBP and the IPCC set
observing requirements and provide advisory service to GCOS. By virtue of their use of the observations,
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they are uniquely placed to offer evaluations of the quality and coverage provided by the data sets – and
to provide continuing guidance relative to the implementation process.
Although the International Programmes can be seen to be a visible face for the systems and networks,
virtually all climate related observations are taken by national agencies or institutions. In some cases,
nations form a multi-national agency or entity to undertake a particular activity (e.g. EUMETSAT ). To
achieve the goals of GCOS the nations and their agencies bear the primary responsibility for
implementing and operating observing activities, for coordinating their activities through international
organizations, and for providing support for research and technology development programs. The
functions of international data archives and the provision of integrated global climate products are
generally committed to by national institutions, which take on these data management and analysis tasks
on behalf of the global community – and openly and without restriction agree to provide the data and
products to all other nations as part of their international commitment.
2.3.
Criteria Used to Assign Priority
Criteria for placing items within the current or near future implementation time-line include:

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

Clear significant and citable benefits to UNFCCC and IPCC needs for observations to support impact
assessment, attribution and prediction of change, and amelioration of and adaptation to future
change.
Feasibility of an observation - determined by the current availability of an observation or by
knowledge of how to make an observation with acceptable accuracy and resolution in both space and
time, and that appropriate institutional structures exist for making routine observations and for data
archiving, analysis and production of required analyses.
Ability to specify a tractable set of implementing actions. (Tractable mean that the technology exists;
appropriate equipment for the observation is available; training requirements and operational
procedures are known, and end-to-end system elements are available. The latter means that
observing site characteristics meet GCOS requirements, the observing program is committed to by
the operating nation, data quality control procedures standards known and applied, data exchange
(submission to center) procedures in place, meta data requirements are met, and so on.)
Cost effective –The benefits that can be obtained utilizing the observations are commensurate with
the costs of making an observation routinely.
2.4.
Phased Approach
The GCOS Implementation Plan will identify short-, medium- and long term actions which focus on the
high priority elements. The ultimate goal of GCOS is to arrive at a climate observing program that
provides all GCOS ECVs as routinely, i.e. from systematic observations, which are long-term (sustained
and continuous), reliable and robust, and with institutional commitment (organizational home and
sustained funding). Many elements of the current observing program are not provided routinely. The
phased approach for many of these systems will initially involve an experimental or research phase and, if
successful, a pilot project stage where the system is deployed, thoroughly tested and evaluated. A pilot
project usually confirms that the details of the observing strategy and operation are viable prior to making
it a part of the operational or routine observing program.
2.5.
Global and Integrated Approach
In the future, the satellite remote sensing systems that provide global coverage and are well calibrated
will become an increasing contribution to global observations for climate though ground based in situ and
remote sensing systems will still be important. When satellite remotely sensed data are the primary
source for observing an ECV, in situ data are almost always needed to calibrate and validate the satellite
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data. The synthesis of satellite and in situ data can takes advantage of the unique characteristics of each
data type to provide an integrated product with both high spatial resolution and long term stability.
From this global foundation higher resolution networks and analysis products enhance the observational
resource and build functionality that allows for resolution and application on regional and national scales
as appropriate.
As previously discussed, GCOS is built through the setting of climate standards and requirements for and
in coordination with its partner observing systems, e.g., WWW/GOS, GOOS etc. Many of the potential
contributing networks and systems have been designed and operated to address other applications; a
few, however, can become major contributors to GCOS often through some rather simple and
straightforward, operational changes. The required changes often are things like providing adequate
meta-data, ensuring that the observing platform or station operation follows the GCOS Climate Monitoring
Principles, and the systematic submission of data to the internationally mandated data centers.
Thus GCOS implementation is perceived as an integrating program that will require a composite of in-situ
and satellite data products, yielding comprehensive data sets in all three domains (atmosphere, ocean
and land surface); with data acquisition procedures following the GCOS Climate Monitoring Principles,
and data and information access through internationally mandated data and analysis centers. This
integration often occurs on a variable-by-variable basis and on two time frames. The first occurs in real
time or near-real-time for monitoring and prediction purposes and is vital for providing quality control and
essential feedback to the observers and system operators. The second occurs in a delayed mode, where
historical data are also incorporated, usually as part of an analysis or as part of ongoing research in the
detection of climate variability and change.
Data assimilation can add considerable value to global observing systems by combining heterogeneous
sets of observations (e.g. in situ and remotely sensed measurements) with global numerical models to
produce comprehensive and internally consistent fields. Diagnostic data produced during the assimilation
process are essential to provide information on the overall quality of the analyses, including information
on model biases, as well as to identify questionable data.
Many atmospheric domain ECVs can be obtained by accumulating a collection of analyses made each
day to initiate numerical weather forecasts. However, the data assimilation systems used in routine
forecasting are subject to frequent change as the systems are continually improved and to limited
availability of the real-time data. This introduces inhomogeneity that limits their usefulness for studies of
inter-annual and longer-term variations in climate. To overcome this, programmes of atmospheric reanalysis have been established in Europe, the USA and Japan, using modern data-assimilation systems
to reprocess the observations taken over the past several decades. Such re-analysis products have found
widespread application in studies of climate, basic atmospheric processes, and ocean-model initialization
and forcing. The extension of the reanalysis concept to the oceanic and terrestrial domains will be a major
step in global climate monitoring.
Another dimension of the integrated approach is the extension of the climate record through the blending
of data from paleo-data records from tree rings, sediment cores, ice cores, etc. with the instrumental
records of the last two centuries or so. The attainment of an accurate record of the current global climate
will assist enormously in the interpretation of the paleo-data and provide opportunity to better compare
and contrast the present climate with the past record.
2.6.
Building Capacity
GCOS has been the principal agent of the UNFCCC in coordinating the response of Parties and agencies
to the needs of the Convention for systematic observations, as encapsulated in Articles 4.1 and 5 of the
Convention and in subsequent COP decisions and SBSTA conclusions. The need for Parties to address
the priorities for action to improve global observing systems for climate in developing countries has been
a common theme in the considerations by SBSTA on systematic observation. The Second Adequacy
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Report supported the need to establish “a voluntary funding mechanism for undertaking priority climateobserving-system improvements and related capacity-building with least-developed countries and smallisland developing states as well as with some of those countries with economies in transition.
The GCOS Cooperation Mechanism, established by a core set of countries, would provide a coordinated
multi-governmental approach to address the high-priority needs for stable long-term funding for key
(baseline) elements of global observing systems for climate in support of the requirements of the
UNFCCC and other GCOS clients, especially those needs in developing countries, taking into account
the special needs and situations of least developed countries and small island developing States. It
consists of a:


GCOS Cooperation Board as the primary means to identify and co-ordinate improvement projects;
and
GCOS Cooperation Fund as a means to aggregate voluntary contributions from multiple donors (both
in-kind and financial) into a common trust fund.
The mechanism has the ability to develop, fund and implement crosscutting approaches relevant to all
climate disciplines/regimes, including addressing data management and data exchange.
The GCOS Cooperation Mechanism is designed to build on the existing multilateral and bilateral technical
cooperation programs (e.g. WMO/VCP, UNDP, and the many national aid agencies), which support
observing activities of importance to climate. Its aim is to ensure wide awareness of priority climate needs
and a climate focused supplement to existing mechanisms.
Building capacity also involves cooperation intra-nationally (among agencies within governments) and
between nations regionally to address the multi-domain, multi-discipline objectives of GCOS. For example
the co-location of observing facilities as appropriate at stations or observatories in the various reference
and baseline networks. Such synergy and collaboration will in principle be cost effective and will
encourage the collaboration among disciplines that climate science requires.
2.7.
Measuring Progress - Assessing GCOS Implementation
The following sections of the GCOS Implementation Plan outline the many and wide-ranging actions that
will be required to attain a viable observing system that will address the stated requirements in section 1.
For each proposed action a “Performance Indicator” will be specified which will define the measures by
which progress can be assessed along with an indicated time frame within which the action should be
accomplished. Together these measures assign priority to the action, and reflect the concept of a “phased
implementation”.
The Performance Indicators may be of two types:

Internal metrics that reflect the state and the degree of implementation of an observing system or
network such as numbers and quality of available observations; the effectiveness of data exchange,
archiving and quality control and the number of climate quality analysis products

External metrics such as national reports to UNFCCC, regular assessments with IPCC, evaluations
from the scientific community (e.g. WCRP), and response from users of the data and information
Section 3 will address actions that are not domain specific and are labeled “Over-Arching/Cross-cutting
actions”, while section 4 focuses on those for each ECV in the three domains.
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3. Over-Arching/Cross-Cutting Actions
The 2AR identified a number of issues that cut across all domains. The actions arising from these issues
are discussed in this section.
3.1.
Planning and Reporting
3.1.1.
National and regional planning
The needs of the UNFCCC for global climate observations and products can be addressed only if plans
are developed and then implemented in a coordinated manner by national, regional and international
organizations. GCOS and its international partners have over the past decade developed and
disseminated plans for the operation of individual networks for most of the key variables. It is essential
that these plans be extended to cover all of the variables and address the integration of both in situ and
satellite observations.
Efforts to enhance regional planning for the collection, processing and archiving of climate observations
need to continue, as this shares the workload across many nations.
As noted in the Interim Report presented to the SBSTA in June of 2002, with the exception of the main
meteorological networks, most national efforts supporting climate-observing systems are poorly
coordinated and planned. Almost all Parties reported that many governmental bodies, agencies and
research institutes were involved with systematic observation of the climate system as well as there being
different levels of internal governance. Only a very small number of Parties reported that they had
instituted internal mechanisms to ensure the necessary coordination. A small number of Annex 1 Parties
reported that they had either prepared or were preparing plans for systematic observation of climate as
recommended by GCOS. All Parties need to recognize the benefits arising from the implementation of
coordination mechanisms and the development of national plans for systematic observation of the climate
system, and to adopt appropriate measures within their own jurisdictions.
All nations require active national coordination and planning processes as well as plans for systematic
climate observation.
Table 2. Implementation actions: Planning 3
C1
3.1.2.
Action: All Parties undertake national and regional planning
processes and produce national plans for climate observations,
archiving and analysis.
Who: All Parties and appropriate regional bodies (e.g. WMO
RAs)
Time-Frame: Continuous
Performance Indicator: Availability of national and regional
plans.
Cost Implications: Low
2AR Findings
C16, C17
National reporting
Reporting on systematic climate observation activities by the Parties as part of their national
communications under the UNFCCC has been valuable in the planning and implementation of global
3
The notation C1, C2 …. has been used sequentially to identify the actions on the findings from the
Second Adequacy Report that are given in the list of “common findings” from the report.
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observing systems for climate. The response by Parties to the 2AR emphasized that in order to improve
the understanding of climate and climate change, and for the UNFCCC to be implemented effectively,
accurate and credible information relative to all elements of GCOS must be exchanged according to the
relevant guidelines (Decision 4/CP5). The following list of suggestions is pertinent for the GCOS
implementation plan:




The Supplementary Reporting Format (submitted to SBSTA-13), modified as necessary to remain
compatible, should be institutionalized within the revised guidelines;
The Parties should be urged to report on measures aimed at adhering to climate monitoring principles
and data rescue and preservation;
The UNFCCC climate monitoring principles should be revised and extended to address the
application of the principles, and development of new principles, to satellite observing systems in
accord with decision 11/CP9;
All Parties should participate in the reporting process.
Table 3. Implementation actions : Reporting to UNFCCC
C2
3.2.
Action: All Parties report as requested to the UNFCCC using
the Supplementary Reporting Format .
Who: All Parties
Time-Frame: Continuous
Performance Indicator: Percentage of parties reporting
Cost Implications: Low.
2AR Findings
C18
Transforming research networks and systems to systematic observation
Observations of several climate-system variables are made in the context of research programmes or by
Space Agencies whose primary mission is research and development. This is particularly so in the
atmospheric composition, the oceanic, and the terrestrial domains. Once methods are sufficiently mature
to guarantee a sustained set of observations to known and acceptable levels of accuracy to their users,
they need to be translated into a systematic or operational observing system. Although this transition has
not been a natural process in national and organizational planning, recent progress involving the Space
Agencies and some others has occurred and further improvements are encouraged. An operational
system requires an organization with the institutional mandate and sustained funding. The operational
system includes the acquisition, transmission, analysis and archiving of the data. Often the optimum
arrangement is for the operation to be funded as part of a research laboratory’s responsibility; in other
cases it may involve the transfer of responsibility from one organization to another. This transfer of
responsibility also implies sustained dialogue between the operational entities and the research
community so that the operational arm may benefit from scientific advances.
Table 4. Implementation actions: Transition of networks and systems from
research/experimental to operational status
C3
Action: Need sustained institutional commitment and support
for GCOS contributing systems and networks and and a transfer
from research to operational functions as appropriate.
Who: National and international agencies as appropriate.
Time-Frame: Continuous
Performance Indicator: National commitments to vulnerable
networks and systems
Cost Implications: Substantial
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International Support for Critical Networks - Technical Cooperation
While most climate observations are carried out by national agencies on a best-endeavours approach,
the benefits of the global baseline networks of GCOS are international in scope. Their sustainability can
be seen as an international responsibility. Many developing countries and countries with economies in
transition do not have the capabilities or the resources to provide the essential in situ observations or
carry out associated analysis of climate data. The many multi-national and bi-lateral technical assistance
programs can assist and the GCOS multi-national fund has been established to address the high-priority
needs for funding for key (baseline) elements of global observing systems, especially in least developed
countries and some small island states. The support involves capacity-building, improving infrastructure
and may need to sustain operations.
The technical commissions of WMO and IOC, and hopefully soon a technical commission dedicated to
the Terrestrial Domain, provide overall guidance and coordination on the implementation of all operational
atmospheric and oceanographic networks. It is vital for GCOS to liaise with the technical commissions to
ensure that the GCOS Monitoring Principles are recognised and adhered to by all network operators,
especially for the baseline networks, which require additional resources and international coordination to
be fully implemented. A dedicated GCOS Project Office is required to support these activities, which are
additional to the service and policy functions of the GCOS Secretariat. The Project Office needs to focus
especially on the development and operation of baseline networks and associated analysis activities.
Table 5. Implementation actions: International support for baseline networks.
Technical Cooperation
C4
Action: Organize a campaign to solicit multi-lateral and bilateral
technical cooperation programs to support GCOS focused activities
in developing countries and countries with economies in transition.
Who: GCOS Secretariat and key participating Parties
Time-Frame: Continuous, urgent to start
Performance Indicator: New resources dedicated to GCOS
related projects.
Cost Implications: Low
2AR Finding
C20
C6
Action: Establishment of a project office to oversee planning and
monitoring of GCOS technical assistance projects and liaise with
network managers.
Who: GCOS Cooperation Board and Steering Committee
Time-Frame: Urgent, Continuing
Performance Indicator: Number of network sites becoming
operational
Cost Implication: 2 Technical staff plus travel and office expenses.
C20
3.4.
Earth Observation Satellites
Satellites now provide the single most important means of obtaining observations of the climate system
from a near-global perspective and comparing the behaviour of different parts of the globe. A detailed
global climate record for the future critically depends upon a major satellite component, but for satellite
data to contribute fully and effectively to the determination of long-term records, the system must be
implemented and operated in an appropriate manner to ensure that these data are climatically accurate
and homogeneous. To assist the Space Agencies, the GCOS Climate Monitoring Principles have been
extended specifically for satellite observations, as documented in Appendix 2. Their implementation by
the Space Agencies for operational spacecraft and systematic research spacecraft would greatly enhance
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DRAFT
the utility of satellite information and benefit the climate record. For “one time” research spacecraft, the
principles of continuity obviously do not fully apply, but as many of the other principles as possible (e.g.,
those for rigorous pre-launch instrument characterization and calibration, on-board calibration,
complementary surface-based observations, etc.) should be followed. Recently the space agencies, both
the operational system operators and the experimental systems have agreed to address climate
observing requirements. The continuation of the attention being given by the Space Agencies to
addressing the accuracy and homogeneity requirements for climate would significantly enhance the value
of satellite observations to the global observing systems for climate.
As pointed out in the 2AR, the GCOS Climate Monitoring Principles extended specifically for satellite
operations address the following key operational issues:





