A
HANDBOOK
ON
DEPARTMENTAL CURRICULUM
FOR
THE AWARD
OF
B. TECH. SCIENCE LABORATORY
TECHNOLOGY
AND
HINTS ON HAZARDS &SAFETY IN THE
LABORATORY
THE VISITORS
The Executive Governor of Oyo State
Senator Isiaka Abiola Ajimobi
The Executive Governor of Osun State
Mr. Rauf Aregbesola
PRINCIPAL OFFICERS OF THE UNIVERSITY
CHANCELOR
Asiwaju Bola Ahmed Tinubu
PRO-CHANCELOR AND CHAIRMAN OF COUNCIL
Ag. VICE CHANCELOR
Prof. Adeniyi Sulaiman Gbadegesin
Ag. UNIVERSITY REGISTRAR
Mr. J.A. Agboola
Ag. UNIVERSITY BURSAR
Mr. A.A. Okediji
Ag. UNIVERSITY LIBRARIAN
Mr. M.O. Ajala
FACULTY OFFICE
DEAN
Prof. E.T. Ayodele
DEPUTY DEAN
Dr. A.T.J. Ogunkunle
FACULTY OFFICER
Mrs. A.G. Ajala
HEADS OF DEPARTMENT
Name
Prof. E.T. Ayodele
Year
2002 – 2004
Dr. I.O. Adeoye
2004 – 2006
Prof. (Mrs) F. Adelowo
2006 – 2008
Dr. A. Adeyeye
2008 – 2010
Dr. S.O. Adewoye
2010 – 2012
Dr. A. Lateef
2012 – Till date
LEVEL ADVISORS
100 level
200 level
300 level
400 level
500 level
Physics/Electronics
Chemistry/Biochemistry
Biology/Microbiology
Mr. O.O.Oladapo
Mr. G. Adeyinka
Mr. G.J. Ibikunle
Mrs. H.O. Adedosu
Mr. O. Olabisi
Mrs. A.O. Akintola
Miss I.C. Oladipo
LIST OF ACADEMIC STAFF
S/N
1
2.
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
STAFF
Dr. A. Lateef
+Dr. P.G. Oyeyiola
Dr. A. Adeyeye
+Dr. M. T. Yakubu
+Dr. L.A. Usman
+Dr. C.O. Olaiya
Mrs. O.A. Akintola
Miss I.C. Oladipo
Mrs. H.O. Adedosu
+Dr. S. Olatunji
+Dr. T.T. Ibrahim
12
13
14
15
16
17
Mrs. A.G.Adewoyin
Mr. P.B. Ayoola
Mr. G.J. Ibikunle
Mr. O. Olabisi
Mr. O.O. Oladapo
Mr. G. Adeyinka
+ Associate Lecturer
DISCIPLINE
Biology
Microbiology
Chemistry
Biochemistry/Toxicology
Organic Chemistry
Biochemistry
Biochemistry
Microbiology
Chemistry
Geophysics
Nuclear/Engineering
Physics
Microbiology
Chemistry
Chemistry
Physics
Physics
Chemistry
QUALIFICATION
Ph.D
Ph.D
Ph.D
Ph.D
Ph.D
Ph.D
M.Sc.
M.Sc..
M.Sc.
Ph.D
Ph.D
RANK
HOD/Reader
Reader
Senior Lecturer
Reader
Senior Lecturer
Senior Lecturer
Lecturer I
Lecturer I
Lecturer I
Lecturer I
Lecturer I
M.Tech.
M.Sc.
M.Tech
M.Tech
M.Sc.
B.Sc.
Lecturer II
Lecturer II
Lecturer II
Lecturer II
Lecturer II
Graduate Assistant
LABORATORY STAFF
S/N
1.
NAME OF STAFF
Mr. A.A. Akinola
QUALIFICATION
ANIST, HND, MNIP, PGD
RANK
Asst. Chief
Technologist
2.
Mr. E.A. Adekeye
ANIST, HND, PGD, M.Tech
Technologist I
3.
Mr. M.A. Odeniyi
ANIST, HND
Technologist I
4.
Miss. M.O. Adesiyan
ANIST, HND, PGD,M.Tech.
Technologist I
5.
Mrs. B.A. Fatukasi
ANIST, HND,PGD
Technologist I
6.
Mr. S.B. Ogunsona
WASSC
Lab. Assistant
7.
Miss. O.B. Awoniyi
WASSC
Lab. Assistant
8.