Continuity and homogeneity and overlap
Orbit Control
Calibration
Data interpretation and validation
Institutional Issues
It will also involve recording and archiving of all satellite meta-data so that long-term sensor performance
is accessible as well as establishing a self-describing format for all archived data. The organization of
data service systems that ensure accessibility is needed. The reprocessing of all relevant satellite data so
that optimum use can be made of the satellite data in the integrated global analyses and re-analyses will
be a major on-going challenge.
C7
C8
3.5.
Table 6. Implementation actions: Earth observation satellite operations
Action: Development of plans for satellite operations to contribute to
2AR
climate monitoring through adherence to the GCOS Climate Monitoring Findings
Principles as extended specifically to satellite operations.
Who: Satellite operating nations and associated space agencies.
C1, C2
Time-Frame: Urgent, continuing
Performance Indicator: Number of integrated products utilized by
IPCC.
Cost Implications: Moderate – space agency
Action: Ensure continuity and over-lap of key satellite sensors; C1, C2
recording and archiving of all satellite meta-data; implementing selfdescribing formats for all archived data; providing data service systems
that ensure accessibility; undertaking reprocessing of all data relevant
to climate for inclusion in integrated climate analyses and re-analyses.
Who: Satellite operating nations and associated space agencies.
Time-Frame: Urgent, continuing
Performance Indicator: Data and products conform to climate
standards.
Cost Implications: High – national/space agency
Integrated Climate Products
While observations of the climate variables are an essential pre-requisite, the users of the information
generally require analyzed outputs and products. Thus developing analyzed products for all of the
Essential Climate Variables is essential. While the Parties are operating a number of such analysis
centres for some of the atmospheric variables, additional operational analyses are required for all
domains. International coordination of these activities is essential. It is also important to recognize that
alternative analysis approaches are required to verify the accuracy of the various outputs for specific
variables. At this point in time there are very few analysis centres that are integrating observations of a
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GCOS Implementation Plan (V.3) – 10-Mar-04
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DRAFT
given variable using data from different networks. The integrated products should include estimates of the
uncertainty inherent in the analysis.
Achieving the integrated analyses of the following important ECVs are priority near term activities.
Domain
Atmospheric
Variable for which Integrated products should be immediately engaged and
progressively improved
Surface:
Precipitation
Upper-air:
Earth radiation budget (including solar irradiance), Upper-air temperature
(including MSU radiances), Reanalysis-derived atmospheric structure of wind,
temperature and water vapour.
Composition:
Ozone, Aerosol optical depth
Surface:
Sea-surface temperature,
biological activity)
(over land, sea
and ice)
Oceanic
Terrestrial
Sea level, Sea state, Sea ice,
Ocean colour (for
Lake levels, Snow cover, Glaciers and ice caps, Permafrost and seasonally-frozen ground, Albedo,
Land cover (including vegetation type), Fraction of absorbed photosynthetically active radiation
(FAPAR), Leaf area index (LAI),Fire disturbance.
Some ECVs will require active research programs to develop the tools necessary to produce climatequality integrated analyses. Candidate variables for high priority research efforts include:
Domain
Atmospheric
(over land, sea
and ice)
Variable for which research towards Integrated products should be a high priority
Surface:
Upper-air:
Cloud properties.
Composition: Carbon dioxide, Methane, Aerosol properties.
.
Oceanic
Terrestrial
Sub-surface:
Temperature, Salinity and current from Reanalyisi
Biomass
Real-time data assimilation and re-analysis is another method of generating integrated products and
exploits the physical relationships between a number of the variables and thus uses many of the available
types of observations. It is an increasingly powerful tools that haves significant potential for integrating
climate variables and providing a comprehensive picture of the climate system. The main focus and
success of real-time data assimilation and re-analysis to date has been on short-term variability of the
atmosphere rather than on long-term climate trends. The latter places particular demands on the re-
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GCOS Implementation Plan (V.3) – 10-Mar-04
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analysis systems and on the observational data that they ingest. Ocean data assimilation and re-analysis
is just now developing and terrestrial activities are in their infancy, due to a lack of modeling
infrastructure, historical data and limited institutional engagement.
Although the quality of re-analyses is at present insufficient for a number of climate applications, there are
good reasons to be optimistic and there is an opportunity to develop improved procedures for climate reanalyses and thereby reveal long-term trends. A small number of re-analysis centres are required, with
adequate staff and data processing, as part of an internationally-coordinated programme for the
preparation of integrated climate products. The international re-analysis programme should give initial
priority to: (a) extending current atmospheric re-analysis activities to meet requirements for monitoring
climate variability and trends; (b) building on and extending ocean data-assimilation research activities
such as GODAE to establish ocean re-analyses for the recent satellite era, and for longer if practicable;
and (c) developing products relating to the composition and forcing of the climate system. The outputs of
the re-analysis programme should be widely and easily available to the user community. The availability
of national holdings of historical data to the international data centres is an essential requirement for the
effective conduct of re-analysis.
Establishing continuing capabilities for reanalysis for each domain, recognising the early stage of
development of assimilation in the ocean and the terrestrial domains, is essential.
Table 7. Implementation Actions: Integrated Global Climate Products
C9
C10
C11
C12
Action: Establishing a coordinated system of analysis centers to
produce the required integrated global analysis fields for climate,
including measures of uncertainty.
Who: National services in association with the international Technical
Commissions and Scientific Advisory Bodies.
Time-Frame: Most ECV’s addressed by 2009
Performance Indicator: Number of ECVs with analysis products
available
Cost Implications: Low-Moderate
Action: Establishing a continuing capacity for reanalysis for each
domain.
Who: National services in association with WCRP, IGBP, and the
Scientific Advisory Bodies.
Time-Frame: Initial capacity in each domain by 2009
Performance Indicator: Re-analysis products produced in each
domain.
Cost Implications: Low-moderate
Action: Provision of historical data sets including meta-data to
internationally mandated archives for inclusion in re-analysis
programs.
Who: National services in cooperation with WDCs
Time-Frame: Completed by 2009
Performance Indicator: Reports to UNFCCC
Cost Implications: Low
Action: Continuation of pilot projects and associated research on
ocean and terrestrial data assimilation
Who: National services, research projects and space agencies
Time-Frame: Continuing
Performance Indicator: Reports to UNFCCC
Cost Implications: Low
15
2AR
Finding
C3
C4
C5
C3
GCOS Implementation Plan (V.3) – 10-Mar-04
3.6.
DRAFT
DRAFT
DRAFT
Historical Data Sets
Accurate records of past variations and changes are an essential part of interpreting using new analyses.
Improvement of these historical records is dependent on adequate investment in data archaeology for the
rehabilitation of data that are not presently accessible or are inadequately assessed for random errors
and time-dependent biases. Three aspects of data archaeology are critical for putting new observations
into a historical context or making effective use of the past records.
First, information must be compiled about how, where and when observations were made, i.e., metadata.
Most instrumental observing systems as well as proxy data or data from non-instrumental sources (e.g.,
biophysical or geochemical data such as tree rings, coral growth, dust layers) have not been designed to
measure decadal and longer-term changes and variations. Adequate metadata are essential for climate
observations. In their absence exhaustive investigative research is required to find, compile, and integrate
information on how, where and when observations were taken in order to effectively interpret the data.
Second, it is essential to synthesize present observations with historical data to obtain the most
comprehensive spatial and long-term data sets. At the present time scientists are struggling to address all
aspects of data archaeology. This includes retrieving data inaccessible because the recording media are
outdated, national data exchange is restricted, or resources are inadequate to make them easily
accessible.
Third, once appropriate metadata and comprehensive data sets are assembled, a demanding task
remains; time-dependent biases within the data sets must be identified and corrected. When historical
climate observations from GCOS baseline networks have been digitized, quality controlled and
homogenized, the rehabilitated data and their associated metadata should be available in international
data centres.
Table 8. Implementation Actions: Historical Data Sets
C13
C14
C15
Action: Digitization of historical data records and submission to WDC
Who: Nations facilitated through GCOS Regional Workshops and the
WCDP
Time-Frame: Complete by 2009
Performance Indicator: National reports to UNFCCC and data
receipt at WDC
Cost Implications: Low
Action: Data originating in a country but held in archives of a second
country should be returned to the country of origin and also sent to the
designated international archive.
Who: National services in cooperation with WDC.
Time-Frame: Complete by 2009
Performance Indicator: National reports to UNFCCC and data
receipt at WDC
Cost Implications: Low
Action: Acquisition and preservation of Paleo-climate data and proxy
data and associated integrated analysis to assist in resolving past
climate variability
Who: National research programs in cooperation with WCRP
Time-Frame: Continuing
Performance Indicator: Reports in scientific literature
Cost Implications: Low
16
2AR
Finding
C8
C7
C6
GCOS Implementation Plan (V.3) – 10-Mar-04
3.7.
DRAFT
DRAFT
DRAFT
Data Management and Stewardship
One of the most important activities to be undertaken is to ensure that high-quality data records are
collected and retained for analysis and/or re-analysis by current and future generations of scientists. This
essential but often overlooked activity is called data management and stewardship.
First, it is clear from the detailed network reviews that the flow of real-time data to the user community
and to the international data centres for the ECVs is inadequate. This is especially true for many
terrestrial-observing networks. Data policy, lack of resources and inadequately integrated data-system
infrastructure are the primary causes. The latter are especially problematic in developing countries and
countries with economies in transition.
Second, access to very large data sets, including some satellite data and model simulations, is becoming
increasingly difficult for many users. This is compounded in developing countries with inadequate
information technology infrastructure or technical skills in using complex data. Access to these data must
be made more effective through the developments of derived products.
Third, the preservation of the data for future use requires facilities and infrastructure to ensure the longterm storage of the data. The rapidly-increasing volume of raw observations that must be saved and
stored in an archive is such that without action the data will often be inaccessible to many users. Once
data are in electronic format, the data must be continually migrated to newer storage devices and access
software or consistent format in order to preserve the data for sustained future use. This practice of
technological data stewardship is a requirement on the international data centres and the Space
Agencies to ensure future data usage. At the present time, even large centres are barely keeping pace
with the influx of new data. This is especially true when observing systems are put in place without
adequate consideration of the technological data-stewardship requirements for data archive and access.
It follows that international data centres and Space Agencies need to give high priority to making use of
modern information and communication technology to ensure effective access and long-term migration,
and thus ultimate preservation, of the rapidly-growing volumes of climate-related data.
Fourth, a key component of data management includes adequate monitoring of the data stream. This
includes timely quality-control of the observations by the monitoring centres and notification to observing
system operators and managers of both random and systematic errors, so that corrective action can
occur. An operational system is needed that can track, identify, and notify network managers and
operators of observational irregularities, especially time-dependent biases, as close to near-real time as
possible. Such feedback systems are currently not routine practices at monitoring and analysis centres.
Equally important is the follow-up required by operators and managers who are responsible for
implementing timely corrective measures. This is especially problematic in developing countries with lessthan-adequate resources. Without adequate scientific data stewardship, biases often become apparent
only after substantial investment in research related to the rehabilitation of the data record, e.g., data
archaeology. Scientific data stewardship, therefore, is a cost-effective measure that minimizes the need
for uncertain corrections at a later date. When problems in the observations and reporting of the
observations are not identified and corrected as soon as possible, errors and biases accumulate in the
data and the climate records can be irreparably damaged.
Finally, many inconsistencies and apparent biases and inhomogeneities in the data can be addressed if
adequate meta-data information is available to the analyst. For many climate observing systems
international standards and procedures for the storage and exchange of metadata need to be developed
and implemented.
International agencies, working with their technical commissions and the GCOS Secretariat, should
address the inadequacies related to scientific data stewardship, including the introduction of adequate
near-real-time observing system performance monitoring and monitoring for time-dependent biases.
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GCOS Implementation Plan (V.3) – 10-Mar-04
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DRAFT
DRAFT
Table 9. Implementation Actions: Data Management and Stewardship
Ref.
No.
C16
C17
C18
C19
C20
C21
Action (A): Implementation action proposed or required
Who (W): Proposed responsible Parties/Institutions
Time-frame (T): Action accomplished by date, or continuous
Performance Indicator(s) (P): Measures by which progress will be
assessed
A: Ensure real- time flow of all required GCOS data to analysis centers and
international archives
W: National services
T: Urgent, continuing
P: Reports to UNFCCC and data receipt at centers and archives.
Costs: Low
A: Ensure that data policies facilitate the exchange and archiving of all
required climate data.
W: Nations and International Agencies
T: Urgent, continuing
P: National reports to UNFCCC
Costs: Minimal
A: Development of modern distributed data services that can handle the
increasing volumes of data and which can allow feedback to observing
network management.
W: National services committing to international data center operation and
high data volume providers such as satellite operators
T: Longer term objective, 2014
P: Development of plans and initial steps at some centers
Costs: Moderate
A: Ensure that newly deployed observing systems have adequate data
management and archive infrastructure.
W: System operators
T: Urgent, continuing
P: Plans and reports
Costs: Moderate
A: Develop standards and procedures for meta-data and its storage and
exchange
W: International Technical Commissions with Scientific Advisory Bodies
T: Guidance complete by 2009
P: Guidance documents published
Costs: Moderate
A: Develop adequate observing performance monitoring and monitoring for
time-dependent biases procedures for all climate data – all Domains
W:International Technical Commissions and GCOS Secretariat
T: Longer time horizon. 2014
P: Planning activity started
Costs: Moderate
2AR
Findings
C9
C9
C10
C13
C11
C12
C14
C15
4. Implementation of Key Global Networks, Systems and Facilities4
4
The purpose of this section is not clear and has been deleted. The text could just as well begin again at Part II, which would
become section IV.
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GCOS Implementation Plan (V.3) – 10-Mar-04
4.1.
DRAFT
DRAFT
DRAFT
ATMOSPHERIC DOMAIN CLIMATE OBSERVING SYSTEM
4.1.1.
Atmospheric Domain – Surface
4.1.1.a.
General
Table 10 summarizes the observational networks and satellite data required for implementation of GCOS
in the Atmospheric Domain-Surface sorted according to each GCOS Essential Climate Variable (ECV).
The associated existing international data center facilities are also listed.

Over land the various networks of surface meteorological and climatological stations are the
primary elements of GCOS. These include:GSN - Baseline GCOS Surface Network . The GSN
comprises about 1000 stations of the WMO World Weather Watch Global Observing System
(WWW/GOS) that have been selected based on past performance and contribution to global
representativeness for global climate monitoring purposes. The individual stations will meet GCOS
standards for observation and for data exchange.[AS2]

Full WWW/GOS - synoptic observing networks (~7000 stations) having global and regional data
exchange requirements [AS4]

National climatological and meteorological networks . These networks (GSN is a subset of
WWW/GOS which in turn is a subset of National networks) provide the major in situ observational
resource to the Essential Climate Variables (ECV) over land namely; Temperature, Air Pressure,
Precipitation, Water Vapor and Wind Speed and Direction. The GSN is designed by the
GCOS/AOPC as the Baseline network vital to monitoring and detection of global and regional
climate change. The Full WWW/GOS and National networks are essential to the understanding
and evaluation of the impacts of climate and climate change on regional and national scales. The
vulnerability to climate change, especially changes in extreme events, require national and regional
climate observing networks at both a daily timescale and a much finer space scale than the GSN.
(an example map of the European Climate Assessment (ECA) from KNMI would be useful here –
could also be provided by NCDC )
Over the oceans the in situ surface meteorological observations are provided by Voluntary Observing
Ships (VOSClim), drifting buoys, the Tropical Mooring Network and the Reference Buoy Network. The
Implementation of these observing systems is covered in detail under the Oceanic Domain in section
4.2.1 . Some specific issues relative to observing the marine meteorological fields (temperature,
pressure, wind speed and direction, and humidity) are addressed here. Satellite measurements are
absolutely critical to the observing strategies addressing the global distribution of the essential
atmospheric surface variables over the ocean. Combination of land and marine data is vital for the true
assessment of change over the planet. [AS5]
To optimize the value of the networks for application to climate, operators of the networks should follow
the procedures and practices outlined in the GCOS Climate Monitoring Principles . [AS1]
Many observing facilities are being changed from the traditional manual observing station operation to
automatic or quasi-automatic operations. These changes have been demonstrated to insert
inconsistencies and inhomogeneities into the climate record -- ways and means to ensure a compatible
transition are needed to be developed, tested and applied. [AS3]
4.1.1.b.
Specific issues – surface ECV
The following sections elaborate further on the GCOS issues related to each ECV in the Atmospheric
Domain – Surface. Table 11 lists the specific implementation actions proposed, the suggestion of what
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GCOS Implementation Plan (V.3) – 10-Mar-04
DRAFT
DRAFT
DRAFT
bodies or institutions should take the action, the time-frame, and the performance indicators or measures
by which progress can be assessed.
ECV - Surface Temperature
In addition to the land-based networks described above the observation of sea surface temperature as
described below in section 4.2.1 and air temperature over sea ice (from the Arctic and Antarctic buoy
networks) is required along with an analysis integrating both fields into a global integrated surface
temperature product. [AS1, AS2, OS2, OS3, OS4]
ECV - Air Pressure
In addition to the land based observations of pressure described above pressure data from over the
ocean from sensors mounted on drifting buoys (also in the sea-ice areas of the Arctic and Antarctic),
VOSClim ships, the Tropical Mooring Network, and the Reference Buoy Network. Many of these
measurements have been operational over the last 25 years; the data are exchanged and inserted into
the operational meteorological WWW system and are subject to quality control procedures at the level of
data acquisition and again at the analysis center level. [AS5]
ECV - Precipitation
Precipitation is the key variable for human and natural systems affected by climate. Also in order to
evaluate national water resources, it is vital to have the regional and global context provided by data in
the WDC-A. Precipitation is a key input to the terrestrial domain, and is required to complete the
hydrological cycle in many studies. Precipitation usually occurs on space and time scales much smaller
than the network density of most meteorological and climatological networks, so measurement is required
of the type, frequency, intensity as well as the total amount of precipitation. To compensate for this many
nations have organized and operate special precipitation networks. In addition, assessments of the
problems caused by blowing snow, leading to issues of undercatch need to be assessed. Global and
regional estimates of precipitation and their variability can be significantly improved by nations routinely
exchanging their current and historical observations with the international data centres. [AS6]
Satellite observing systems (e.g. TRMM) have been used experimentally to map the distribution of
precipitation over the globe. The use of such satellite systems for climate purposes, particularly over the
oceans, (e.g. the future Global Precipitation Measurement (GPM) program) will require a network of
precipitation gauges on the Reference Buoy Network (see section 4.2.1) and on selected islands to
provide calibration and validation information for the integrated analysis product.
Even over land, incorporation of national radar network data will require a dense network of surface
gauges for inclusion into analysed products. Precipitation amounts derived from Reanalysis products are
neither consistent over time nor accurate enough for climatic purposes. [AS7, AS8]
ll remain limited until an operational strategy is devised for ocean areas, land areas with either low
precipitation rates or significant contributions from snowfall.
ECV - Near-surface Wind Speed and Direction
Over land the observation of wind speed and direction is accomplished largely through the synoptic
meteorological network (WWW/GOS). Over the oceans the observations from ships (VOSClim), the
Tropical Mooring Network, and the Reference Buoy Network provide a sparse but vital data resource.
There are continuing problems with the representativeness and quality of in situ wind measurements over
both the land and ocean. Satellite borne scatterometer and SSMI data have been demonstrated as a
viable source for wind field information over the ocean when coupled with the in situ observations in an
integrated analysis product. The systematic and sustained deployment of scatterometer systems is
required.
ECV Wind speed and direction
Over land the observation of wind speed and direction is accomplished largely through the synoptic
meteorological network. Over the oceans the observations from ships (VOSClim), the Tropical Mooring
Network, and the Reference Buoy Network provide a sparse but vital data resource. There are continuing
problems with the representativeness and quality of in situ wind measurements over both the land and
ocean. Satellite borne scatterometer data have been demonstrated as a viable source for wind field
20
GCOS Implementation Plan (V.3) – 10-Mar-04
DRAFT
DRAFT
DRAFT
information over the ocean when coupled with the in situ observations in an integrated analysis product.
The systematic and sustained deployment of scatterometer systems is required. [AS9]
ECV - Water Vapor
In addition to the land based WWW/GOS networks water vapor (humidity) measurements are obtained
from VOSClim ships. Homogeneity and observational practices hamper the usefulness of the data from
whatever source - something that will need to be addressed through research activity. Such an activity is
essential if the context of the impact of changes of surface water vapour on natural and human systems.
Surface water vapor data not been studied in a global context and efforts to provide historic data to the
GCOS analysis and archive centres are to be encouraged. [AS10]
ECV - Surface Radiation Budget
The surface radiation budget is a fundamental component of the surface energy budget that is crucial to
nearly all aspects of climate and needs to be monitored systematically. The Baseline Surface Radiation
Network (BSRN) of the World Climate Research Program (WCRP) has established the relevant
measurement techniques and it provides the foundation for the GCOS baseline network for surface
radiation. The development of this global network should be done in concert with the Earth Radiation
Budget observations from satellite (see section 4.1.2.b below ). The BSRN provides high-quality
measurements of radiation at the surface, and should be expanded and adequately supported. More
spatially-extensive datasets of sunshine duration in most countries could provide useful historic
information and their incorporation into GCOS analysis and archive centres is also encouraged. [AS11,
AS12]
Table 10. Observation networks and systems and international data centers contributing to the
surface component of the GCOS Atmospheric Domain.
ATMOSPHERIC DOMAIN
SURFACE
Contributing Surface Network(s)
ECV
Temperature 
Baseline GCOS Surface Network
(GSN)
 Full WWW/GOS Surface Networks
 Additional National Networks
 Drifting Buoy Array
 VOSClim Fleet
 Tropical Mooring Network
 Reference Buoy Network
(See also Oceanic Surface Sea Surface
Temperature ECV)
International Data Center(s)
and Archives
Contributing 2AR
Satellite Data FINDING

Infrared
Microwave
GCOS GSN Monitoring
Center (DWD, JMA)
 GCOS GSN Analysis
Center (NCDC)
 GCOS GSN Archive
(WDC-Asheville)
 WMO-CBS GCOS Lead
Centers (DWD, JMA,
NCDC)
 Global Historical Climate
Network (WDC-Asheville,
NCDC)
21
A1, A3,
A22, A23,
C16, C17
GCOS Implementation Plan (V.3) – 10-Mar-04
Air Pressure 
DRAFT
Baseline GCOS Surface Network
(GSN)
Full WWW/GOS Surface Networks
Additional National Networks
Drifting Buoy Array
VOSClim Fleet
Tropical Mooring Network
Reference Buoy Network
 GCOS GSN Monitoring
Center (DWD, JMA)
 GCOS GSN Analysis Center
(NCDC)
 GCOS GSN Archive
(WDC-Asheville)
 WMO-CBS GCOS Lead
Centers (DWD, JMA, NCDC)
 Global Historical Climate
Network (WDC-Asheville, NCDC)
Wind Speed/ 
Direction





Baseline GCOS Surface Network
(GSN)
WWW/GOS Synoptic Network
Additional National Networks
VOSClim Fleet
Tropical Mooring Network
Reference Buoy Network


Precipitation 
Baseline GCOS Surface Network

(GSN)
Full WWW/GOS Surface Network

Additional National Networks
Reference Buoy and Island Network 
National Lidar Networks














Water Vapor 


Surface
Radiation
Budget



Baseline GCOS Surface Network
(GSN)
Full WWW/GOS Synoptic Network
VOSClim Fleet


Baseline Surface Radiation Network 
(BSRN)

WWW/GOS Synoptic Network
Additional National Networks


DRAFT
DRAFT
A1, A2, A3,
A4, A6,
A22, A23,
C16, C17
WWW/GDPS Centers
GODAE – Monterey Server
Wind at the ocean surface
ICOADS – International
Comprehensive Ocean
Atmosphere Data Set
Scatterometer, A2, A3, A7,
Passive
A22, A23
Microwave
GCOS GSN Monitoring
Centers (DWD, JMA)
GCOS GSN Analysis
Center (NCDC)
GCOS GSN Archive
(WDC-Asheville)
Global Precipitation Clim.
Center (DWD)
Global Historical Climate
Network (WDC-A, NCDC)
Global Precipitation
Climatology Program
Passive
Microwave,
Infra-red
WWW/GDPS Centers
GCOS GSN Analysis
Centers (NCDC)
N/A
A1, A4, A5,
A22, A23
Tropical Active
Microwave
(e..g. GPM)
Radar
A2, A22,
A23
WMO Radiation C’ter (Davos) ERB missions A8
World Radiation Data Center (e.g. CERES,
GERB)
(St. Petersburg)
Global Energy Budget Archive
(Zurich)
GCOS GSN Analysis Centers
(UK Met Off., Hadley Center
and WDC-A, NCDC)
Table 11. Actions proposed (Atmospheric Domain – Surface)
22
GCOS Implementation Plan (V.3) – 10-Mar-04
Ref.
No.
AS1
AS2
AS3
AS4
AS5
AS6
AS7
DRAFT
DRAFT
DRAFT
Action (A): Implementation action proposed or required
Who (W): Proposed responsible Parties/Institutions
Time-frame (T): Action accomplished by date, or continuous
Performance Indicator(s) (P): Measures by which progress will be assessed
A: Application of GCOS Climate Monitoring Principles (GCMP) to all surface networks
W: All National Services in coordination with WMO/CBS, WMO/RAs, and GCOS
Secretariat
T: Continuous
P: Quality and homogeneity of data and meta-data submitted to data centers and
National Reports to UNFCCC
A: Detailed analysis of causes of GSN faults, followed by full implementation of the GSN
W: National Services in coordination/cooperation with GCOS/AOPC and GCOS Project
Office
Time -frame: Complete operation of GSN by 2007 and receipt of all archival data by
2008
P: Data archive statistics at WDC and National Communications to UNFCCC
Cost: Uncertain but additional costs could be incurred at up to 400 currently nonoperational stations
A: Develop guidelines and procedures to help the transitino from manual to automatic
surface observing stations that satisfies the GCMP
W: WMO/CIMO in cooperation with the CCl, GCOS AOPC and the GCOS Project Office
T: Complete by 2006
P: Quality and homogeneity of data and metadata submitted to data centres
Cost: Consultancies $100K
Need: More GSN data should become available if all RBSN data are made globally
available
A: Obtain major progress in implementation and systematic operation of the full
WWW/GOS Regional Basic Synoptic Networks (RBSN) in compliance with GCOS CMP
W: National Services in cooperation/coordination with WMO/CBS, WMO/CCl and RAs,
WWW Secretariat
T: Continuous with 10% improvement in receipt of RBSN data by 2009
P: Data archive statistics at WDC-A
Cost: Negligible unless there are communication bottle-necks
A: Seek cooperation from drifting buoy deploying nations and programs so that all
drifting buoys have atmospheric pressure sensors
W: Drifting buoy operating nations and programs.
T: Continuous
P: Percentage of buoys with SLP sensors
Cost: Less than 1800 x cost of sensor
A: Submission of precipitation data from national networks to the designated
international operational and archive data centers
W: National Services
T: Continuous with 20% improvement in receipt by 2009
P: Percentage of nations providing precipitation data to the International Archive (GPCC
and WDC-A).
Cost: Negligible
A: Develop the plans and initiate the deployment of precipitation stations on a global
network of islands and on the Reference Buoy Network
W: The planning by the AOPC and JCOMM in cooperation with National Services and
GCOS Secretariat; deployment by National Services or Institutions
T: Develop plans by 2005, implementation complete by 2009
P: Published plans. No. of stations implemented and data submission to centres
Cost: Susbstantial capital and on-going costs
23
GCOS Implementation Plan (V.3) – 10-Mar-04
AS8
AS9
AS10
AS11
AS12
DRAFT
DRAFT
DRAFT
A: Transfer from research mode and ensure continuous operation of satellites designed
to observe global precipitation fields (GPM type of instrumentation)
W: Satellite Operators
T: Continuous
P: Commitment to long-term satellite observations of global precipitation
Cost: Large transfer costs from research community
A: Ensure continuous operation of wide swath satellite scatterometer.
W: Satellite operators
T: Continuous
P: Commitment to long-term satellite observations of surface winds
Cost: Large transfer costs from research community
A: Submission of water vapour data from national networks to the GCOS GSN Analysis
and Archive Centres.
W: GCOS GSN Analysis Centres and WCRP.
T: Complete analysis of global-scale data by 2006
P: Data availability in analysis centers and archive
Cost: Negligible
A: Submission of sunshine data from national networks to the GCOS GSN Analysis and
Archive Centres.
W: GCOS GSN Analysis Centres and WCRP.
T: Complete analysis of global-scale data by 2009
P: Data availability in analysis centers and archive
Cost: Negligible
A: Consolidate the global BSRN network for global coverage and establish formal
analysis infrastructure.
W: Climate research community (WCRP/GEWEX Radiation Panel) and national
institutions.
T: Plan completed 2004, complete BSRN operation by 2009
P: Published plan (including number of BSRN stations submitting data); %age of
stations providing full data to archive
Cost: Depends upon no. of new stations
4.1.2.
Atmospheric Domain – Upper-Air
4.1.2.a.
General
Table 12 summarizes the observational networks and satellite data required for implementation of GCOS
in the Atmospheric Domain - Upper-Air, sorted according to each GCOS ECV. Because the main in situ
observations are from rawinsondes, special issues affect several ECVs and are called out first. The
associated existing international data center facilities are also listed.
For the variables temperature, wind speed and direction, and water vapour the radiosonde network
provides the backbone of the in situ global observing system for climate as well as for weather forecasting
applications. The full WWW/GOS plan for radiosondes, some 900 stations, has never been fully realized.
About 15 ships fitted with automated radiosonde systems operate largely in the North Atlantic and Pacific
Oceans. Some problems are occurring either because observations are not being taken due to a lack of
resources, or because data are not being exchanged. The resulting acquisition of data is unevenly
distributed over the globe with relative high-density coverage over most of the Northern Hemisphere, and
with much poorer coverage over the tropics and parts of the Southern Hemisphere. The advent of GPS
technology has helped improve the accuracy of radiosonde wind measurements; however, it has also
created problems due to increased cost and availability of sondes. In order to take advantage of the
enhanced accuracy it is essential to implement the reporting of position and time of each measurement
(as in new codes). It is also highly desirable to have observations twice per day as this allows radiation
biases to be partly assessed.
24
GCOS Implementation Plan (V.3) – 10-Mar-04
DRAFT
DRAFT
DRAFT
The GCOS AOPC has designated a subset of the WWW/GOS network as the baseline GCOS Upper-Air
Network (GUAN) consisting of about 150 radiosonde stations fairly evenly distributed over the globe and
is seeking cooperation with the WMO/WWW/CBS and the WMO/Regional Associations and National
Services to implement a program of sustained operation of the network and its associated infrastructure.
This is a high priority objective of GCOS. [AU1]
Figure 1. Performance of the GUAN upper-air temperature observations for December 2002
(Courtesy UK Met Office)
Figure 1 shows that 118 stations had at least 90% of their reports received while 34 stations were
unreliable. Some other fairly reliable stations are also indicated. .
There remain outstanding issues on quality of all radiosonde measurements for climate purposes.
Radiation errors remain issues for temperature, and standard radiosondes are not capable of measuring
water vapour at low temperatures (< -20C) with sufficient accuracy for climate monitoring and climate
change detection. A Reference Network of high-altitude high quality radiosondes is proposed. The
routine observations from Boulder, Colorado currently provide the only reliable record of uppertropospheric and stratospheric (up to 25 km altitude) temperature and water vapour. In order to develop
systematic observations across climate zones, a reference network of about 30 such sites should be
established as a subset of GUAN to permit accurate measurements routinely to 5 hPa pressures, with
soundings on both ascent and descent. Prototype reference sondes have been developed to meet these
needs that include three thermistors with different radiation characteristics and water vapour sensors
such as frost point hygrometers or chilled mirror devices.
In addition to providing a network for climate change detection and new information on water vapour in
the upper troposphere and lower stratosphere that is vital for the greenhouse effect, this network will be
extensively used to calibrate and validate various satellite observations including GPS occultation, and
microwave and infrared sounding data on both temperature and water vapour. The operational observing
program (frequency and instrumentation performance requirements) needs to be specified.
Initiating
and implementing this sub-network on a three year timetable is regarded as very high priority. If possible,
these reference sites should be collocated and consolidated with other climate monitoring instrumentation
(e.g., GPS column water vapour measurements, ozonesonde and perhaps GAW networks). In addition to
establishing the observation sites, it will be important to have mechanisms for quality control, archive and
analysis of the data – this should be considered as a special component of the GUAN. [AU2]
25
GCOS Implementation Plan (V.3) – 10-Mar-04
DRAFT
DRAFT
DRAFT
[Insert
The full implementation and operation of the World Weather Watch upper-air network - in compliance with
GCOS Climate Monitoring principles is a desired long term goal for both weather forecasting and climate
monitoring. Additional data resources such as vertically pointing radar systems (wind profilers) and data
from aircraft (both at flight level and on assent and decent)  especially winds  are becoming more
important for weather analysis and forecasting and will contribute to climate applications particularly as
they contribute to atmospheric re-analysis for climate applications. [AU3]
The provision of meta-data concerning the instrumentation and data reduction and processing procedures
is crucial to utilizing radiosonde data in climate applications. The historical record has innumerable
problems relating to lack of inter-comparison information between types of sondes and sensor and
exposure differences. Special efforts are required to obtain these meta-data records and to include them
as important elements in the future observing strategy. [AU4]
4.1.2.b.
Specific issues – Upper-air ECV
The following sections elaborate further on the GCOS issues related to each ECV in the Atmospheric
Domain - Upper Air. Table 13 lists the specific implementation actions proposed, suggests the
bodies/institutions responsible for the action, the time-frame for the action to be accomplished, and the
performance indicators or measures by which progress will be assessed.
ECV – Upper Air temperature
Specific microwave radiance (MSU and AMSU-A) data from satellites have become key elements of the
historical climate record and they need to be continued into the future to sustain a long-term record. For
climate applications the satellite systems must be designed and operated following the GCOS Climate
Monitoring Principles. Failure of the on-board AMSU-A instrument should be regarded as sufficient
cause to launch a new satellite in the series.[AU5].
New satellite technology, such as GPS occultation, has been proven and is expected to be operational in
the near future. Preparations to assimilate data from this source are important to plan for and the creation
of a reference network of high altitude radiosonde stations providing calibration and validation data will
contribute to this task. [AU2]
ECV - Upper-air Wind Speed and Direction
An international effort is needed involving the WWW/CBS and GCOS to help alleviate the effects that the
problem of high cost of sondes is having on the network performance. [AU4]
A further source of wind information is cloud motion vectors by tracking cloud elements and assigning
their height by estimating their temperature to provide "satellite winds" over the ocean.
ECV - Upper-air Water Vapour
Many sources of water vapour data are becoming available from remote sensing from polar orbiting and
geostationary satellites, and column integrated water vapor has been available from SSM/I for several
years, but all require calibration and validation that would be enabled by the new GUAN sub-network
[AU2].
The column water vapour observations over land from ground-based GPS receivers should be exploited
globally through international coordination. Many nations are currently developing the capability to
observe and analyse data from ground-based GPS receivers. These data provide continuous highquality estimates of column water vapour, which is a key greenhouse gas. Through WMO and other
relevant international agencies, standards and protocols need to be developed for exchanging and
archiving these data. The network of GPS receivers should then be extended across all land areas to
provide global coverage, and the data should be freely exchanged for climate purposes. The feasibility of
collocating GPS receivers at GSN sites should be considered. [AU6]
26
GCOS Implementation Plan (V.3) – 10-Mar-04
DRAFT
DRAFT
DRAFT
ECV - Cloud Properties
Cloud feedback is considered to be the single most uncertain aspect of future climate projections and is
responsible for much of the wide range of estimates of climate sensitivity in climate models. The accurate
measurement of clouds and cloud properties is exceedingly difficult. The WCRP International Satellite
Cloud Climatology Project (ISCCP) has developed a continuous record of infrared and visible radiances
since 1983 utilizing both geostationary and polar orbiting satellite data, but suffers from inhomogeneities
(see Figure 2). Efforts of this nature that systematically process the data in space and time need to be
continued and improved. Reprocessing the data to account for orbital drift and other issues has helped
reduce uncertainties in the observations. Because of the importance of the observation of cloud amount,
microphysical characteristics and radiative properties, and their variation in time, continued research on
improving the observational system is required, and an overall strategy needs to be devised to provide
systematic cloud observations. Gaps in the future record should be avoided if possible. [AU7]
Figure 2. Time series of daily averages of tropical (20N to 20S) cloud amounts in % (below)
versus Equator Crossing Time (ECT) of four satellites (above), from the Pathfinder-Atmosphere
(PATMOS) project (Jacobowitz et al., 2003).
Clouds are found to change systematically with time of day and, while these can be partially corrected for,
the satellite drift adversely influences the quality of real trends. This highlights the needs for stable orbits
and ECT in operating satellites and for reprocessing of data. [Jacobowitz et al., 2003: The AVHRR
Pathfinder Atmosphere (PATMOS) climate dataset. Bull. Amer. Met. Soc., 84, 785-793]
ECV- Earth Radiation Budget
The Earth Radiation Budget (ERB) measures the overall balance between the incoming energy from the
sun and the outgoing thermal (long-wave) and reflected (shortwave) energy from the earth. It can only be
measured from space. The radiation balance at the top of the atmosphere is the basic radiative forcing of
the climate system. Measuring its variability in space and time over the globe provides insight into the
overall response of the system to this forcing. The satellite measurements include solar irradiance
observations as well as the broadband measurements of reflected solar and outgoing longwave radiation.
Satellite observations should be continued without interruption and operational plans should provide for
overlap so that accuracy and resolution issues are resolved to meet climate requirements. [AU8]
27
GCOS Implementation Plan (V.3) – 10-Mar-04
DRAFT
DRAFT
DRAFT
Figure 3. Top section shows observations of total solar irradiance from a series of different
instruments on satellites, as indicated. Absolute values are uncertain and differ by as much as 9
W m-2, so that continuous time series are only made possible by overlapping measurements from
different satellites, as reconstructed at the bottom (Courtesy NASA)
28
GCOS Implementation Plan (V.3) – 10-Mar-04
DRAFT
DRAFT
DRAFT
Table 12. Observation networks and systems and international data centres contributing to the
upper-air component of the GCOS Atmospheric Domain
ATMOSPHERIC DOMAIN
UPPER-AIR
ECV
Contributing Network(s)
International Data Center(s)
and Archives
Contributing
Satellite Data
2AR
FINDING
Upper-air
Temperature



Microwave
Radiances (e.g.,
AMSU-A)
GPS Occultation
Infrared radiances
A10, A11a,
A12, A13,
A22, A23
Visible and Infrared (Cloud motion
vectors)
LIDAR (potentially;
research)
A10, A11a,
A23, A22
Microwave (AMSUB) and infrared
radiances
GPS occultation
A10, A15,
A13, A14,
A22, A23
Visible and Infrared
radiances from
geostationary and
polar orbiter
satellites
Cloud Radar
(Research)
A15
Wide spectrum
(e.g., GERB); from
polar orbiter and
geostationary
satellites.
A16



Upper-air
Wind Speed
and Direction




Upper-air
Water Vapour





Cloud
Properties

Baseline GCOS Upper Air
Network (GUAN)
Reference Network of High
Altitude Radiosondes
Full WWW/GOS Radiosonde
Network
Aircraft
WWW/GDPS Centres
Regional Meteorological
Centres
 World Data Centre (WDCAsheville)
 GCOS GUAN Monitoring
Centres (ECMWF, Hadley)
 GCOS GUAN Analysis
Centres (Hadley Centre;
NCDC)
 GCOS GUAN Archive
(WDC-Asheville)

GUAN
Full WWW/GOS Radiosonde
Network
Radar (Profilers)
Aircraft

WWW/GDPS Centres
Regional Meteorological
Centres
 GCOS GUAN Monitoring
Centres (ECMWF, Hadley)
 GCOS GUAN Analysis
Centres (Hadley Centre;
NCDC)
 GCOS GSN Archive
(WDC-Asheville)

GUAN
Reference Network of High
Altitude Radiosondes
Full WWW/GOS Network
Aircraft
Ground Based GPS Receiver
Network


Surface observations (GSN,
WWW).
WWW/GDPS Centres
Regional Meteorological
Centres
 GCOS GUAN Monitoring
Centres (ECMWF, Hadley)
 GCOS GUAN Analysis
Centres (Hadley, NCDC)
 GCOS GSN Archive
(WDC-Asheville)
 International Satellite
Cloud Climatology Project
(ISCCP)






Earth
Radiation
Budget

Earth Radiation Budget
(upwelling radiation and
solar irradiance)
29

GCOS Implementation Plan (V.3) – 10-Mar-04
DRAFT
DRAFT
DRAFT
Table 13. Actions proposed (Atmospheric Domain – Upper-Air)
Ref.
No.
AU1
AU2
AU3
AU4
AU5
AU6
Action (A): Implementation action proposed or required
Who (W): Proposed responsible Parties/Institutions
Time-frame (T): Action accomplished by date or continuation
Performance Indicator(s) (P): Measures by which progress will be assessed
A: Revamp and Complete Implementation of GUAN, including infrastructure and data
management.
W: National Services operating GUAN Stations in cooperation with GCOS Secretariat.
T: Complete 2006
P: Data archive statistics in WDC. National communications to UNFCCC; %age of
soundings received at WDC
Cost: Up to 40 x cost of a station (~$300K) (see Thigpen)
A: Specification and implementation of Reference Network of high-altitude high quality
Radiosondes, operational requirements including data management, archiving and
analysis,
W: NMSs or national research agencies, in cooperation on planning with WCRP-AOPC
T: Specification and plan by 2005. Implementation started. Completed by 2008
P: Plan published. Data management system in place. Network functioning. Full data
available by 2008
Cost: About $10M for implementation and about $15M annual operating costs
A: Implementation of the WWW/GOS Upper-air observing system compatible with the
GCOS Climate Monitoring Principles
W: National Services in cooperation with WMO/CBS and WMO/RAs
T: Continuing
P: %age of real-time UA data with no quality problems; %age of soundings reaching 30
hPa
Cost: Negligible as normal practice should be followed
A: Address radiosonde infrastructure issues such as meta-data records and
intercomparisons
W: WMO/ CBS and CIMO in cooperation with GCOS AOPC
T: Develop solution(s) by 2009 communicate to National Services.
P: %age of sites giving metadata to WDC.
Cost: Negligible as normal practice should be followed
A: Commitment by Satellite Operators to a continuing system of satellites providing
specific microwave radiance data following the GCOS Climate Monitoring Principles.
W: Satellite Operators
T: Continuing
P: Quality and quantity of data; availability of data in WDC-A; monthly maps and products.
Cost: Possible increased launches due to microwave instrument failure
A: Develop an internationally agreed plan for a network of ground based GPS receivers
And associated data processing, standards and protocols, data management.
W: WMO/CIMO and CBS in cooperation with AOPC.
T: Plan finished by 2005. Implementation continuing (part exists already)
P: Network designed and in place; no. of sites reporting data that is received by major
real-time centres
Cost: Small
30
GCOS Implementation Plan (V.3) – 10-Mar-04
AU7
AU7
AU8
DRAFT
DRAFT
DRAFT
A: Ensure continuation of ISCCP record of visible and infrared radiances and include
additional data streams as they become available. Apply GCOS CMPs.
W: Satellite Operators esp. NASA for processing
T: Continuous
P: Commitment to long-term availability of global homogeneous data at high frequency
Cost: Continuation of current expenditure
Need: For development of strategy for operational monitoring of cloud properties
A: Research to improve cloud property observations in three dimensions
W: Research funders, satellite operators
Time frame: Continuous
P: New cloud products
Cost: Research budget
A: Ensure continuation of Earth Radiation Budget Observations following GCOS CMPs
W: Satellite Operators
T: Present
P: Commitment to long-term data availability at archives. Global energy balanced budget.
Cost: Continuation of current expenditure
4.1.3.
Atmospheric Domain – Composition
4.1.3.a.
General
A number of atmospheric trace constituents in addition to water vapour must be monitored because of
their important role in the forcing of climate. Table 14 lists the observational networks and satellite data
required for implementation of GCOS in the domain of atmospheric composition, sorted according to
each GCOS ECV. The associated existing international data-centre facilities are also listed.
A key objective of GCOS is the monitoring of distributions of the main greenhouse gases to enable
determination of their sources and sinks. This requires continuous and homogeneous observations of the
spatial and temporal distribution of gases including carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide and the
principal halocarbons. This should be accomplished through the continued support of current stations, the
enhancement of the WMO Global Atmosphere Watch (GAW) network in selected regions, and the
utilization and further deployment of appropriate satellite observations. These capabilities should be fully
exploited by the development and implementation of real-time analysis and re-analysis products for these
variables. [AC7, AC1, AC2]
Ozone is a strongly reactive greenhouse gas. It is the most radiatively important gas in the stratosphere,
where it determines the vertical temperature profile and protects the earth's surface from harmful levels of
UV-radiation. Tropospheric ozone also plays a significant role in climate forcing and at the surface is a
determinant of air quality. Monitoring of ozone requires complementary satellite and in situ
measurements. The GAW Global Ozone Observing System (GO3OS) has been organized to monitor
ozone and can provide a key observational resource for climate applications. There is a need for
improved distribution and calibration of ground-based observations (especially in the Southern
Hemisphere) to support the use of satellite data for global monitoring of ozone. [AC3, AC7]
Atmospheric aerosols are minor constituents of the atmosphere by mass, but a critical component in
terms of impacts on climate and especially climate change. Aerosols influence the global radiation
balance by directly scattering and absorption of radiation and indirectly through influencing cloud
reflectivity, cloud cover and cloud lifetime. The IPCC has identified anthropogenic aerosols as the most
uncertain climate forcing constituent. Aerosol measurements are part of the GAW baseline station
observing program - where the intent is to obtain measurements representative of the major geographical
and exposure regimes; there are also relevant radiative measurements in BSRN. Several limited regional
networks of measurements directly related to aerosol properties (e.g. sun photometers, networks focused
31
GCOS Implementation Plan (V.3) – 10-Mar-04
DRAFT
DRAFT
DRAFT
on acidification issues, and networks operated as part of research programs) have been established often as part of the support to experimental satellite system calibration/validation activity. GAW, its
partners (including the space agencies) and GCOS need to consolidate baseline measurements and
further develop a strategy for obtaining continuous homogeneous observations to characterize the nature
and radiative properties of aerosols. [AC7]
The use of aircraft for airborne sampling of all atmospheric composition ECVs has proven to be a
powerful research tool. The lack of vertical profile sampling is a common deficiency in the verification of
climate model predictions. The organization of systematic aircraft sampling campaigns would help
alleviate this deficiency. [AC4]
4.1.3.b.
Specific Issues – Composition ECV
The following sections elaborate further on the GCOS issues related to each ECV in the Atmospheric
Domain -Composition. Table 15 lists the implementation actions proposed, a suggestion regarding who
should be responsible for the action, the time frame for the action and proposed performance indicators
(measures of progress).
ECV – Carbon Dioxide
Both the baseline and comprehensive networks for CO2 need further development. An in situ network of
baseline sites needs to be identified and consolidated to provide homogeneous data to monitor changes
in the meridional gradient of CO2. The monitoring and analysis centres for this baseline network need to
be identified. The baseline network would be built on the existing GAW networks for CO2.
The baseline network would be complemented by a comprehensive network involving satellite and in situ
measurements. Some data are already available for assimilation in real-time and reanalysis systems or
for validation of such systems.
The baseline system could be developed immediately within the GAW community working with the
broader scientific community (through the auspices of WCRP in particular). Some additional sites may be
required, especially over continental areas. The utility of the comprehensive network will be enhanced as
assimilation techniques improve and new types of satellite data become available. [AC5]
ECV – Methane and Other Greenhouse Gases
There are several networks dedicated to the monitoring of methane and other long-lived greenhouse
gases, including NOAA/CMDL , the Advanced Global Atmospheric Gas Experiment (AGAGE) and the
University of California at Irving (UIC). The networks employ a variety of techniques including flask
sampling and continuous monitoring. In addition there are other stations operated independently of the
larger networks. There is no central clearing house or organized network able to make a consistent data
set with traceable gas standards available in real-time. If appropriately supported, the WMO/GAW could
take on the leadership role to organize the overarching global network, promote common standards,
research for new observing systems and practices, and lead inter-comparisons. The assimilation
techniques that are being developed for the determination of CO2 distributions may be extended to some
other greenhouse gases. [AC1, AC2]
ECV - Ozone
The in situ networks, operated under the GAW programme, require further support for routine calibration
and intercomparison of instrumentation. There are many satellite missions that include measurements of
ozone, including some instruments on operational platforms. Ongoing work is nevertheless needed to
ensure continuity and homogeneity in the data record.
The specification of the ground-based ozone baseline network needs to be defined. The in situ
measurements are not well distributed geographically and there is a need for more systematic observing
program. WMO/GAW working in cooperation with the scientific community (WCRP and AOPC) should
32
GCOS Implementation Plan (V.3) – 10-Mar-04
DRAFT
DRAFT
DRAFT
undertake this task. The in situ network will comprise ground based ozonesondes (collocated with
reference high-altitude radiosondes, see III. B.2.a), ozone lidars, and instruments utilizing the Umkehr
technique – Dobson and Brewer Instruments. Given the importance of ozone in controlling UV radiation
and its role in climate forcing, these network changes should be implemented as soon as practicable.
[AC3]
ECV- Aerosol Properties
Comprehensive measurements of aerosols are available at a very limited number of sites, reflecting the
difficulty in developing an effective and feasible observing strategy. The most extensive observation for
aerosols is the optical depth measured by satellite and ground-based instruments. The latter are
coordinated in part by GAW and its partners, including NASA/AERONET. In addition, routine vertical
profiling of scattering from ground LIDARS is under development, as are more advanced satellite aerosol
sensors. More measurements from aircraft and ground stations are needed. A concerted effort to
integrate the available satellite and ground-based measurements of aerosol optical properties and to
expand the above measurements has begun and is an important step in developing a system for global
aerosol monitoring. The development and generation of consistent products combining the various
sources of data are again essential. Furthermore, the physical and chemical composition of aerosols
needs to be routinely monitored at a selected number of globally-distributed surface sites. Finally there
should be a re-processing of past satellite observations using better calibration, cloud screening and
aerosol micro-physics to obtain a historical record.
The development of a coordinated strategy to monitor and analyze the distribution of aerosol around the
globe needs to involve a broad community of research and operational agencies. Existing programs
monitoring some aerosol properties include GAW, BSRN and AeroNet. The potential to develop common
measurement and data archive and access protocols needs to be explored. The research community is
currently developing the techniques to provide more comprehensive measurements of aerosol. A series
of workshops could facilitate the efficient progress of these developments. The coordination and
consolidation of a global baseline network for aerosol optical depth should occur as soon as possible.
The development of the more comprehensive system will depend upon progress in the research
community. [AC6]
Table 14. Observational networks and systems and international data centres contributing to the
GCOS Atmospheric Domain - Composition.
ATMOSPHERIC DOMAIN
COMPOSITION
ECV
Contributing Network(s)
International Data Center(s)
and Archives
Contributing
Satellite Data
2AR
FINDING
Carbon
Dioxide


World Data Center for
Greenhouse Gases –
WDCGG (JMA)

A17
World Data Center for
Greenhouse Gases –
WDCGG (JMA)
As above

Methane and
other
greenhouse
gases




GAW Continuous Monitoring
Network
GAW Flask Sampling
Network
Airborne Sampling
GAW Continuous Monitoring
Network
GAW Flask Sampling
Network
Airborne sampling

33

High resolution IR
(eg AIRS)
UV/Vis (eg
SCIAMACHY)
A17, A19
GCOS Implementation Plan (V.3) – 10-Mar-04



Ozone
Ozonesonde Network
Ozone LIDAR Network
Column Ozone Network
(Filter, Dobson and Brewer
stations)




Aerosol
Properties




BSRN
Sun Photometer Networks
(AERONET)
GAW Baseline Network
Lidar Network

DRAFT
DRAFT
DRAFT
World Ozone and
Ultraviolet Radiation Data
Center (WOUDC) Can.
Network for the Detection
of Stratospheric Change
(NCSC) Archive (USA)
Norwegian Institute for Air
Research (NILU)
Southern Hemisphere
Additional Ozonesondes
(SHADOZ –NASA)
Archive




IR nadir(eg AIRS)
IR limb (eg MIPAS)
UV (e.g. GOME)
Stellar occultation
(GOMOS)
A17, A18
World Data Center for
Aerosols (WDCA) at
EC/JRC Ispra, IT

Solar Occultation
(eg SAGE)
Vis/Near-IR (e.g.
MERIS)
A19

Table 15. Actions proposed (Atmospheric Domain – Composition)
Ref.
No.
AC1
AC2
AC3
Action (A): Implementation action proposed or required
Who (W): Proposed responsible Parties/Institutions
Time-frame (T): Action accomplished by date or continuous
Performance indicator(s) (P): Measures by which progress will be assessed
A: Develop an overarching mechanism to coordinate the many in situ GHG observing
networks and initiatives, to promote common standards and procedures, encourage data
submission to WDC and to lead inter-comparison activities.
W: GCOS Project Office in cooperation with WMO/GAW and WDC in Japan
T: Plan ready by 2005 and implemented by 2007
P: Plan developed and agreed to by advisory and governing bodies; %age of
comprehensive and consistent data in WDC
Cost: $250K for meetings and consultancies
A: Develop a comprehensive plan for the enhancement of the GAW stations to meet
climate requirements - GHGs and Aerosols. Initiate enhancement.
W: GCOS Project Office in cooperation with WMO GAW and National Services, Research
Institutions.
T: Plan by 2008, agreed global baseline composition network complete by 2010.
P: Publish plan; %age of data available at WDC
Cost: $250K for meetings and consultancies
A: Define the Baseline Ozone Observing Network and initiate implementation required.
W: WCRP, WMO GAW, AOPC, GCOS Project Office and National Services and
Research Institutions
Time frame: Agree on network by 2005, implementation continuing.
P: Network specification. %age of data submitted to data centres
Cost: Implementation costs for each new site
34
GCOS Implementation Plan (V.3) – 10-Mar-04
AC4
AC5
AC6
AC7
4.2.
DRAFT
DRAFT
DRAFT
A: Develop a comprehensive plan to utilize research aircraft and kites in a systematic
campaign to observe the vertical profiles of GHGs and aerosols.
W: Planning - IGBP. Implementation- National Services and Research Institutions
T: Plan by 2005, implementation continuing
P(s): Published Plan. Data submitted to data centres.
Cost: Large, dependent upon research use of aircraft; kites cost $600K per station per 5
years
A: Specify and further develop the CO2 Baseline Network (continuous and flask sampling)
W: GAW in cooperation with GCOS Project Office
T: Specification by 2005. Implementation continuous
P: Plan. No. of sites providing consistent data to WDC
Cost: ?
A: Develop a coordinated strategy to monitor and analyse the distribution of aerosols and
aerosol properties.
W: WCRP, IGBP and AOPC in cooperation with Satellite Operators, WMO GAW
T: Strategy presented to organizations by 2006 with proposals for implementation by 2009
P: Strategy document, followed by implementation of strategy
Cost: Research
A: Develop a comprehensive plan and strategy for the provision of operational satellite
data in support of GHG, ozone and aerosol integrated analysis requirements.
W: Satellite Operators (CEOS) in cooperation with WCRP, GCOS Project Office and
analysis centres.
T: Plan and strategy by 2005.
P: Published plan and commitment to implementation
Cost: Large
OCEAN DOMAIN CLIMATE OBSERVING SYSTEM
It has now been demonstrated that we can effectively observe climate changes in the ocean at global
scales. However, despite significant progress, ocean observing networks and associated infrastructure
and product systems are not adequate to meet the specific needs of the UNFCCC for most variables and
in most regions of the planet, particularly the southern hemisphere. There is pressing need to obtain
global coverage using proven observing technologies and established implementation infrastructure.
The ocean is characterized by wide variation in space and time scales and the resolution of climate
change signals within the highly variable ocean is a significant challenge. The community has agreed that
an integrated, composite approach is appropriate for both the surface and subsurface essential climate
variables. These composite observing networks make use of a mix of remote and in situ technologies in
order to optimize utility of existing observing assets. With present technology it is impractical to observe
directly all variability scales over the full depth and extent of the global ocean. Instead, a mix of
approaches are used that endeavor to maximize the usefulness of the information and to minimize the
uncertainty of climate products derived from the data we can collect.
Blending, merging and ocean data assimilation techniques are a critical element for realizing this potential
and more adequately meeting the objectives of the global climate observing system and the UNFCCC.
The strategy detailed below does assume that the observing system is being maintained not only for
climate but also in support of NWP, ocean prediction, marine environmental monitoring, among other
things. These other uses not only distribute the responsibility for support but also permit an approach that
is more comprehensive in terms of space and time sampling and, in places, variables than would
otherwise be sustainable from the point of view of climate variability and change alone. Issues of quality,
global coverage and data exchange, however, are driven to a significant extent by climate considerations.
35
GCOS Implementation Plan (V.3) – 10-Mar-04
DRAFT
DRAFT
DRAFT
Sea-ice variables are included in this Section. Whereas the Second Report on the Adequacy of the
Global Observing Systems for Climate (hereafter 2AR) referred simply to sea-ice, within this plan we
explicitly consider the relevant essential sea-ice variables, including extent and concentration, thickness
and motion.
The need for global coverage and sustained systems is prominent in the actions described below. In
addition, there are challenges to develop robust and effective autonomous and remote approaches for
several essential variables and several actions specifically target this need. As is done elsewhere in this
Plan, the actions target both baseline and reference networks, to ensure robust high-quality climate
products, as well as the comprehensive global networks that provide the backbone for regular,
comprehensive product generation and reanalysis. Both these approaches are also important for
attribution and support climate change predictions. Actions are identified to ensure data are provided to
test climate models and to evaluate the realism of simulations and predictions.
Though, in general, the ocean plays a secondary role in the forcing of the climate system, several actions
are identified that will contribute to improved understanding and reduced uncertainty, particularly for the
carbon cycle.
Regional scales pose particular challenges both in terms of monitoring and in terms of testing and
improving regional climate projections. The actions below provide selective enhancements and strategies
to address these issues. The emergence of a Coastal Ocean Observing System provides a systematic
pathway for both consideration of climate requirements and implementation, including issues relating to
ecosystems and the marine environment in general. The coastal regions are particularly vulnerable to
changes in sea level and/or changes in wave climates and such considerations also influence the actions
described here.
Proper attribution of the causes of ocean change requires a commitment to characterizing ocean
variability. Comprehensive and baseline networks, as well as reference stations can provide the needed
information. Global coverage and long-term commitment are the most significant challenges. The ocean
community has reached agreement on an initial integrated and composite system, developed new
technologies, established mechanisms to foster more effective international collaboration, and begun the
demonstration of community capability to generate ocean climate products.
Action: Through JCOMM and other relevant bodies, and with oversight and monitoring from
relevant GCOS bodies, develop, implement and sustain the initial global ocean observing
system surface and subsurface comprehensive, baseline and reference networks to
ensure the global coverage and long-term records needed for climate change detection.
(O1/OF13)
Action: Through the Ocean Observations Panel for Climate and related groups, continue the
review and assessment of the integrated and composite approach, including through
updates and revision of the strategic plans every five years. (O2/OF1)
Action: Focus implementation through the Joint Technical Commission of Oceanography and
Marine Meteorology, and other mechanisms as appropriate, in order to provide efficient
and effective pathway for international collaboration and coordination. (O3/OF1)
Action: Support pre-operational demonstration projects (e.g., GODAE) and other initiatives in
order to generate integrated and synthesized products and to develop the infrastructure
needed to support the on-going generation of such products. (O4/OF1)
Research programs are the primary source of funding for many elements of the present ocean climate
observing system. Continued strong support involvement of the ocean research community is needed. An
orderly process to bring new technology into pilot project use and then sustained use in the ocean climate
observing system has been agreed. Institutional encouragement and financial support is needed to
ensure that this process results in the sustained operation of the agreed initial system.
36
GCOS Implementation Plan (V.3) – 10-Mar-04
DRAFT
DRAFT
DRAFT
Action: Through collaboration with CLIVAR and other related research initiatives, encourage the
continued involvement of research in the development of new technology and methods
and in the evaluation of the scientific effectiveness of the ocean climate observing system.
(O5/OF2)
Action: Promote the effective and efficient implementation and maintenance of the ocean climate
observing system as a high priority objective of research institutions and agencies,
including through the Partnership for Observations of the Global Ocean (POGO). (O6/OF2)
Obtaining full national and regional benefit from GCOS efforts will depend on the development of
integrated regional and national observing systems and special products for shallow sea and coastal
waters. National and regional participation in the GOOS Coastal Module provides one framework for
coordinated development and operation of observing efforts in national waters.
Action: Through the GOOS Steering Committee, the OOPC and the Coastal Ocean Observations
Panel, ensure the requirements for coastal observations such as sea level and sea state
are fully taken into account in the Implementation Plan of the Coastal Ocean Observing
System. (O7/OF16)
Action: Through the GOOS Steering Committee and its Panels and the Intergovernmental
Committee for GOOS and its Regional Alliances, encourage and ensure that regional and
coastal observing contributions and associated products are integrated with the systems
of global climate and that such bodies and their agents for actions are fully aware of the
requirements of the UNFCCC. (O8/OF17)
4.2.1.
Oceanic Domain – Surface
4.2.1.a.
General
This section provides a summary of the status of existing network contributions against the Essential
Climate Variables of the 2AR. The Classification categories indicate the degree to which the contribution
is sustained (research, pilot research, pre-operational/pilot, operational, as used by JCOMM, IOC, GOOS,
…). The Implementation Status indicates the degree to which the existing effort is adequate within the
framework of the agreed composite integrated system and the agreed GCOS and UNFCCC goals,
including accuracy, resolution, global coverage, metadata and quality, among other things.





Fully adequate indicates the network requires no further enhancement/adjustment.
Adequate indicates the network meets most (75%?) but not all of the desired characteristics.
Marginal indicates the network meets some (50-65%) of the desired characteristics but requires
significant enhancement/improvement.
Unsatisfactory indicates the network meets only a few (20-30%) of the desired characteristics.
Missing indicates the network makes no functional contribution to the sustained observing system at
present.
The absence of global coverage and the lack of sufficient high-quality observations of the key variables
remain the key weaknesses in the surface ocean network. For a few variables such as sea-surface
temperature (SST) and mean sea level pressure, cost-effective technologies are available to address this
weakness. For other variables, considerable research and development are required.
Action: Support improved metadata collection and management within the VOSCLIM pilot project
and the installation, as feasible, of improved integrated measurement systems on selected
lines and at agreed surface reference sites (moorings). (O9/OF3)
37
GCOS Implementation Plan (V.3) – 10-Mar-04
DRAFT
DRAFT
DRAFT
Action: Through JCOMM, support the development and maintenance of a balanced, integrated
global surface measurement system (VOS, drifters, moored buoys). (O10/OF3)
Action: Through dialogue and interaction with the satellite community (e.g., via IGOS-P), maintain
a suite of satellite systems that deliver global coverage of the essential surface ocean
climate variables such as SST and surface wind. (O11/OF3)
Action: Promote the development and testing of new technologies and approaches, particularly
autonomous approaches for non-physical variables and for difficult to measure fields
such as sea-surface salinity. (O12/OF3)
A sparse global array of surface reference moorings can provide essential air-sea flux information for
testing models and the evaluation of climate change projections. It also can provide needed platforms for
development of new observing system sensors.
Action: Implement a sparse global array of around 29 reference moorings with high quality
instrumentation and, through the joint WGNE/OOPC SURFA project, ensure such data are
routinely available for testing and validation of NWP surface flux estimate and other
climate surface products. (O13/OF4)
Action: Promote the use of surface reference sites as multi-disciplinary sites (laboratories) for
testing parameterizations and providing comprehensive time-series for testing climate and
earth system models. (O14/OF4)
Action: Where practical, integrate the surface reference sites with other related initiatives that also
require fixed-location time-series measurements, for example the Dedicated Data Sites of
the GODAE High-Resolution SST Project and of the ocean satellite colour community (e.g.,
SEAWIFS). (O15/OF4)
Table 16. Status (end 2003) of the implementation of the Ocean Domain- Surface networks
and systems and their assocated coordinating body
Component
Network
Global surface
drifting buoy array
(1250)
Implementation
status
~75% for SST,
~30% for SLP
Coordinating
body
JCOMM
Data Buoy
Cooperation
Panel
JCOMM
Tropical Mooring
Implementation
Panel
JCOMM
Int’l Time series
group
Enhanced
Equipment Cost
~1.
~ 2 startup
then ~ 1 plus
ongoing R&D
?
Global tropical
mooring network
(119)
~75%
VOSCLIM
Global reference
mooring network
(29)
GOSUD Sea
Surface Salinity
SOOP pCO2
~25%
~15%
~20%?
International
Carbon
Sustain surface
vector wind sat.
?
CEOS, IGOS
~2 start-up
then
~0.7
~0.2
~10 startup
then ~5 plus
ongoing R&D
Enhanced #
personnel
None
5?
1?
25-100?
?
38
?
?
GCOS Implementation Plan (V.3) – 10-Mar-04
(two wide-swath
scatterometers
highly desired)
Sustain SeaWifsclass ocean color
sat
Sustain TRMMclass microwave
SST sat
Sustain
Topex/Poseidon
accuracy altimetry
4.2.1.b.
DRAFT
DRAFT
DRAFT
?
CEOS, IGOS
?
?
?
CEOS, IGOS
?
?
Til 200?
CEOS, IGOS?
?
?
Specific issues – surface ECV
ECV- Sea Surface Temperature
At present levels of coverage and operations, global analyses of SST are not adequate to meet all the
needs of the UNFCCC. However, global climate-accuracy SST analysis is achievable through enhanced
global deployment of existing technology and the improved operation of satellite sensors.
The networks and satellite systems that contribute to the observation of SST and are included in the
development of global integrated products are summarized in Table 17.
Table 17. Networks and Systems contributing to the observation of SST
Contributing Network
Classification
Implementation
Status
Satellite IR (polar)
Operational
Adequate
Surface drifters
Pre-operational
Marginal
and operational
Tropical moored buoy
network
Pre-operational
Marginal
Satellite microwave
Research pilot
Unsatisfactory
Satellite geostationary
IR
Operational
Unsatisfactory
VOSCLIM
Pre-operational
Unsatisfactory
VOS
Operational
Unsatisfactory
Reference network
Research/pilot
Marginal (just)
and operational
Issues relative to the observation and analysis of SST include:

There is on-going debate about the definition of sea surface temperature, taking into account that
each of these networks samples the surface and near-surface waters differently.
39
GCOS Implementation Plan (V.3) – 10-Mar-04
DRAFT
DRAFT
DRAFT

Global coverage with even quality is an issue for both satellite (cloud detection, aerosols,
precipitation, sea-spray/fog, in the vicinity of sea-ice, etc.) and situ systems (global sampling,
uncertainty with depth of measurement,etc.).

Need improved accuracy from most of the networks.

Metadata collection and exchange, and standards, are inadequate.

Need integrated, climate quality products to overcome deficiencies of products based on subsets of
the available data, including estimates of uncertainty.
Action: Support an integrated and coordinated sustained approach to satellite SST measurements
(a mix of polar and geostationary IR measurements and microwave). Enhanced coverage
and improved mechanisms for data exchange are needed for geostationary data and
sustained support is required for microwave instruments. The GODAE High-Resolution
SST Project (GHRSST) provides a mechanism for delivering these enhanced systems.
(O16/OF5)
Action: Continue support for research into the process that affect surface and near-surface sea
temperatures (skin, sub-skin, mixed-layer and “bulk” temperatures) and the relationship
between these different forms of sea-surface temperature. (O17/OF5)
Action: Achieve global coverage through enhancements to the surface drifter program (around
1250 drifters in all), to the tropical moored buoy program (around 120 moorings in all), and
continued support of the VOS. (O18/OF5)
Action: Ensure high-quality data through enhanced metadata collection and distribution (e.g., the
VOSCLIM project) and support for high-quality instruments. (O19/OF5)
Action: Seek greater integration between the SST observation and analysis community and those
communities providing cloud and aerosol estimates in order to improve the quality of
satellite IR SST retrievals. (O20/OF5)
Action: Through GHRSST and the SST climate community, develop integrated, climate quality
products to overcome deficiencies of products based on subsets of the available data.
Such products should include estimates of uncertainty. (O21/OF5)
ECV - Sea Level
Present knowledge of global sea-level variability and change is not adequate. Monitoring of global sea
level is technically feasible at present, but requires at minimum a global array of geocentrically-located
high-accuracy water level gauges (86), continued operation of high-precision satellite altimetry and
effective data exchange between nations.
Adequately characterizing extreme regional sea-level events requires that high frequency sea-level
observations need to be taken and exchanged and historical data from tide gauges need to be provided
to the international data centres. Capacity-building efforts in developing countries for undertaking local
sea-level-change measurements can benefit the global system and foster needed regional enhancement.
Table 18. Networks and systems contributing to the observation and global analysis of Sea Level
Contributing Network
Classification
Implementation Status
GLOSS GCOS baseline
Pre-operational
Marginal
40
GCOS Implementation Plan (V.3) – 10-Mar-04
DRAFT
DRAFT
network
and operational
High-precision Altimetry
Pre-operational
Adequate
GLOSS Core Network plus
regional/local
Research
Unsatisfactory
Sub-surface T network
Pre-operational
DRAFT
pilot/Pre-operational
Marginal
Issues related to the sea level observing and integrated global analysis include:

Continuity of satellite high-precision measurements

Number and global distribution of geo-centrically located water level gauges

Timely exchange of sea level data

Regional and local gauges for impact assessment and monitoring

Capacity building for SIDS and developing nations.
Action: Through GLOSS of JCOMM, implement a minimum global array of geocentrically-located
high-accuracy water level gauges (estimated number 86). (O22/OF8)
Action: Through IGOS and its member satellite agencies, seek commitment to continued
operation satellite altimetry (in accordance with GCOS Principles). The consensus of the
community is that the commitment should include one high-precision altimeter at all times
with planned extensive overlaps between successive missions, and two low precision but
high resolution altimeters to provide the needed sampling. (O23/OF8)
Action: Consistent with the now agreed Policy (IOC Resolution XXII-6: IOC OCEANOGRAPHIC
DATA EXCHANGE POLICY), GLOSS should monitor and encourage effective data
exchange between nations. (O24/OF8)
Action: Through GLOSS and the GOOS Coastal Ocean Observations Panel and its Implementation
Plan, ensure high frequency sea-level observations are taken and exchanged and
historical data from tide gauges are provided to the international data centres. (O25/OF8)
Action: Through GLOSS and the coordinated capacity building and training programs of GOOS
and JCOMM, encourage efforts in developing countries for undertaking local sea-levelchange measurements and foster needed regional enhancement. (O26/OF9)
ECV- Sea surface salinity
At present, global knowledge of SSS is not adequate. Improvement in SSS analysis accuracy is limited
by available technology. New satellite sensors hold promise of improved global coverage, although
special in situ observing efforts will be needed to evaluate sustained sensor performance. Networks
contributing to global sea surface salinity observations are shown in Table 19.
Table 19. Sea Surface Salinity observing networks and systems
41
GCOS Implementation Plan (V.3) – 10-Mar-04
DRAFT
Contributing Network
Classification
Implementation
Status
Subset of VOS
Pre-operational
Unsatisfactory
Research pilots
Unsatisfactory
Research
Research/
Marginal
Vessels/repeat
Research pilot
DRAFT
DRAFT
under
GOSUD initiative
Tropical/reference
moored buoy network
hydrography
Argo and SOOP XCTD
Research/
Unsatisfactory
Research pilot
Surface drifters
Research
Missing
Issues relative to the observation of sea surface salinity include:

Do not have a solution for global, high-quality SSS measurements

Need satellites for global coverage (prototypes scheduled)

Quality and reliability, and coverage, of VOS and other surface in situ platforms

Argo not designed for SSS, but could contribute
Action: Through the Global Ocean Surface Underway Data (pilot) Project (GOSUD) of IODE and
JCOMM, and through collaboration with CLIVAR, develop a robust program for seasurface salinity measurements on selected VOS (preferable VOSCLIM, SOOP or research
vessels; [perhaps get a target number from GOSUD]), fixed-location buoys and, as
appropriate drifting and autonomous platforms. This action should also embraced surface
current measurements to the extent that such measurements are available from these
platforms. (O27/OF6)
Action: Support research efforts to demonstrate the feasibility of measuring salinity from space
and, in particular current efforts through SMOS and Aquarius. (O28/O6)
ECV - Ocean color
Knowledge of ocean ecosystem change is not adequate at present. Satellites provide global coverage of
surface ocean colour, but the linkage between ocean colour and ecosystem variable remains limited.
Research is underway to improve knowledge of the relationships between ocean colour and ecosystem
variables, including chlorophyll-a. Enhanced in situ sampling of ocean colour and ecosystem variables is
technically feasible.Ocean colour as it relates to carbon and marine ecosystems and living marine
resources is observed through the networks and satellite sensors shown in Table 20.
42
GCOS Implementation Plan (V.3) – 10-Mar-04
DRAFT
DRAFT
DRAFT
Table 20. Ocean color observing systems
Contributing Network
Classification
Implementation Status
Satellite ocean colour
Pre-operational
Marginal
SOOP pCO2
Pre-operational
Unsatisfactory
Reference moorings
Research/Research pilot
Unsatisfactory
The issues related to the development of an observing system that will meet GCOS needs are:

On-going research is needed to relate ocean colour to needed climate variables of the carbon system
and ecosystems.

As yet, there are no commitments to a coherent and sustained ocean satellite colour program.

Standards remain to be agreed.

Global coverage of the in situ networks remains problematical because of lack of suitable
autonomous instruments – a technology challenge.
Action: In view of the known ability of ocean colour satellites to generate global information
relevant to ocean ecosystems, ocean biology, and their variability, support the plans of
IGOS and their member satellite agencies to implement a sustained and continuous series
of ocean colour satellite sensors, with full and open exchange of such data. The
International Ocean Colour Coordination Group, acting for GOOS and the climate
community should be given oversight to ensure the measurements are implemented in
accordance with GCOS Principles and the requirements outlined in the Second Adequacy
Report and to promote associated research. (O29/OF9)
Action: Through collaboration with the Coastal Ocean Observations Panel of GOOS, who has
oversight for biogeochemical and ecosystem observations, and relevant research
programs of the IGBP, encourage the development of robust and cost-effective
autonomous in situ instrument for biogeochemical and ecosystem variables. (O30/OF9)
Action: [An explicit action against pCO2?] (O31/OF9)
ECV – Sea State
Global observations of sea state are primarily relevant to coastal and offshore impacts, but also some
relevance to monitoring changes, e.g. in winds, storms and extreme events.
Table 21. Networks and satellite data contributing to the observation of sea state.
Contributing Network
Classification
Implementation
Status
NWP (indirect) estimates
Operational
Adequate
Reference buoy networks
Research &
Marginal
Operational
43
GCOS Implementation Plan (V.3) – 10-Mar-04
DRAFT
Satellite altimetry
Pre-operational
Marginal
Satellite SAR
Research
Missing
VOS visual
Operational
Unsatisfactory
DRAFT
DRAFT
Issues relative to sea state observations and analysis:
 Accuracy of NWP products limited by validation and calibration data, and their utility is limited over
the shallower coastal regions. Reliable surface wind data (observations and RA) are essential. RA40
integrates sea state estimates within assimilation system.

The existing reference buoys are limited in terms of global distribution and location (few open ocean
sites), and are mostly not at the sites of other ECV reference sites.

Altimetry provides only significant wave height and coverage is limited relative to synoptic scales of
variability. SAR gives the most useful data but is rarely exchanged or available in a way that impacts
estimates for climate.
Action: need ? (O32/ Finding?)
ECV – Surface current
Surface current is primarily relevant to climate in terms of surface Ekman drift and its role in the
overturning ocean circulation and heat and freshwater transport. Research also suggests a role in
determining air-sea exchanges of momentum (wind-stress).
Table 22. Surface current observing systems and networks.
Contributing Network
Classification
Implementation Status
Drifting buoys
Pre-operational
Marginal
Tropical moored buoy array
and other surface moorings
Research/Research pilot
Unsatisfactory
Pattern tracking (AVHRR)
Research
Unsatisfactory
Altimeter geostrophic
Research pilot
Unsatisfactory
Research pilot
Unsatisfactory
Pre-operational
Marginal
Blended
estimates
altimeter, in situ, …)
(wind,
Indirect from assimilation as in
GODAE
Issues:

In situ networks are very limited in terms of global coverage and sampling relative to the energetic
space and time scales. Drifting buoys have uneven drift characteristics (drogues) and no agreed
standard.
44
GCOS Implementation Plan (V.3) – 10-Mar-04
DRAFT
DRAFT
DRAFT

Lack a systematic approach for data exchange, assembly, quality control and archiving (no
designated centres).

Indirect estimates, including with models (GODAE) are data limited and subject to biases. Lack of
validation data mean little is known about the quality relative to climate. However, such approaches
provide the only long-term viable approach.
Action: needed? (O33/ Finding ?)
ECV – Sea Ice
Knowledge of sea-ice changes is not adequate. A sea-ice component of cryosphere research effort is
ongoing. Recent satellite launches including ICESat, CryoSat and the AMSR-E instrument on Aqua will
provide new remote ice measurements. In situ observing efforts and climate ice analysis and re-analysis
are needed.
The current status of observations of sea ice extent and concentration, thickness, and drift are listed in
Table 23, Table 24, and Table 25 respectively. Other key sea ice parameters which could be considered
are: Sea ice surface temperature; Sea ice type (First year/multiyear (seasonal perennial), fast ice…);
Snow layer thickness; Sea ice albedo; Melt pond fraction; Length of the melt season.
Other important high latitude issues include: continental ice discharge; iceberg distribution; under ice
ocean parameters .
A key overarching synthesis issue is the development of techniques for assimilation of the whole range of
sea ice data into sea ice/ocean models to provide consistent analyses of sea ice concentration, thickness,
motion and other parameters.
Table 23. Sea ice extent and concentration observing systems
Contributing Network
Classification
Implementation Status
Satellite passive
Operational/research
Satisfactory (but not during
ice melt and continued work
on algorithms needed)
SAR
Operational/research
Potentially satisfactory
Satellite visual
Operational/research
Unsatisfactory (clouds)
Satellite IR?
Operational
?
In situ - visual
Operational (SOOP?
Inadequate
microwave
Aircraft survey?)
Issues:

Ongoing global time series are available from passive microwave through satellite era but sole
reliance on microwave sensors is not appropriate, given their limitations in imaging the warm and wet
ice-snow surfaces that predominate under melting conditions.

SAR data are crucial to the global integrated product but some SAR data are unavailable due to
commercial restrictions/cost.
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GCOS Implementation Plan (V.3) – 10-Mar-04

DRAFT
DRAFT
DRAFT
Regional analyses are produced at a number of centres – need for integration with satellite analyses
to produce an integrated global product.
Action: Promote additional evaluation of sea-ice remote sensing algorithms with the goal of
documenting and improving their accuracy, followed by application of these improved
algorithms to historical reconstruction of ice extent and concentration. (O34/OF7)
Action: Ensure sustained satellite, SAR, microwave, visible and IR operations and improved
availability of commercial Radar data for climate. (O35/OF7)
Action: Develop integrated products at relevant centres including use of assimilation techniques.
(O36/OF7)
Table 24. Networks and systems contributing to the observation of sea ice thickness
Contributing Network
Classification
Implementation Status
Upward looking sonar
(moored)
Research
Unsatisfactory
Satellite altimetry
Research
Unsatisfactory (especially in
SH)
Upward looking sonar
(submarine)
Operational (military)/research.
Limited coverage/not
sustained
Unsatisfactory
SAR (Radarsat)
Research
Unsatisfactory
In situ drilling
Research - limited
coverage/not sustained
Unsatisfactory
Strainmeter measurement of
propagating swell
Research/not sustained
Unsatisfactory/non existent
Issues:

Satellite altimetry techniques still under development but show promise. Techniques for NH
demonstrated. Development for SH problematic. Potential for true global coverage not yet achieved.
Remote sensing from space shows best potential for future for Arctic.

The estimate of ice thickness however depends on the knowledge of seasonal and regional snow
depth and densities. The validation of the space-borne altimeter technique requires in-situ
measurements such as submarine upward-looking sonar transects.

Present ULS array is very sparse and inadequate. Problem for SH is destruction of instruments by
icebergs though less so if ULS themselves are deep .

Need to identify and implement array needed for effective calibration of satellite remote sensing from
altimetry. ULS from submarines have provided input to climate monitoring from historical observations
to date but are unlikely to provide significant input for the future.
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GCOS Implementation Plan (V.3) – 10-Mar-04
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DRAFT
DRAFT
DRAFT
The Radarsat Geophysical Processor System at the Alaska SAR facility can provide some
quantitative ice-thickness information at the thin end of the distribution, but precision is low. Highresolution radar images are costly and the data source is not assured.
Action: Make further efforts to develop satellite remote sensing techniques building on present
efforts and output from Cryosat. (O35/OF7)
Action: Actively plan and implement an in situ network to provide ground truth and calibration for
remote sensing for the Arctic. (O36/OF7)
Action: Continue and strengthen ULS measurements at key choke points (e.g. Fram Strait) and
consider options for move to operational status. (O37/OF7)
Action: Strengthen in situ network in Southern Hemisphere (O38/OF7)
Table 25. Observing systems contributing to sea ice drift observations and analysis
Contributing Network
Classification
Implementation Status
Sea ice buoys (Arctic)
Research/operational
Satisfactory/unsatisfactory
Sea ice buoys (Antarctic)
Research/pilot
Unsatisfactory
Doppler moored sonar
Research/piot
Unsatisfactory
Image pattern recognition
(satellite remote sensing)
Research /pilot
Unsatisfactory
Issues:

Arctic ocean ice buoys are located/deployed primarily on perennial ice so the seasonal ice pack is
poorly sampled.

The Antarctic buoy programme array is small with little engagement of operational agencies. The
large seasonal variability of Antarctic sea ice is a strong limitation to lifetime on the ice.

The use of the passive microwave record for deducing ice motion in both hemispheres, starting in
the 1970’s, is under active development. However, it will be necessary to identify and correct the
source of occasional significant disparity of ice speeds measured by buoys and computed satellite
imagery.

Preliminary comparison of ice motion fields from the Radarsat Geophysical Processor System
(RGPS)with other satellite-derived ice motion fields is promising .

Ice motion can also be measured effectively using Doppler sonar moored beneath the ice. This
method may be especially attractive in marginal and seasonal sea ice zones where the survival
time of drifting buoys is very short.
Action: Further evaluate remote sensing techniques to derive ice motion data. (O39/OF7)
Action: Explore techniques for assimilation of data the various data sources into homogeneous,
gridded ice motion fields. (O40/OF7)
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DRAFT
Action: Seek to strengthen operational agency involvement in the Antarctic Buoy programme in
particular to aid in validation of remote sensing. (O41/OF7)
Action: Continue support of Arctic buoy programme to provide ice motion over perennial ice (as
well as mslp and surface temperature data). (O42/OF7)
4.2.2.
Oceanic Domain – Subsurface
4.2.2.a.
General
Systematic sampling of the global upper ocean is needed to fully characterize ocean cimate variability.
Global implementation of proven techniques remains to be accomplished. This will be addressed through
implementation of the agreed upper-ocean network (specifically 3,000 Argo profiling floats, 41 repeat XBT
lines, 29 surface reference moorings, 119 tropical surface moorings).
Measurements from the deep ocean are a critical contribution to characterizing ocean climate variability
and change. At present the most effective approaches involve combinations of regular, deep ocean
surveys and surface altimetry.
Table 26. Summary of subsurface network enhancements for the ocean climate observing
system.
Network
Percent
Complete
41 repeat XBT
line network
119 tropical
moorings
~75%
29 reference
station moorings
~15%
Repeat survey
network
~60%
Argo network
~30%
~75%
Current
monitoring
Regional and
global synthesis
programs
Plan needed
Sea ice
thickness
Ocean Data
system
Plan needed
?
Plan under
development
Organization
JCOMM SOOP panel
JCOMM Tropical mooring
panel
Int’l Reference
station mooring
program
Int’l Carbon and
CLIVAR
programs
JCOMM – Argo
Science Team
??
CLIVAR
Enhanced
Equipment
Costs/yr (1000k)
0.5
Enhanced
Personnel
needed
none
2
~10-20
5+
ongoing R&D
~25-100
1+
ongoing R&D
~10-20
10
~10-20
TBD
TBD
GODAE,
CLIVAR
Other national
efforts
WCRP
TBD
TBD
TBD
TBD
IOC, WMO
10min.
~20-50
[To
Action: Through cooperation between OOPC, CLIVAR and the International Ocean Carbon
Coordination Project, implement the on-going program of global repeat full-depth water
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GCOS Implementation Plan (V.3) – 10-Mar-04
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DRAFT
DRAFT
column sampling, with ~30 sections to be repeated per ~10year period. The Partnership
for Observations of the Global Ocean, in cooperation with JCOMM and relevant research
programs should be tasked to ensure the necessary resources are committed to this
program and that associated data standards and data exhanges are fully implemented.
(O43/OF10)
Action: Altimetry (See O23/OF8)
Action: Through the Ship Observations Panel of JCOMM, seek the needed enhancements to
operate the Ship-of-Opportunity XBT/XCTD Program with the agreed frequently repeated
section in key regions of variability and high-density trans-oceanic sections - 41 sections
in all. (O44/OF11)
Action: Through the Argo Pilot Project and its Science Team, and in cooperation with the
Observations Coordination Group of JCOMM, complete the 3000 Argo profiling float global
array and seek ongoing commitments to maintain this arrya (replacement calls for
purchase of ~ 800 floats per year under present estimates of float performance and
lifetime. (O45/OF11)
Action: Through the Tropical Moored Buoy Implementation Panel of JCOMM and CLIVAR, and
associated regional initiatives, develop plans for an Indian ocean pilot project and
evolution of the Atlantic ocean pilot project. Seek sustained support for a tropical fixedlocation mooring program of ~119 sites, covering all tropical oceans with sampling of
temperature and, whenever practical, salinity and currents over the upper 500 m of the
ocean. (O46/OF11)
Action: Implement a sparse global network of the agreed 29 ocean reference moorings,
strategically distributed globally. These will provide essential reference quality long time
records to identify climate trends and climate change. They also provide critical platforms
for the testing and pilot project use of technology for autonomous measurement of
chemical and ecosystem variables. The records from the reference site moorings will be
key for testing climate models and their parameterizations. (O47/OF11)
Action: Through GODAE and relevant climate research programs, develop a Pilot Project to
coordinate the collection, quality control and assembly of ocean surface and subsurface
current data, from a variety of sources, including VOS ADCPs, moorings, Argo and
drifters, together with indirect estimates obtained from altimetry and surface patterntracking. Other efforts to develop analyses and reliable climate variability and trend
datasets and products should be encouraged. (O48/OF11)
4.2.2.b.
Specific issues – Oceanic Sub-surface ECV
ECV – Sub-surface temperature
Table 27. Subsurface temperature contributing networks and systems
Contributing Network
Classification
Repeat XBT section network
Operational
Pilot
Argo array
Research Pilot
Implementation Status
Pilot/Research
49
Marginal
Marginal
GCOS Implementation Plan (V.3) – 10-Mar-04
Repeat Full ocean
Survey network
depth
DRAFT
DRAFT
Research/Research Pilot
Marginal
Reference Station network
Research/Research Pilot
Unsatisfactory
Tropical Moored arrays
Operational Pilot
Marginal
DRAFT
Issues:

Need ~ 30% more XBTs per year.

Argo array needs about 70% enhancement

Repeat Survey network needs ~ 30% enhancement

Reference Station Network is at roughly 15% of agreed numbers.

Tropical moored array too sparse in Atlantic and Indian; need enhancement (about 30%) and agreed
plan for Indian.
Action: needed? O49/ Finding?
ECV - Sub-surface salinity
Table 28. Sub- surface observing networks and systems
Contributing Network
Classification
Implementation Status
Argo array
Research Pilot
Marginal
Repeat survey network
Operational Pilot/
Marginal
Research Pilot
Reference station network
Research/Research Pilot
Unsatisfactory
Repeat XCTD from SOOP
Research/Research Pilot
unsatisfactory
See comments on Argo, Tropical Moorings and Reference Stations for Temperature.
Issue:
 Ship of opportunity program needs additional support.
Action: needed? O49/ Finding ?
ECV - Subsurface carbon
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GCOS Implementation Plan (V.3) – 10-Mar-04
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DRAFT
Carbon cycle parameters should be measured at reference sites and full-depth carbon inventory surveys
are needed to enable full interpretation of carbon cycle changes. Additional global pCO2 measurements
are required to document the decadal uptake by the oceans of anthropogenic CO2. In addition to the fulldepth surveys, present consensus requires implementation of 29 surface reference-moored buoys and at
least 25 selected VOS. Further sensor development for autonomous pCO2 and carbon system
measurements is needed.
Table 29. Sub-surface carbon observing networks
Contributing Network
Classification
Implementation Status
Repeat survey network
Research Pilot
Marginal
Reference station network
Research/Research Pilot
unsatisfactory
Issues:

Technology development needed for autonomous sensors

Enhanced survey network needed if inventory change over intervals shorter than 10 years
desired.
Action: Repeated carbon sections (see O43/OF10) (O50/OF12)
Action: Through the IOCCP, the international time series reference mooring program and in
collaboration with relevant research programs, develop a program of around 25 VOS
repeat lines and 29 surface reference sites for measuring air- sea pCO2 differences. In
addition, support efforts to develop and pilot project use of climate quality autonomous
sensors for widest possible use. (O51/OF12)
ECV – Subsurface nutrients (oxygen, phosphorous, nitrates, silicates)
Table 30. Networks contributing to observations of Subsurface Nutrients
Contributing Network
Classification
Implementation Status
Repeat survey network
Research Pilot
Marginal
Reference station network
Research/Research Pilot
unsatisfactory
Issues:

Technology development needed for autonomous sensors

Near-surface nutrient variability not well sampled with present repeat surveys
Action: needed (O52/OF?)
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GCOS Implementation Plan (V.3) – 10-Mar-04
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DRAFT
DRAFT
ECV- Sub-surface Currents
Table 31. Observation networks contributing to Sub-surface Currents
Contributing Network
Classification
Implementation Status
Argo float displacements
Research Pilot
unsatisfactory
Key regional monitoring
Research
unsatisfactory
Reference
moorings
Research/research pilot
unsatisfactory
and
tropical
Issues:

Argo array needs ~70% enhancement

Agreed plan for key regional monitoring efforts (e.g., choke points, sill overflows, boundary
currents) needed.

Tropical and reference station currents seriously undersample for change detection.
Action: needed? O53/OF?
ECV – Sub-surface Tracers
Table 32. Observing networks contributing to Subsurface Tracers
Contributing Network
Classification
Implementation Status
Repeat survey network
Research/research pilot
Marginal/unsat.
Reference station network
research
No contribution
Issues:

Improved technology for small water volume measurements needed.

Technology development needed for autonomous sensors.
Action: needed ? O54/ OF?
4.2.3.
Ocean Domain – Data Management
Section 3 of this Implementation Plan introduces data management needs, as described by the 2AR, and
issues generic issues and associated actions. Within this context, there are issues within the ocean
domain that require specific actions. The coordination of data management activities is principally through
the International Ocean Data Exchange (IODE) of IOC and ICSU and the Data Management Coordination
Group of JCOMM which in turn works closely with the data management program of WMO. In particular,
WMO is examining the adoption of metadata standards for atmospheric data and the potential for a
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DRAFT
Future Information System that would introduce new internet-based technology into the Global
Telecommunication System and rationalize the system of Data Centres. Any actions taken for ocean and
climate will inevitably be linked to, or included within, activities of WMO.
A Data Policy covering exchange of ocean data has been agreed by the Member States of the
Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission , with the intent of facilitating the free and open exchange
of essential ocean data. Within IOC and JCOMM, a Review is underway to examine potential future
arrangements for their data management needs, the vision being “A comprehensive and integrated ocean
data and information system, serving the broad and diverse needs of IOC Member States, for both
routine and scientific use.”
Figure 4 shows schematically the proposed arrangement with a hierarchal system of global, regional and
national activities/centres. IODE and JCOMM jointly sponsor an Ocean Information Technology Pilot
Project whose intent is to develop future data management capacity and actions listed below derive in
part from the priorities agreed by that Project. There are important activities underway at the regional and
national level (e.g., the Data Management, Archive and Communication System (DMACS)) and these will
be important in the implementation process.
Three data management functions within the oceanic domain are particularly important. First, the ability to
efficiently and effectively communicate data (and metadata) from platforms that are often remote and/or
autonomous is a critical issue for oceanography. While most products in GCOS will not demand real-time
acquisition, experience has shown that a policy of immediate acquisition is the most effective for assuring
that data are available, exchanged and submitted in at least preliminary form to data centres.
The key telecommunication issue at present is that bandwidth from platforms such as moorings, drifters
and floats is limited and, in some cases, means measurements are lost. Various groups do provide data
telecommunication services (e.g., ARGOS) and these services continue to be a critical contribution.
However, for a range of reasons, the community requires at least an order of magnitude increase in
capacity and, for some cases, a factor of 100.
The second data management function noted is data transport. The ocean community has made
extensive use of the WMO Global Telecommunication System for exchange of data in real-time and nearreal-time. Other datasets, particularly from hydrographic cruises, will come via other means. At the
OceanObs ’99 Conference the community reached consensus that, wherever practical, ocean data
should be exchanged freely in real-time. This policy has been followed with Argo and, increasingly, in
other endeavors contributing the ocean climate observing system. The definitions adopted by OOPC and
JCOMM for “operational” in effect demand such arrangements.
Recently, increasing use has been made of internet systems to exchange data and, in particular, using
the OPenDAP (formerly DODS) protocol. Yet other systems are being considered by WMO to enhance
the capability of the Global Telecommunication System.
Thirdly, the function of data assembly and quality control are critical for ensuring that the global ocean
data meet the climate quality standards and are accessible to users. The Tropical Atmosphere-Ocean
array (TAO) and initiatives such as the Global Temperature-Salinity Profile Project have ushered in an era
of greatly improved access to data, greater reliability of delivery and access and improved quality and
have facilitated improved and more efficient data assembly procedures. In concert with the Data
Assembly Centre activities of WOCE (in part continued through IODE and CLIVAR), the community is
now better able to produce high-quality datasets, in time frames that account for the immediacy of some
climate issues. Through JCOMM and IODE, these initiatives continue to provide significant benefit to the
community.
Other initiatives such as the World Ocean Data Base of NODC, the International Climate OceanAtmosphere Data Set (ICOADS), and the Global Ocean Data Archeology and Rescue (GODAR) project
provide significant capability for developing ocean climate data sets and analyses. The World Data
Center for Glaciology and the National Snow and Ice Data Center, among others, provide similar
functionality for aspects of the sea-ice data.
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There are also a range of Data Centers (or activities) that provide functionality for particular variables
and/or platform types, or for specific regions.
Table 33. Oceanic domain data centers and services
Contributing Activity
Classification
Implementation Status
Permanent Service for Mean
Sea Level (PSMSL)
Operational
Fully adequate
University of Hawaii Sea Level
Centre
(Pre-)Operational
Satisfactory
VOSCLIM R/T Monitoring
Centre and VOSCLIM Data
Centre
Pre-operational
Marginal (early days)
GTSPP
Operational
Satisfactory
GOSUD (for underway surface
data exchange)
Pre-Operational
Marginal (early days)
ICOADS
Operational (?)
Satisfactory
Argo Global Data Assembly
Centres (Coriolis and at
Monterey)
Pre-operational
Marginal (work to be done,
resources)
World and Responsible Data
Centres of IODE
Operational
Satisfactory
under review)
Specialised
Centres
Varying
Marginal (as above)
and
Regional
(functionality
Action: Through the IOC, and using the UNFCCC National (GCOS) Reporting mechanism, monitor
the degree of compliance with the Data Policy. (O55)
Action: Through IODE and JCOMM, and in collaboration with the ocean community generally,
WMO and standard setting bodies such as ISO and the World Wide Web Consortium,
develop an international standard for ocean metadata including syntactic and semantic
(description, search) metadata. (O56)
Action: Through IODE and JCOMM, develop a Pilot Project on data assembly, quality and orderly
archiving of ocean data, datasets and products. The Project will develop a system for
ensuring the integrity of datasets is sustained and that value-adding is recognized and
maintained through an agreed system of versions and classifications, in particular for
scientifically quality controlled datasets and associated products. (O57)
Action: Through IODE and JCOMM, and in collaboration with the ocean community generally,
WMO and standard setting bodies such as ISO and the World Wide Web Consortium,
develop an international standard for ocean metadata including syntactic and semantic
(description, search) metadata. (O58)
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GCOS Implementation Plan (V.3) – 10-Mar-04
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JCOMM
DM (Oceans)
DRAFT
DRAFT
IOC
Science, GOOS, …
Ocean D&IM
Program
Global
elements
Regional
elements
National
Centres
Action: In collaboration with the WMO Future Information Systems initiative, and building on
innovations and emerging protocols for data transport such as OpenDAP, develop a ocean
Figure 4. A suggested structure for JCOMM and IOC/IODE Data Management.
data transport system, for data exchange between centres using ocean data and open for
use by the ocean community generally (subject to agreed standards). (O59/)
Action: Building on the (pre-operational) data management arrangements initiated by Argo,
included its system of Data Centres, and in collaboration with the Global TemperatureSalinity Profile Project of JCOMM and IODE, develop a sustained system of data
acquisition, quality control, assembly and archive for subsurface temperature and salinity
data. (O60/)
Action: Through the IODE/JCOMM Review of data management arrangements in assessments and
reviews being conducted internally by IODE and JCOMM, and recognizing the capabilities
and potential of existing Centres and arrangements, implement a system of regional,
specialized and global data centres that will (a) handle data in accordance with GCOS
Principles, (b) be able to provide advanced ocean data services, (c) be capable of bring
expert analysis and interpretation in their region/area of specialization, (d) undertake
exchange of data and associated products with other relevant Centres of IODE and
JCOMM, and (e) ensure the safe-keeping and archiving of ocean climate data. Further, with
specific regard to the needs of GCOS, several Centres should be established that
specialize in the provision of ocean climate data services. (O61/)
Action: Through IODE and its Global Ocean Data Archeology and Rescue Project (GODAR),
promote the rescue and assembly of historical ocean data, including data in non-digital
forms. (O62/)
Action: Through IODE and JCOMM, support projects that enhance the flow, quality control and
overall management of ocean data in real-time and, specifically the GTSPP and Global
Ocean Surface Underway Data (GOSUD) project. (O63)
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GCOS Implementation Plan (V.3) – 10-Mar-04
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Action: Through IODE and JCOMM, and in collaboration with specific national groups, develop
enhanced and more cost-effective telecommunication capabilities including, as feasible,
two-way communications for dynamic control of instruments. (O64)
4.2.4.
Oceanic Domain – Integrated Global Analysis Products
Ocean data and ocean climate analyses are important for supporting the testing of climate change
models and evaluation of the ocean state/structure of predictions of future changes of the climate system.
The global comprehensive networks together with baseline and reference networks as described
previously can provide the needed information, with particular emphasis on three-dimensional analyses
and climatologies and time series.
Action: Construction of climate quality historical data sets, including estimates of variance and
covariance statistics, is needed. Ocean climatologies of ECVs should be prepared,
including estimates of uncertainty. Creation of ECV specific climate analyses (e.g., SST,
sea level), including estimates of uncertainty, should be supported. These activities
should be coordinated with CLIVAR, and other relevant research and data management
activities. (O65)
Action: Pilot projects for the generation of operational oceanography product suites of the ocean
ECVs (e.g., national GODAE activities) should be supported. Systematic evaluation of the
skill of these products is needed, so each group should be encouraged to participate in
the various GODAE regional comparison projects. The utility of these operational
products as the basis for the development of ocean climate information products should
be investigated. Feedback on the performance of the initial ocean climate observing
system should be provided to observing system management, including
recommendations for enhancement and/or evolution of the initial system networks. (O66)
Action: Pilot projects for ocean reanalysis and comparison of the results of different reanalysis
results should be supported.
These should be coordinated with CLIVAR and other
relevant research programs. (O67)
4.2.5.
Oceanic Domain – Synthesis and Consolidation of Actions
There has been good progress in several aspects of the implementation of the ocean climate observing
system. The transition of parts of the tropical moored network to sustained support, the strong
international support for Argo (over 30% implemented), and continuing support for elements of the
surface in situ observation system demonstrate a high level of support for the climate objectives of the
system. The satellite community had demonstrated advanced functionality, in several instances on a
quasi-sustained basis that has profoundly influenced both the strategy and the capability of the observing
system. A composite approach, with carefully balanced approaches and broad coordination and
cooperation, is partially meeting the requirements. The major weaknesses are in terms of global coverage
of the full ocean, efficient autonomous and remote instruments to overcome logistical constraints, and
sustainability and long-term investment.
This progress has its basis in strong national support, principally through the dev eloped nations. The
nature of the problem has encouraged regional approaches and cooperation. International cooperation
and collaboration are essential for an effective system if individual nations are to derive maximum benefit
and efficiency from investments and bodies such as JCOMM provide an effective avenue for developing
and delivering such functionality. The Partners to the Integrated Global Observing Strategy, among
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GCOS Implementation Plan (V.3) – 10-Mar-04
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others, have been influential inn developing and assuring some measure of long-term support for needed
remote measurements.
Consensus has been reached in the ocean community on the integrated, composite approach and, to a
large extent, on the elements that are required for a fully adequate ocean climate observing system. The
way forward is agreed even if the capacity to successfully implement this strategy remains a challenge.
Consensus has also been reached for Data Policy related to access to and exchange of ocean data,
including from climate-sensitive coastal regions.
Priorities for the Oceanic Domain include remote sensing of sea-surface temperature, surface winds and
sea surface topography since they represent the foundations of the global surface network and action is
required to assure continuity and sustainability. Composite surface in situ approaches (sea level gauges,
drifters, surface buoys, and volunteer ships), with careful attention to quality, provide essential
complementary data and in general need enhanced support (near double) with focus on a truly global
distribution and development of reliable reference datasets. The sea level network is particular critical
because of issues related to sea level rise and coastal impacts. Actions to extend this basic capability
include support for sustained ocean color measurements and pilot projects to improve the quality and
delivery of surface data.
Remote sensing also provides a substantial basis for monitoring sea-ice extent and concentration and the
potential for determining variability and change in thickness and other sea-ice properties. The needed
actions address sustainability and technical challenges associated with determining sea-ice thickness.
Targeted in situ validation campaigns and a limited but sustained sea-ice buoy program are also
important actions, aimed at introducing greater sustainability for these important measurements.
Research is recommended in order to develop reliable in situ sea-ice thickness measurement techniques.
Routine, accurate sea-ice extent and concentration products, with estimates of uncertainty, and the
potential for routine analyses of ice-thickness in the long-term are also priorities.
A composite system of subsurface temperature and salinity measurements, centred around Argo, but
complemented by deep hydrographic sections, fixed-location moorings and ships-of-opportunity provide
the heart of the subsurface observing system. These actions focus on completion of global coverage,
deep measurements and sustained support with an approximate doubling of the effort compared to the
present. The actions include carbon measurements and, where feasible, additional biogeochemical
measurements. The partnership with research is critical for advancement.
Effective management of ocean data and products is critical for the ocean, as it is for all of GCOS. The
specific actions include (a) implementation and monitoring of the newly agreed Data Policy governing
access to and exchange of ocean data; (b) agreement and implementation of a metadata standard for
oceanography, with consistency with other climate standards; (c) phased implementation of new data
transport mechanisms, building on the GTS, to ensure data are rapidly exchanged and maximum
advantage is taken of real-time data processing systems; (d) new, joint IODE-JCOMM data centre
arrangements, including for climate, that will enhance the delivery of data and climate services; and
agreed assembly, quality control and dataset version arrangements.
Products
Table O19 summarizes the actions identified in all of the oceanic domain sections above. It includes the
specific action, the body(s) or organization(s) called on to undertake the action, the time-frame envisioned
and the performance indicators or measures of progress that can be used to assess implementation
progress.
Table 34. Actions proposed (Oceanic Domain)
Ref.
No.
Action (A): Implementation action proposed or required
Who (W): Proposed responsible Parties/Institutions
Time-frame (T): Action accomplished by date or continuous
Performance indicator(s) (P): Measures by which progress will be
57
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GCOS Implementation Plan (V.3) – 10-Mar-04
O1
O2
O3
O4
O5
O6
4.3.
4.3.1.
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assessed
Need: Ensure global coverage and long term records of ocean data
A: Commitment to characterize global ocean variability
W: Nations through JCOMM and other relavant bodies
T: Continuous
P: Reports to UNFCCC
Cost: National implementation. International support for JCOMM $
Need: Continuing review and assessment of implementation
A: Review and revision of plan every 5 years
W: OOPC in cooperation with participating partners
T: Report by 2009
P: Report published
Cost: Funding for experts to review and prepare report. $
Need: Ensure international cooperation and collaboration
A: Focus implementation through JCOMM and related bodies
W: National and agency programs
T: Continuing
P: JCOMM reports and assessments
Cost: National resources. Support to JCOMM $
Need: New and climate-specific integrated ocean analysis products and
associated infrastructure
A: Support pre-operational demonstration projects (e.g. GODAE)
W: Nations in collaboration with international research community
T: Urgent, continuing
P: Successful completion of projects and implementation of permanent
infra-structure.
Cost: National resources
Need: Development of new ocean observing technology and methods
A: Undertake focused research programs
W: National research efforts in cooperation with CLIVAR and other related
research initiatives
T: Continuing
P: Implementation of new observing systems and methods
Cost: National research programs
Need: Effective and efficient implementation and maintenance of the
ocean observing system
A: Promotion of the requirement as a high priority objective
W: GCOS Steering Committee and OOPC through POGO
T: Continuing
P: Operational performance of the system
Cost:
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TERRESTRIAL DOMAIN CLIMATE OBSERVING SYSTEM
General
Many organizations make terrestrial observations, for a wide range of purposes, using various
measurement protocols even for the same variable. The resulting lack of homogeneous observations
limits capacity to monitor the changes relevant to climate and to determine causes of land-surface
changes. There is a need for an intergovernmental Technical Commission to:
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prepare and issue regulatory and guidance material
establish common standards for observations, data management and services
ensure compatibility with existing standards and initiatives
designate global data centres supported with sustained funding
This Commission should be created under the auspices of the UN. As a first step ICSU, FAO, UNEP,
UNESCO, WMO and the convention secretariats should create an inter-agency working group to examine
UN agency roles and responsibilities in such a body. The inter-agency working group should be convened
in 2005 and deliver its findings concerning a JCOMM-like structure by 2006.
Despite the lack of a Technical Commission some progress is being made on the implementation of the
terrestrial networks. Table 35 identifies the in situ and EO based networks. Data centres for some
variables are well established and supported, infrastructure to co-ordinate collection of data for key in-situ
variables is being developed, Space Agencies now provide observations for some variables on an
increasingly routine basis and there are improved mechanisms for international consensus (e.g. new
GTOS science panels and a Land Product Validation group within CEOS’ Working Group on Calibration
and Validation (WGCV)).
A reference network is needed for observations of climate variables, process studies, validating
observations derived from Earth observation satellites, and to address intrinsic limitations in the latter.
While there exists a range of locally supported sites within networks making relevant measurements the
three Global Terrestrial Networks (hydrology, glaciers, permafrost) remain to be fully implemented; gaps
in the measurement networks should be filled and data should be provided to the designated international
data centres. Detail is provided in section 4.3.2 and Table 35.
Despite continuing international efforts by the space agencies, inter comparison and validation of the EO
derived global products is not carried out routinely thus making it impossible to confirm fitness for
purpose. To address this we need not only involvement of established science panels and CEOS WGCV
structures but institution(s) or organization(s) to assume operational responsibility for making the
observations, validating products and for their distribution, analysis, and archiving.
4.3.2.
Specific issues- Terrestrial domain ECVs
Table 36 lists the specific implementation actions proposed for the Terrestrial Domain, the suggested
responsible bodies/institutions, the proposed time frame for the action, and the measures by which
progress will be assessed. Land-surface characteristics are highly sensitive to climate variability and
climate change.
ECV – River discharge
Statistical properties of river discharge are an indicator for climatic change as it reflects changes in
precipitation and evapotranspiration. To a lesser degree river runoff also has a driver role, as the
freshwater inflow to oceans may influence (theromo)haline circulations. It is required for calibration of
global models, trend analysis and socio-economic investigations.
Most countries monitor river discharge, but from a global perspective data are organized in a scattered
and fragmented way, i.e. data are managed at sub-national levels, in different sectors, and by different
(computer) systems. Also, the technology used means that there can be delays of .a number of years
before data delivery.
Though there is the technology to monitor water levels and surface water velocities from satellites e.g. by
SAR Along Track Interferometry (ATI), this is still at an early research stage, though may in the future
form a sound basis for monitoring river discharge.
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Action: Research should continue into interferrometric and altimetry based approaches to river
discharge monitoring.
With current technology in situ systems offer the most complete basis for river discharge monitoring, and
although The Global Runoff Data Centre (GRDC) has been mandated by WMO Resolution to improved
access to historical runoff data there are major gaps in the record received by GRDC.; gaps both in terms
of number of rivers monitored and the time it takes for the GRDC to receive records. To address this the
GCOS IP proposes two phases of implementation.
Phase 1: As an initial step around 300 priority stations near the downstream end of the largest rivers of
the world have been identified. These will capture about 70 % of the global freshwater flux to the oceans
(see list in annex). Though most applications related to climate require only monthly data, river discharge
has to be recorded at least daily to allow for the necessary integration.
For climate purposes contemporary records for all these rivers are required. At present delays in reporting
vary hugely so it is not possible to obtain a temporally consistent view of discharge. A major improvement
would be for the reporting from the 300 primary targets to all arrive at GRDC within the same year, and
with only one year of delay, i.e. they need to get preferential treatment.
Action: National hydrological services to report annually recent discharge data to the GRDC.
For the target 300 stations all have reported at some time in the past, and most will be operating today
and have a technical infrastructure. In some cases this will need to be upgraded but the exact status is
not yet known.
Action: national hydrological services to approach the identified gauging stations, determine their
operational status and provide GRDC with this information (i.e. all existing data and
metadata, including the measurement and data transmission technology used).
GRDC will then be in a position to provide GCOS with information on the network’s status so to focus
remedial action via funding from the GCOS fund and GEF.
Phase 2: The emphasis on the 300 priority stations and a delay of one year must only be seen as
incremental steps towards the goal of near real time data transfer to GTN-H of more rivers, also covering
e.g. pristine inland basins for trend analysis. Based on information acquired in phase 1, existing stations
that are able to transmit near real time data together with selected stations need to be upgraded (average
cost per station ~15.000 US$ per station) and a transmission scheme of their data to GTN-H defined.
Action: National Hydrological Services to collaborate with GTN-H through GRDC to distribute near
real time river discharge data according to agreed standards.
Implementation will be assessed by the number of priority stations reporting annually and with maximum
one year delay, the number of near real time stations established and data transferred or made
accessible, and the number of countries participating in the GTN-H program.
ECV – Lake levels
Information on changes in lake level and area (which are surrogates for the climatically-sensitive
parameter of lake volume) is required on a monthly basis for climate assessment purposes.
Approximately 95% of the volume of water held in the ~4,000,000 lakes is held in the 145 largest lakes.
However, most of these large lakes are hydrologically open. Closed-basin lakes are more sensitive to
changes in regional water balance and therefore better sensors of changes in climate. Large open lakes
cannot be neglected in designing the monitoring programme, however, because these lakes are
important sources of water for consumption, and because large expanses of water can have a significant
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impact on climate through albedo feedback. Furthermore, in some regions (e.g. the semi-arid interior of
Australia or the Great Basin of the USA) highly ephemeral lakes (which contain water only every few
years) can nevertheless be important to monitor because they provide a record of extreme events and
because of potential feedback effect on regional climate.
The GCOS strategy is to focus on the largest lakes, primarily closed-basin lakes but including major
ephemeral lakes and a selection of the largest open lakes. The initial target of 150 lakes worldwide (Table
XX) will be of immediate benefit to climate modelers, though the inventory will have to gradually increase
to ca 500 lakes to ensure fully adequate regional coverage and sufficient sites to ensure replicability of
the derived records. Lake level and area need to be measured (ideally) weekly or (at worst) monthly, with
a horizontal resolution of 10m and a vertical resolution of at least 5 cm. These measurements would be
made by national hydrological services and should be provided to the designated data centre. There is no
organisation which currently functions as an operational data management centre for lake level/area
information, although several institutes (e.g. Mullard Space Science Laboratory, State Hydrological
Institute of St. Petersburg, ILEC) have expressed willingness to extend their current database activities to
take on this role.
Action: Creation of an operational lake data management function is imperative and funding for
the support of a data centre is required.
The existence of measurement time-series for the 20th century (or longer) would considerably enhance
the value of ongoing monitoring. Action: National hydrological services should retrieve archival data and
provide this to the designated data centre. Satellite altimeter data can provide additional data, particular in
more remote areas.
Action: those parties with space agency capacities should contribute to monitoring the 150 lakes
and provide the measurements to the designated data centre.
There are a number of other lake-specific variables that are needed by the climate modelling community
(e.g. surface temperature) or for climate monitoring purposes (e.g. surface and sub-surface temperature,
timing of freezing, timing of thaw). In so far as the measurement of these variables could be made by the
hydrological services of the parties in association with measurement of lake level/area, they should be
made.
Action: National hydrological services to monitor lake level/area/surface temperature and
freeze/thaw dates of individual lakes from the key set of 150 lakes, based on either in-situ
or satellite measurements as appropriate, and report these measurements to a designated
data centre.
Performance can be judged by Creation of an operational data management centre; commitment to
monitor individual lakes by host countries; completeness of data base; Expansion of the monitoring
network to encompass a larger set of ca 500 lakes; extension of the records of lake level/area backwards
in time through retrieval of archival data covering 20th century (or longer if possible). Performance
indicators: (a) identification of available data and timeframe; (b) completeness of data base.
Estimated costs
Funding of the order of $0.5 million per year will be required to maintain an operational data management
centre. The costs of monitoring individual lakes should primarily be borne from funding to the hydrological
services. However, additional funding may be necessary to ensure training, installation of automated
recording systems and maintenance in those countries which currently lack an adequate support for such
work.
ECV – Ground Water
Approximately 30% of the world’s total freshwater (i.e. including snow/ice) is stored as groundwater.
Changes in the depth of the groundwater table can be used as an indicator of climate change on decadal
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timescales, provided information on groundwater withdrawals (e.g. for irrigation) is also available. The
information on changes in groundwater depth and abstraction rate is required on a yearly basis for
climate assessment.
There are continuous groundwater monitoring programmes at individual sites in many countries; these
data are generally held locally and are not readily accessible. However, there are many parts of the world
where the level of monitoring is inadequate. Furthermore, there are questions about the reliability of the
existing data because of the lack of agreed standards for measurement and reporting. There is no
comprehensive or global network of monitoring stations, nor is there a global network of collaborating
agencies and the exchange of groundwater data is virtually non-existent. Creation of such a network,
agreement on a representative set of sites for monitoring and agreement on measurement standards are
urgent priorities.
The GCOS strategy is to focus on monitoring a selected set (n.b. this information is coming from IGRAC)
of representative groundwater aquifers covering a range of hydrologic conditions, worldwide (Table XX).
There are variations in the level of the groundwater table within any one groundwater system;
measurements of groundwater level from multiple boreholes across the aquifer will be necessary to
reconstruct the groundwater surface and hence changes in the nature of that surface through time. We
anticipate that these measurements would be made by the hydrological services of the parties concerned.
The existence of measurement time-series for the 20th century would considerably enhance the value of
ongoing monitoring, and could be possible through retrieval of archival data by the hydrological services.
There is no organisation which currently functions as an operational data management centre for
groundwater measurements, although IGRAC (International Groundwater Resources Assessment
Centre) could provide this service.
Action: Creation of an operational data management function is imperative and funding for the
support of a data centre is required.
The interpretation of measured changes in groundwater depth requires information on regional
groundwater extraction rates to be available.
Action: Estimates of the yearly volume of groundwater removed from each monitored aquifer
need to be provided by national agencies.
Performance indicators are creation of an operational data management centre, commitment to monitor
individual aquifers by host countries, extension of the records of groundwater levels backwards in time
through retrieval of archival data and completeness of database.
ECV – Water Use
The availability of freshwater plays a crucial role in food production and food security. Irrigated land
covers about 20 % of the cropland, but contributes about 40% of total food production. Irrigated
agriculture accounts for about 70% of all freshwater consumption worldwide and more than 80% in
developing countries. Future food needs will require intensified production including increased irrigation of
agricultural crops that is expected to raise water consumption from present 2128 km3 to 2420 km3
annually by 2030. Thus, quantitative and qualitative information on irrigated land and available water
resources, their spatial distribution and change over time is essential for issues of resource management
(a prime concern of the FAO AQUASTAT programme, the International Water Management Institute and
the International Commission of Irrigation and Drainage).
Changes in the area of irrigated land and the amount of water used for irrigation do not, of themselves,
provide a way of monitoring climate change. However, information on these two variables is necessary in
order to be able to diagnose how far changes in other terrestrial ECVs (e.g. land cover, river discharge,
lake level/area) are caused by climate changes as distinct from land-use changes.
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Irrigation, particularly irrigation in arid and semi-arid areas, could play an important role as a driver of
climate changes. This influence operates partly through changes in the regional surface water- and
energy-balance caused by increased evapotranspiration and changes in albedo. Changes in the area of
irrigated agriculture could also impact on climate through influencing emissions of radiatively-active trace
gases such as methane.
The only resource providing global information on the area of irrigated land is the map prepared by the
University of Kassel, Germany. This raster map has a resolution of 5' resolution (about 5 km at equator)
but is compiled from different sources. Higher-resolution mapping could be achieved using satellite data,
e.g. MODIS/MERIS could be exploited to produce maps at ca 250m resolution. Whereas satellite data
analysis is fairly simple for semi-arid/arid areas, more complex analysis of seasonal data sets will be
needed to identify irrigated areas for temperate and tropical zones. However, in-situ information is
required to determine the source of irrigation water (surface, lake, river, groundwater, local, extra-local),
type of irrigation (surface, sprinkler, micro-irrigation), the timing and frequency of irrigation, and the
volume of irrigation water used.
The main priority is production of gridded global maps of irrigated area at 250m resolution on a year-byyear basis, accompanied by information (derived from in-situ records) on water source, type of irrigation,
frequency and timing of irrigation and volume of water used. Irrigated area could eventually be integrated
into global land cover maps (see below). Implementation will involve space agencies and the research
community.
Action: FAO will define requirements of international, regional, national and local communities for
irrigation water use information. FAO will archive and disseminate information related to
irrigation and water resources through its on-line AQUASTAT database and other means.
GTOS has defined freshwater resources as of one of its priority areas. It further supports these
communities through its Global Terrestrial Network on Hydrology and the Terrestrial Ecosystems
Monitoring Sites (TEMS) database. Similarly, GCOS will provide access to climatic and water-related
databases.
ECV – Snow cover
Snowfall and snow cover play a key role with respect to feedback mechanisms within the climate system
(albedo, runoff, soil moisture and vegetation) and are important variables in monitoring climate change.
About one third of the Earth's land surface is seasonally snow-covered. Snow thickness and snow-cover
duration affect permafrost thermal state, the depth and timing of seasonal soil freeze/thaw, and melt on
land ice and sea ice.
In situ measurements of snow extent, depth and water equivalent (SWE) vary between agencies and
countries. Many existing data are not readily accessible. Station networks are severely contracting in
Russia and Canada and automation is changing the nature of snow depth measurements. Accessible
documentation is needed on where and when these changes have occurred.
Action: The contraction of in situ observations in Russia and Canada should be halted and there
is an urgent need to develop optimal procedures to develop blended products of surface
observations of snow with visible and microwave satellite data and related airborne
measurements.
Snow cover is mapped daily by operational satellites, but sensor channels change and continuing
research and surface observations are needed to calibrate and verify algorithms and satellite products for
depth/SWE. Daily Northern Hemisphere snow extent maps began May 1999, with weekly maps available
since1966. Comparable Southern Hemisphere data are needed.
Action: space agencies currently generating northern hemisphere snow cover products should
also generate southern hemisphere products.
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Global daily snow depth analysis has been performed by the Canadian Meteorological Centre
http://weatheroffice.ec.gc.ca/analysis/index_e.html and daily snow depth data from the WMO-GTS
Synoptic Reports are available through NOAA’s National Climate Data Center. Snow water equivalent is
observed in many countries by national, state, provincial and private networks on a 10-30 day basis. No
central archive exists and many data bases are not readily accessible. No standard global SWE product
exists.
Many of the noted problems arise because (i) snow cover data are collected by numerous agencies with
differing goals (ii) funding support for snow research is fragmentary and not well co-ordinated (iii) the cost
of surface networks is leading to their contraction or automated measurement using different
instrumentation.
Maintenance of adequate, representative surface networks of snow observations must begin with
documentation and analysis of required network densities in different environments. Resolution of the
data inaccessibility requires; promoting political commitment to data sharing; removing practical barriers
by enhancing electronic interconnectivity and metadata; and data rescue and digitization. The provision of
necessary resources to improve and make available existing archives of snow data will require national
efforts. Development of snow products that blend multiple data sources and are globally applicable needs
urgent focused attention.
Action: WCRP CliC and GCOS could help lead such an effort.
Over 10 years to come, minimum total costs are estimated at US$1.7 M ($100K per year for filling primary
gaps in the SWE network and $50K per year for incorporation of remote sensing data, $20K per year
publications, travel, expert meetings). Roughly $10 M ($1M per year for generating data sets and
products) must additionally be borne by country(ies) hosting the central (distributed) service. The
completed SWE network and a functioning inclusion of remote sensing measurements will be the main
indication of successful implementation.
ECV – Glaciers
Changes in mountain glaciers and ice caps are the clearest evidence of global warming, constitute key
variables for early-detection strategies in global climate-related observations and cause serious impacts
on the terrestrial water cycle. The Global Terrestrial Network on Glaciers (GTN-G) based on century-long
worldwide observations developed an integrated, multi-level strategy for global observations. Extensive
glacier mass balance and flow studies within major climatic zones form the basis for improved process
understanding and calibration of numerical models.
Action: Measurements must be made by national services (governmental and university…GTN-G
has identified the relevant organisations) of regional volume change within 15 major
mountain systems using cost-saving methodologies (index stakes, laser altimetry,
repeated mapping, long-term observations of glacier length at 10 reference sites selected
with respect to climate and size/dynamics of ice body. Data will be provided to the
designated data centre.
Glacier inventories using satellite remote sensing with special application of digital terrain information in
GIS for automated procedures of image analysis, data processing and modelling/interpretation are
needed at time intervals of 10 years.
Action: The 10 year inventory will be performed by a network of experts in different regions in
close co-operation with those space agencies operating high-resolution sensors with
stereographic image acquisition capabilities.
GTN-G will coordinate the partnership and the designated data centre will archive and distribute the final
inventory. Continental-scale transects of observations exist in the American Cordilleras (N-S), in Africa-
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Pyrenees-Alps-Scandinavia-Svalbard (N-S) and through central Eurasia (E-W). Measurements in
individual countries are funded on a national basis.
GTN-G is run by The World Glacier Monitoring Service of ICSI(IAHS), FAGS(ICSU), UNESCO and
UNEP, which has been in charge of collecting and disseminating standardized data worldwide through a
network of national correspondents and principal investigators.
Action: GTN-G through contact with institutions in measurements in the southern hemisphere
(especially Patagonia and New Zealand), to further develop a web-based data management
and data dissemination system will start complementary mass balance measurements in
these regions.
Close cooperation with the ASTER/GLIMS helps initiating systematic satellite observations and the
introduction of advanced/automated image and data analysis techniques. A new lead structure of the
service must assure the long-term continuation of these fundamentally important activities for reaching
global coverage.
Over the next 10 years minimum total costs are estimated at 1.5 Mio US$ (30K per year for filling primary
gaps in the mass balance network, 50K per year running the database and 50K per year for inclusion of
remote sensing data, 20K per year publications, travel, expert meetings). Roughly 1 Mio (100K per year
for directing and running the service) must additionally be borne by the country hosting the central
service. The completed mass balance network and a functioning inclusion of remote sensing programmes
will be the main indication of successful implementation.
ECV – Ice Sheets
The Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets hold 95% of the world’s fresh water and almost 70-m of sea level
equivalent. Iceberg calving, especially from ice shelves, and ice sheet basal and marginal melt contribute
large quantities of fresh water to the world’s oceans. The freshwater addition to the oceans also affects
the salinity and density of the upper ocean and thus are major contributors to ocean deep water formation
and the global thermohaline circulation (TNC). Ice sheet geometry and mass balance need to be
monitored. The former involves airborne or satellite altimetry and the latter in situ measurements.
Digital elevation maps with 5-km resolution based on ERS-1 and Geosat for Greenland and Antarctica
are available. For Antarctica there are also 200m, 400 m and 1-km resolution DEMs from the Radarsat
Antarctic Mapping Project (RAMP). For Greenland there are extensive satellite and airborne remote
sensing data, AWS station meteorological data, snow pits and shallow cores from the Program for Arctic
Regional Climate Assessment (PARCA). Snow melt extent on the ice sheet has been mapped from
passive microwave data, continuously for 1979-present. All these data are held by the National Snow and
Ice Data Center (NSIDC).
The recently launched Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment (GRACE) satellite (combined with
ICESat data) will enable mass balance estimates for Antarctica equivalent to a sea level change of 0.2
mm/yr. The International Trans-Antarctic Scientific Expedition (ITASE) is collecting shallow cores along
transects across Antarctica to study the climate of the last 200 years. However, the satellite missions and
the field programs are one-time research projects without plans for repeat surveys at this time. The
forthcoming research satellite missions (e.g. ICESat and the European CryoSat) will provide the initial
data set of the polar ice sheets. However, long term monitoring of ice sheets using the same sensor types
is essential for change detection and cannot be resolved with a 3-year mission.
Action: Space Agencies to ensure continuity of ice sheet monitoring missions.
ECV – Permafrost
Decadal changes in permafrost temperatures and seasonal freezing/thawing are reliable indicators of
climate change in high latitude and mountain regions. Warming may result in a reduction in the extent of
permafrost and can have an impact on thaw settlement and slope instability, and moisture and gas fluxes.
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Standardized in-situ measurements are essential, both to calibrate and to verify regional and GCM
models. The Global Terrestrial Network for Permafrost (GTN-P) is a pilot project of GTOS and currently
involves 16 participating countries, with 125 active sites in the Circumpolar Active Layer Monitoring
(CALM) network and 287 identified boreholes for monitoring permafrost thermal state. It seeks to
implement an integrated, multi-level strategy for global observations of permafrost thermal state, active
layer thickness, and seasonally frozen ground at locations without permafrost; also included are snow
cover, soil moisture and temperature. Process-oriented research sites are Long-term Ecological Research
(LTER) sites and Barrow (Alaska), Zackenberg (Greenland), Abisko (Sweden), and Murtel/Corvatsch
(Switzerland). Documentation of environmental variations include ground temperatures in southern
Norway, the Swiss Alps and Mongolia. Remote sensing of subsurface temperatures, ground ice, and frost
penetration is difficult. Major assemblages of experimental sites cover continental-scale transects in
Alaska, Canada, Russia and the European mountains.
The International Permafrost Association (IPA) coordinates GTN-P activities. The Geological Survey of
Canada (Ottawa) maintains borehole metadata files and coordinates thermal data management and
dissemination. Every five years, the NSIDC prepares a CD containing information and data acquired in
the previous 5-yr interval. Regional projects support local networks and observatories such as the USGS
Alaskan deep borehole network and the NSF-supported CALM system, Canadian transects, and PACE
activities, GEF in Mongolia, etc. Presently, GTN-P in situ data acquisition is operated as a largely
voluntary operation, with individual national and regional sponsored programs (e.g., PACE).
Action: Activation of additional existing boreholes, and establishment of approximately 150 new
borehole and active layer sites are required for representative coverage in the
Europe/Nordic region, Russia and Central Asia (, Mongolia, Kazakhstan, China), in the
southern hemisphere (South America, Antarctica), and in the North American mountain
ranges and lowlands.
A borehole campaign is proposed during the IPY 2007/2008 period. In a number of cases sites are
funded on a national or multi-national basis (PACE, CALM). However, over the 10-year period
approximately $5M ($500K per year ) is required to supplement costs of data acquisition and to fill gaps in
the networks. Assistance in transferring data, centralized data processing and web access is estimated at
an additional $100K per year. Completion of the network and routine data collection/dissemination will be
the main indicator of successful implementation. GTN-P has identified sites and IPA has the contacts with
entities capable of establishing and running the additional sites. Assuming measurements in individual
countries are funded on a national or multi-national basis (such as EU, GEF), assistance in transferring
data to NSIDC, centralized data processing and web access is estimate at $100,000 US per year.
Completion of the network and routinely data collection/dissemination will be the main indicator of
successful implementation.
ECV – Albedo
Surface albedo is both a forcing variable controlling the climate and a sensitive indicator of environmental
degradation. Albedo varies in space and time as a result of both natural processes (e.g., changes in solar
position, snowfall and vegetation growth) and human activities (e.g., forestry and agriculture).
Daily-average surface albedo values have been derived experimentally from a single geostationary
satellite, but could be obtained from Action: all the current geostationary platforms to give near-global
coverage. The Coordination Group for Meteorological Satellites is promoting such an activity. Archived
data from these instruments could also be used to document the evolution of albedo during the last two
decades. Mono-angular5 multi-spectral sensors on polar-orbiting platforms usefully complement this
potential monitoring system by providing better coverage of polar regions (especially important during
summer). The accuracy of the estimates needs to be assessed, as they often rely on the accumulation of
data over 2 weeks or more, during which atmospheric conditions may vary considerably.
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Action: Gridded measurement of the directional hemispherical reflectance factor, bi-hemispherical
reflectance factor, fraction of direct radiation and fraction of diffuse radiation need to be
generated from the data holdings at the space agencies at spatial scales of 1 – 3 km on a
daily basis. These should be generated from current, future and archived satellite
observations.
Space Agencies are best placed to design and implement a coherent strategy for the operational
production, archival and distribution of global land surface albedo products on a sustained basis.
Research teams have designed algorithms, some of which have already been implemented in space
agency ground segments (notably NASA and EUMETSAT). These products need to be validated,
compared across instruments, and benchmarked across institutions and continents to ensure coherency
in space and time.
Action: The CEOS Working Group on Calibration and Validation has begun an albedo validation
activity and this should be coordinated with the recent CGMS activity. The work of the
CGMS and CEOS WGCV for generation and validation of the albedo suite of gridded
products is welcome and should be supported by the relevant Parties.
ECV – Land Cover
Land cover and cover-change force climate by modifying water and energy exchanges with the
atmosphere, and by changing greenhouse gas and aerosol sources and sinks. Land cover distributions
are largely determined by regional climate, so changes in cover type and associated land use
distributions can indicate climate change.
Although land-cover change can be measured using data from Earth observing satellites the currently
available data sets vary significantly, are of uncertain accuracy and use different land-cover-type
characterization systems. Data are also provided from different sources and at different spatial
resolutions. Moreover there are no current plans to provide operational long term satellite systems
capable of providing the long term records needed.
Action: Parties with Space Agencies should obtain commitments for 10 – 30m resolution optical
systems with spatial, spectral and data-acquisition characteristics consistent with
previous systems.
Some Space Agencies, working with the research community are generating global land-cover products
at resolutions of 250m – 1km, but the lack of compatibility between the products means that there are
significant difficulties in using them to measure and monitor climate-induced or anthropogenic changes in
land cover. Currently a range of approaches are adopted; e.g. centralized processing using a single
method of image classification (e.g. MODLAND) and a distributed approach using a network of experts
applying regionally specific methods (e.g. GLC2000). Using a single source of satellite imagery and
uniform classification algorithm has obvious benefits in terms of consistency, but may not yield optimum
results for all regions and all land cover types. Automated land cover characterization and land cover
change monitoring thus remains a research priority.
Regardless of how the databases are generated the legends must adhere to internationally agreed
standards.
Action: In the long-term land cover monitoring standards should be agreed by a relevant
intergovernmental Technical Commission (see general introduction to this section). In the
immediate term however full benefit should be taken of existing initiatives, e.g Action: Use
the FAO’s Land Cover Classification System for legend harmonisation and translation and
the legends published by the IGBP and the GCOS/GTOS science panels.
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Any global land cover databases must also be accompanied by a separate description of by-class
thematic/spatial accuracy.
Action: the accuracy assessment should be based on a sample of high-resolution (1 - 30 metre)
satellite imagery, themselves validated by in-situ observations wherever possible. The
CEOS WGCV, working with GCOS/GTOS science panels are establishing agreed validation
protocols, which should be used.
As a minimum new land cover maps documenting the spatial distribution of land cover characteristics with
attributes suitable for climate, carbon and ecosystem models (e.g. include wetland information forest
peatlands (boreal), mangroves, sedge grasslands, rush grasslands and seasonally flooded forests)
should be produced at 250m – 1km resolution every year.
Action: This production will involve space agencies for processing the EO data used in the
database production, the FAO/science panels to ensure legend relevance and standards
and the research community for optimising image classification approaches. Mechanisms
to fund such partnerships are emerging (e.g. GMES) but not yet guaranteed on a sustained
basis.
In addition to their use in climate models, annual 250m – 1km resolution global products will identify areas
of rapid change though the development of automated detection of changes in land cover characteristics
remains high on the research agenda.
Action: research funding guarantees.
To quantify changes in land cover characteristics mapping at resolutions of 10 to 30 meter is required
every 5 years. Global data sets of satellite imagery at 30 m resolution have been assembled for selected
years and some regional land cover maps have been generated from these. The technologies have been
developed and tested (e.g. Landsat ETM and SPOT HRV), suitable methods for land cover
characterization on these scales exist, but institutional arrangements to ensure operational generation of
land cover at these resolutions are not yet in place. Fine resolution maps to measure changes in land
cover are ideally needed every 5 years. Samples of fine resolution satellite imagery have been used to
estimate change and are proposed for example by the FAO’s Global Land Cover Network (GLC-N).
Initiatives such as the GLC-N will provide much needed capacity building and offer a framework for
acquisition of in-situ observations to support the satellite image based monitoring.
Action: Space agencies should assure that suitable optical sensors with 10-30 m resolution are
flying and acquiring data. The FAO/science panels (e.g. TOPC, GOFC and TCO) should
ensure legend relevance, and validation protocols. Institutional mechanisms to ensure
repeated mapping should be put in place.
ECV – Fraction of Absorbed Photosynthetically Active Radiation (fAPAR)
fAPAR measures photosynthetic activity, and indicates the presence and productivity of vegetation.
Spatially-detailed descriptions of fAPAR provide information about the strength and location of terrestrial
carbon sinks, and can be of value in verifying the effectiveness of the Kyoto Protocol’s flexibleimplementation mechanisms.
fAPAR is not directly measurable, but is inferred from models describing the transfer of solar radiation in
plant canopies, using remote sensing observations as constraints.
Action: Space Agencies and other entities should continue to generate weekly to 10-day global
fAPAR products at 250 m – 1 km resolution and make them widely available.
Generation of global fAPAR using NASA and ESA satellite measurements has recently commenced on a
regular basis, but funded under research budgets, as are archiving and distribution. Spatial resolutions lie
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between 250 m and 1 km, which meets GCOS requirements. Daily recovery of fAPAR is possible in
principle, but cloud and haze normally lead to fAPAR values that are multi-day ‘averages’, in some sense.
fAPAR can be recovered from a range of sensors by various algorithms.
Action: CEOS WGCV should lead benchmarking and comparison of these fAPAR products and
the algorithms used to generate them. The relevant agencies and their partners should
participate in these campaigns.
Reference sites making in situ observations should form part of this process.
Action: WGCV is identifying a core set of sites and measurement campaigns at these should be
supported. This should build on the validation activities currently being undertaken by the
Space Agencies and associated research programs.
To detect trends in the presence of inter-annual variability requires long time-series; hence the full
existing archive of satellite data for which consistent correction for the atmosphere is possible (i.e., those
having at least the blue channel in their spectral coverage) should be processed.
Action: time series should be constructed by those agencies holding the archives.
Performance indicators are continual reporting of fAPAR from a growing number of reference sites, and
representativeness of sites amongst major biomes and land cover types; publication of fAPAR
benchmarking results and the provision of global validated fAPAR products with quantified uncertainties
in gridded format suitable for ingestion into stand-alone vegetation models and the land surface
component of coupled biosphere-atmosphere models.
ECV – Leaf Area Index (LAI)
LAI measures the amount of leaf material in an ecosystem, and imposes important controls on processes,
such as photosynthesis, respiration and rain interception, that couple vegetation to climate. Hence it
appears as a key variable in many models describing vegetation-atmosphere interactions.
LAI can be estimated by in situ measurements using commercially available LAI meters. Around 20 sites
have been established as part of the LAInet programme sponsored by NASA and this is complemented
by the BIGFOOT programme and LAI measurements at some FLUXNET sites. CEOS WGCV is playing a
co-ordinating role in this work.
Action: Space agencies and others generating LAI products should co-ordinate with WGCV for
validation.
For reasons set out below, in some parts of the globe (e.g., the humid tropics) LAI can only be measured
by in situ methods. However, the measurement network is sparse. The development and maintenance of
reference sites to address this inadequacy should be addressed.
Action: build on existing networks such as Fluxnet, LAInet and BIGFOOT.
The retrieval of accurate estimates of LAI from space is difficult: when the canopy cover is sparse,
reflectance measurements are dominated by soil properties and the accuracy of the LAI is low; for LAI
values exceeding 3 or 4, the measurements saturate. Also, since the LAI measured by satellites is
inferred from reflectance, it is tightly coupled to fAPAR, and the two quantities are completely equivalent
in some algorithmic schemes. Nonetheless, regular global LAI estimates from space are currently being
produced and should be continued (this requires little extra resource above that required to produce
fAPAR). These have the same spatial resolutions (250 m to 1 km) and temporal frequencies (7 to 10
days) as the fAPAR products.
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Both because of the inherent difficulties in recovering LAI, and the fact that there are significant
differences in the methods being used, benchmarking and comparison of these LAI products is essential.
As for fAPAR, this should be led by CEOS WGCV, exploiting in situ observations from designated
reference sites, and building on the validation activities currently being undertaken by the Space
Agencies and associated research programs.
Performance indicators are continual reporting of LAI from a growing number of reference sites, and
representativeness of sites amongst major biomes and land cover types, publication of LAI benchmarking
results and provision of global validated LAI products with quantified uncertainties in gridded format
suitable for ingestion into stand-alone vegetation models and the land surface component of coupled
biosphere-atmosphere models.
ECV – Biomass
Biomass plays two major roles in the climate system: (i) photosynthesis withdraws CO2 from the
atmosphere and stores it as biomass; (ii) the quantity of biomass consumed by fire affects CO2, other
trace gases and aerosol emissions. Only above-ground biomass is readily measurable as part of a global
system, and most nations have schemes to estimate woody biomass through forest inventory (little is
recorded on non-forest biomass, except through agricultural yield statistics); this typically forms the basis
for the annual reporting on forest resources required by the UNFCCC. Experimental airborne sensors
have demonstrated technologies for estimating biomass (low-frequency radar, lidar) that are capable of
satellite implementation and could provide global biomass information at sub-kilometric resolutions. There
are limitations to these technologies, some known (for example, saturation of radar backscatter at higher
levels of biomass), some still the subject of research.
National inventories differ greatly in definitions, standards and quality, and the detailed information
available at national level is normally unavailable. Nonetheless, these form the basis of the county by
country summary statistics published by FAO in their Forest Resource Assessments. Biases and
uncertainties in these summary values are not quantified. The only available global gridded biomass
dataset is that from the World Resources Institute; based on existing databases supplemented by satellite
observations. The accuracy, resolution and currency of this dataset are unknown.
Although a unified standard for biomass inventories should be a long-term aim, the achievable mediumterm aim, with marginal resource implication, is adequate reporting of the methods employed, together
with accuracy assessment. This information should be included in the FAO Forest Resource
Assessments.
Action: Countries to provide information on methods used for national inventories as provided to
FAO’s Forest Resource Assessment.
Progress towards creating global gridded biomass datasets can be achieved by appropriate satellite
missions, notably active microwave systems and lidar.
Action: The space agencies should plan for such missions, supported by experimental programs
to reduce their risks.
ECV – Fire Disturbance
The emissions of greenhouse gases and aerosols from fires are important climate forcing factors; fires
also have a large influence on the storage and flux of carbon in the biosphere and atmosphere and can
cause long-term changes in land cover. Fire is a prominent disturbance factor in most vegetation zones
throughout the world. In many ecosystems fire is a natural, essential, and ecologically significant force,
organizing physical and biological attributes, shaping landscape diversity, and influencing energy flows
and biogeochemical cycles, particularly the global carbon cycle. In some ecosystems, however, fire is an
uncommon or even unnatural process that severely damages vegetation and can lead to long-term
degradation. Such ecosystems, particularly in the tropics and the boreal zone, are becoming increasingly
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vulnerable to fire due to growing population, economic and land-use pressures, and such shifts could also
be a strong indicator of changing climate. Moreover, the use of fire as a land-management tool is deeply
embedded in the culture and traditions of many societies, particularly in the developing world. Given the
rapidly changing social, economic and environmental conditions occurring in developing countries,
marked changes in fire regimes can be expected, with uncertain local, regional, and global
consequences. Even in regions where fire is natural (e.g., the boreal zone), more frequent severe fire
weather conditions have created recurrent major fire problems in recent years. The incidence of extreme
wildfire events is also increasing elsewhere the world, with adverse impacts on economies, livelihoods,
and human health and safety that are comparable to those associated with other natural disasters such
as earthquakes, floods, droughts and volcanic eruptions. Despite the prominence of these events, current
estimates of the extent and impact of vegetation fires globally are far from complete.
Several hundred million hectares of forest and other vegetation types, including organic layers of
periodically dry peatlands, are estimated to burn annually throughout the world, consuming several billion
tons of dry matter and releasing gaseous compounds and aerosol that affect the composition and
functioning of the global atmosphere and human health. However, the vast majority of these fires are not
monitored or documented. Informed policy and decision-making clearly requires timely quantification of
fire activity and its impacts nationally, regionally and globally. Such information is currently largely
unavailable.
Some Space Agencies, working with the research community have been generating regional and global
fire disturbance products (burnt area and active fire). Space-borne thermal and optical sensors have been
used to determine the location of active fire events, the spatial extent of the burnt area and the location
and size of smoke plumes and haze. Monthly measurements of global burnt area are required at a spatial
resolution of 250m (minimum resolution of 1km) and active fires should be monitored daily from Low
Earth Orbit (LEO) polar orbiting satellites near the peak of the daily fire activity. Some geostationary
satellites allow monitoring of active fires at a coarser resolution every 15 minutes.
Action: A global suite of fire products from the operational geostationary satellites needs to be
developed.
These moderate resolution products can complement detections from sensors on polar orbiting satellites,
provide information and diurnal dynamics of fire activity and fill the gaps in coverage. The GTOS’ science
panel Global Observations Of Forest Cover - Global Observations Of Land Cover Dynamics (GOFCGOLD) is establishing global fire observing network building on contributory projects.
Action: The Space Agencies should promote the integration of satellite-based fire products into
gaseous compound and aerosol modelling systems.
Improved communication between the atmospheric modelling and remote sensing communities is needed
to establish data coverage and quality requirements. The GCOS and GTOS science panes should
facilitate this dialogue.
The various space-based products require validation, and inter-comparisons would confirm fitness for
purpose. Validation of medium and coarse resolution fire products involves field observations and the use
of high-resolution imagery, in strong collaboration with the local fire management organizations and
research community.
Action: The CEOS WGCV, working with the GOFC-GOLD is establishing internationally agreed
validation protocols and these should be applied to all data sets before their release.
These protocols include the establishment of accuracy measures that are useful for the specific target
user community. Institutional arrangements between the fire data producer and user communities need to
be made to improve communication and to facilitate the exchange of remote sensing and in-situ validation
data.
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Action: COES WGCV and GOFC-GOLD should establish a clearing house of validation data for
product development.
Action: The space agencies should (continue to) generate, archive and distribute individual fire
products, but a single data clearing house should provide centralized identification of data
holders. The UN-affiliated Global Fire Monitoring Center (GFMC) could in the first instance
act as a data clearing house. Action: Approach GFMC for clearing house function.
Earth observation satellites have been providing measurements suitable for fire mapping from the early
1980’s. A historical record of fire activity and burnt area should be prepared by reprocessing these
archived data (1982 – 2004). The reprocessing would need to address known problems, such as
directional effects, georegistration errors, sensor saturation, instrument calibration drifts, atmospheric
correction, and biases caused by sampling and averaging for global area coverage data where the
original resolution observations are not available. [TR18]
Action: a comprehensive inventory of the historical records of satellite data needs to be compiled.
An intercomparison of fire products from different sensors, including sensors from
different platforms and from the same satellite series need to be carried out to minimize
spatial and temporal discontinuities. Community consensus, regionally applicable
algorithms need to be developed.
An important question is related to fire intensity and severity, which are important determining agents of
the impact of fire on the ecosystem including post-fire development. There are a range of ecosystems
where fires of low to medium intensity and severity are beneficial for ecosystem stability and productivity.
High-severity fires coupled with other natural and anthropogenic disturbances will lead to destruction of
vegetation cover and secondary disasters, resulting in loss of ecosystem stability, productivity and a net
flux of carbon to the atmosphere and terrestrial deposits.
Action: a new suite of remote sensing-based fire intensity and severity products to needs to be
developed, taking advantage of the improved sensor characteristics on current research
and experimental satellites.
The transition of experimental products to the operational domain needs to be facilitated. Data continuity
to the new generation sensors on future operational environmental satellite series needs to be ensured.
Whilst progress is being made on fire area and occurrence a particular gap concerns fire risk. From a
climate change impact perspective assessments of changing fire risk is important.
Action: The space agencies should promote the development and improvement of fire danger
rating systems applicable to global and regional assessment. The integration of
conventional environmental observations with measurements from environmental satellite
platforms needs to be encouraged.
Table 35. Observation networks and systems and existing international data centers contributing
to the GCOS Terrestrial Domain
TERRESTRIAL DOMAIN
ECV
Contributing Network(s)
International Data Center(s)
and Archives
Contributing
Satellite Data
2AR
FINDIN
River Discharge


See research
T2

Proposed GCOS Baseline
River Discharge Network
based on GRDC priority list.
Global Terrestrial Network
Global Runoff Data
Center (Ger.)
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for Hydrology (GTN-H)
Lake Levels


Proposed GCOS Baseline
Lake Level, Area, and
Volume Network
Global Terrestrial Network
for Hydrology (GTN-H)
Global Terrestrial Network
for Hydrology (GTN-H)
Ground Water
Extraction
Rates

Amount and
Area of
Irrigation
Snow Cover
See Research


Glaciers and Ice
Caps


Permafrost and
Seasonally
Frozen Ground

Spectrally
integrated Bi
hemispherical
reflectance
factor (Albedo)


No formally recognized
center. Proposal for
center…global lake area and
level data center. For both in
situ and satellite data.
 International Ground
Water Assessment
Center (IGRAC) Neth.
 FAO services
FAO
WWW/GOS Synoptic
Network
National Networks
Global Terrestrial Network
for Glaciers (GTN-G)
National Monitoring
Networks

Global Terrestrial Network
for Permafrost (GTN-P)
National Monitoring
Networks
None… but reference
benchmarking needed

Historical Land
Use


World Glacier Monitoring
Service (WGMS)
Switzerland
Global Resource
Information Database
(GRID) UNEP
National Snow and Ice
Data Center (NSIDC)
Held by Space Agencies.
Benchmarking will be
CEOS WGCV… global
product assembly
Proposed
Altimetry, high
res. optical and
reprocessing
T2
T2
See Research
T2
Visible and
Infrared
Passive
microwave
Visible and
Infrared
T3
T4
Synthetic Aperture
Radar
Thermal
T5
Geostationary
Polar Orbiters
T6, T7
GCOS Principles
applied to
measurements
RIVM
Ramankutty
Land Cover
(including
vegetation type)

GLC-N
TOPC+ TCO+ GOLD+ IGBP+
IPCC, CEOS WGCV
UNEP GRID
MODIS, MERIS,
VGT AATSR
JERS ERS
T8, T9,
T10
Fraction of
absorbed
Photosynthetica
lly Active
Radiation
(FAPAR)
Leaf Area Index
(LAI)
Land Surface
Temperature
Biomass




Fluxnet
MODLAND network (NASA)
TERACC (LAND IGBP)
BASIN
CEOS WGCV (coordination
function…data held by LAInet,
BIGFOOT )
Vis (BGR) Nir…
T11, T12
T12



Fluxnet
MODLAND
Forest inventory data
Vis nir multi
angular
Thermal
See research
73
Low frequency
radar and lidar
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Fire
Disturbance

GOFC Regional Networks
DRAFT
WFMC, UNEP - GRID,
GOFC-GOLD
DRAFT
DRAFT
Visible and
Infrared SWIR
and Thermal
T14, T15
Table 36. Actions proposed (Terrestrial Domain)
Ref.
No.
TR1
TR2
TR3
TR4
TR5
Action (A): Implementation action proposed or required
Who (W): Proposed responsible Parties/Institutions
Time-frame (T): Action accomplished by Date
Performance Indicator(s) (P): Measures by which progress will be assessed.
A: River Discharge: Submission of daily river discharge data from all 300 of world's largest
rivers to GRDC
W: National Services
T: Complete compliance by 2009. Continuous.
P: Completeness of data base at GRDC, Reporting to UNFCCC
A: Determine operational status of gauges at all 300 of world's largest rivers and provide this
info to GRDC
W: National Services
T: Complete compliance by 2009. Continuous.
P: Completeness of data base at GRDC, Reporting to UNFCCC
A: National Hydrological Services to collaborate with GTN-H through GRDC to distribute near
real time river discharge data according to agreed standards.
W: National Services, GTN-H, GRDC
T: Complete compliance by 2009. Continuous.
P: Completeness of data base at GRDC, Reporting to UNFCCC
A: Lake levels: Arrangement for an active data center- archive for Lake level/area
W: GTN-H, Countries
T: Operations by 2009
P: Commitment by host country
A: Lake levels: Submission of monthly lake level and area data for the 145 largest lakes to
designated international data center
W: National services
T: Continuous
P: completeness of data base, reporting to UNFCCC
A: Altimeter derived Lake levels: Submission of monthly lake level and area data for the 145
largest lakes to designated international data center
W: Space Agencies
T: Continuous
P: completeness of data base, reporting to UNFCCC
A: Ground Water: Estimates of the yearly volume of groundwater removed from each aquifer
W: National Hydrological Services
T: available by 2005
P: Published guidance package
A: Ground Water and Water Use: Establishment of IGRAC - beginning of provision of integrated
products on ECVs Ground Water and Water Use
W: Netherlands
T: ??? Initiating operation 2003??
P: Formal commitment
A: Define requirements of international, regional, national and local communities for irrigation
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TR6
TR7
TR8
TR9
TR10
TR11
TR12
TR13
TR14
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water use information.
W: FAO
T: By 2005
P: availability of user requirements
A: archive and disseminate information related to irrigation and water resources through its online AQUASTAT database and other means.
W: FAO
T: By 2005
P: availability of user requirements
A: Snow Cover: Strengthen and maintain existing observing sites (200) and recover historical
data.
W: National services
T: Continuing
P: Data submission to WDC
A: Snow Cover: Establish international data center and analysis center responsibilities
W: NSIDC??
T: ??
P: Commitment by host nation
A: Glaciers and Ice Caps: Maintain current observing sites and add additional sites in the South
America, Africa, and New Zealand.
W: National Services coordinated by GTN-G and WGMS
T: Continuing, new sites by 2009.
P: Completeness of database. Initiation of new sites.
A: Perform 10-year inventory.
W: National Services coordinated by GTN-G and WGMS and space agencies
T: Continuing, new sites by 2009.
P: Completeness of database. Initiation of new sites.
A: Ensure continuity of cryospheric missions
W: Space Agencies
T: Continuing, following demise of ICEsat and Cryosat in next 3 – 5 years.
P: Completeness of database. Initiation of new sites.
A: Permafrost: Maintain the 150 current boreholes and add 150 more in high mountains of Asia
W: National Services/Research Inst. Coordination through GTN-P and IPA
T: Continuing. New sites by 2009
P: Completeness of database. Initiation of new sites.
A: Permafrost: Develop international observing standards and practices.
W: GTN-P and IPA
T: Complete by 2005
P: Published guidelines
A: Albedo: Implement a system to retrieve land surface albedo from geostationary and polar
orbiting satellites on a daily and global basis. Undertake reanalysis.
W: Satellite operators (CGMS) in cooperation with research groups
T: Define system by 2005, complete reanalysis 2009, operation continuing.
P: Integrated Analysis availability
A: Albedo: Implement in situ Calibration /validation facilities
W: Satellite operators in cooperation with CEOS WGCV
T: Operation by 2007
P: Data available to analysis centers.
A: Land Cover: Establishment of international standards and specifications for the production of
land cover maps.
W: Scientific community in cooperation with satellite operators. GTOS convening authority.
T: Standards by 2005.
P: Publication of standards and specifications
A: Land Cover: Reanalysis of historical record and preparation maps with high spatial and
decadal resolution.
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TR15
TR16
TR17
TR18
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DRAFT
W: Research/analysis center in cooperation with satellite operators
T: Reanalysis complete by 2005. Operation continuing.
P: Availability of maps
A: Land Cover: application of CEOS WGCV validation protocols
W: National research institutes/space agencies
T: Network established by 2009
P: availability of validation statistics.
A: generate continuous fields products
W: Research centers in cooperation with satellite operators.
T: by 2005
P: Data set availability
A: FAPAR and LAI : Establishment of a cal/val network of in situ observing sites (reference
sites)
W: Research centers in cooperation with satellite operators coordinated by CEOS WGCV
T: Network operational by ??
P: Data available to analysis centers
A: FARPAR and LAI products to be made available as gridded products .
W: satellite operators and WGCV and TOPC
T: 2005 on
P: Agreement on operational product
A: FARPAR and LAI: Evaluate the various FAPAR and LAI satellite products and benchmark
against ground truth to arrive at an agreed operational product.
W: Research centers in cooperation with satellite operators and WGCV and TOPC
T: Benchmark by 2006
P: Agreement on operational product
A: information on methodology for forest inventory information
W: FAO and countries
T: By 2009
P: Availability of consistent statistical info
A: Fire Disturbance: Reanalysis of historical satellite data
W: Space agencies
T: By 2010
P: Establishment of a consistent data set
A: continued generation of active fire and burnt area products
W:space agencies in collaboration with gofc gold
T: continuous
Performance Indicator:
A: availability of gridded fire and burnt area products through a single clearing house
W: gofc-gold, wfmc
T: continuous
Performance Indicator: data availability
A: apply ceos wgcv, gofc-gold validation protocol
W:space agencies and research organizations
T: by 2006
Performance Indicator: publication of accuracy statistics.
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Appendix 1
The Second Report on the Adequacy of the Global Observing Systems for Climate (2AR) was prepared in
response to a request from the GCOS Steering Committee and endorsed by the UNFCCC Subsidiary
Body on Scientific and Technological Advice (SBSTA) at its 15th session in November 2001. The goals of
the Report were to:



Determine what progress has been made in implementing climate observing networks and systems
since the First Adequacy Report in 1998;
Determine the degree to which these systems meet with scientific requirements and conform with
associated observing principles; and
Assess how well the current systems, together with new and emerging methods of observation, will
meet the needs of the Convention.
The 2AR concluded that there have been improvements in implementing the global observing systems for
climate, especially in the use of some satellite information and in the provision of some ocean
observations. However, serious deficiencies remain in their ability to meet the identified needs. For
example:





Atmospheric networks are not operating with the required global coverage and quality;
Ocean networks lack global coverage and commitment to sustained operation; and
Global terrestrial networks remain only partially implemented.
Satellite operations while critical for global coverage need to better reflect climate requirements and
the maintenance of key sensors ensured.
There remain unmet requirements for the production of global integrated analysis products.
The SBSTA 18 noted that the "second adequacy report provides an opportunity to build momentum
among governments to improve the global observing systems for climate, but that work remains to be
done to identify priorities for actions, to remedy deficiencies within the domain-based networks, and to
estimate the cost implications". It requested Parties to submit views on the priorities for actions arising
from the second adequacy report, "as a further step towards the development by the GCOS secretariat of
an implementation plan for integrated global observations for climate".
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Appendix 2
GIP Wiring Diagram re International Infrastructure
Hierarchy:
Governing bodies of international agencies.
ICSU
UNESCO and IOC
WMO
UNEP
FAO (need to formalize?)
EOS Ministers (special case but probably at this level)
Agency Secretariats
Intergovernmental bodies dealing with climate observations.
IPCC
JCOMM
I-GOOS
CBS
CAS
CHY
CCl (this has been neglected but could be an “agent”)
Others….
 Scientific Programs and Advisory/Steering committees to the intergovernmental bodies
WCRP
GCOS Steering Committee and AOPC, OOPC, TOPC
IGBP
 Climate observation (and service?) systems; GCOS made up of contributions from:
Satellite Operators
WWW
GAW
GOOS
GTOS
WHYCOS
Others….
(GCOS Secretariat?)
Coordination mechanisms supporting observational objectives
CGMS
CEOS
IGOS-P
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Figure 5. GCOS Organizational Relationships
UNESCO
UNESCO
UN
UN
ICSU
ICSU
WMO
WMO
FAO
FAO
IOC
IOC
UNEP
UNEP
JCOMM
CBS
CAS
CHY
NEW
TERR
.
Bdy
CG
MS
GCOS
GOOS
WWW
GAW
WHYGOS
XX
79
GTOS
Space Agencies
CE
OS
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GCOS Secretariat
Global Climate Observing System
c/o World Meteorological Organization
7 bis, Avenue de la Paix
P.O. Box No. 2300
CH-1211 Geneva 2, Switzerland
Tel: +41 22 730 8275/8067
Fax: +41 22 730 8052
Email: gcosjpo@wmo.int
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