Mrs. O.O.Olanrewaju
WASSC
Lab. Assistant
ADMINISTRATIVE STAFF
S/N
NAME
1. Mrs. E.O Adeyemi
RANK
Chief Confidential Secretary
2. Mrs. R. T. Akande
Chief Typist I
3. Mrs G.R. Bolaji
Senior Office Assistant
DEPARTMENTAL COMMITTES
(A) FINANCE COMMITTEE
1. H.O.D.
2. Mrs. H.O. Adedosu
3. Mrs. E. O. Adeyemi
(B) EXAMINATION OFFICER
1. Miss I.C. Oladipo
(C) EXAMINATION COMMITTEE
1. Miss I.C. Oladipo
2. Mr. O.O. Oladapo
3. Mr. G.J. Ibikunle
(D) ADMISSION COMMITTEE
1. H.O.D.
2. Mrs. O.A. Akintola
3. Mr.O.Olabisi
(E) TIME TABLE COMMITTEE
1. Mr.O.Olabisi
2. Mrs. O.A. Akintola
3. Mr. G. Adeyinka
(F) INDUSTRIAL TRAINING COMMITTEE
1. Mr. O.O. Oladapo
2. Mr. G. J. Ibikunle
3. Mr. A.A. Akinola
(G) NATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF SCIENCE
LABORATORY STUDENTS ADVISORY
COMMITTEE
1. Mr. O. Olabisi
2. Mr. G.J. Ibikunle
(H) SEMINAR/PROJECT COMMITTEE
1. Mrs. H.O. Adedosu
2. Miss I.C. Oladipo
3. Mr. G. Adeyinka
4. Mr. O.O. Oladapo
(I) PUBLICATION COMMITTEE
1. Dr. A. Lateef
3. Mr. P.B. Ayoola
4. Miss M.O. Adesiyan
5. Mr. G. Adeyinka
6. Mr. O.O. Oladapo
(J) LABORATORY COMMITTEE
1. Mr. A.A. Akinola
2. Mr. P.B. Ayoola
3 Mrs. A.G. Adewoyin
4. Mr. O. Olabisi
5. Mr. M.A. Odeniyi
(K) BOARD EXAMINATION
1. Dr. A. Lateef
2. Dr. A. Adeyeye
3. Miss I.C. Oladipo
4. Mr.O.O. Oladapo
LEVEL ADVISORS
100 level
200 level
300 level
400 level
500 level
Physics/Electronics
Chemistry/Biochemistry
Biology/Microbiology
Mr. O.O.Oladapo
Mr. G. Adeyinka
Mr. G.J. Ibikunle
Mr. O. Olabisi
Mrs. A.O. Akintola
Miss I. C. Oladipo
LIST OF ACADEMIC STAFF
S/N
1
2.
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
STAFF
Dr. A. Lateef
+Dr. P.G. Oyeyiola
+Dr. M. T. Yakubu
Dr. A. Adeyeye
+Dr. L.A. Usman
+Dr. C.O. Olaiya
+Dr. S. Olatunji
+Dr. T.T. Ibrahim
Mrs. H.O. Adedosu
Mrs. A.O. Akintola
Miss I.C. Oladipo
Mrs.A.G.Adewoyin
Mr. P.B. Ayoola
Mr. G.J. Ibikunle
Mr. O. Olabisi
Mr. O.O. Oladapo
Mr. G. Adeyinka
DISCIPLINE
Microbiology
Microbiology
Biochemistry/Toxicology
Chemistry
Organic Chemistry
Biochemistry
Geophysics
Nuclear Physics
Chemistry
Biochemistry
Microbiology
Microbiology
Chemistry
Chemistry
Physics
Physics
Chemistry
QUALIFICATION
Ph.D
Ph.D
Ph.D
Ph.D
Ph.D
Ph.D
Ph.D.
Ph.D
M.Sc.
M.Sc.
M.Sc.
M.Tech.
M.Sc.
M.Tech
M.Tech
M.Sc.
B.Sc.
RANK
Ag. HOD/Reader
Reader
Reader
Senior Lecturer
Senior Lecturer
Senior Lecturer
Lecturer I
Lecturer I
Lecturer I
Lecturer I
Lecturer I
Lecturer II
Lecturer II
Lecturer II
Lecturer II
Lecturer II
Graduate
Assistant
LABORATORY STAFF
S/N
1.
NAME OF STAFF
Mr. A.A. Akinola
QUALIFICATION
ANIST, HND, MNIP, PGD
RANK
Asst. Chief
Technologist
2.
Mr. E.A. Adekeye
ANIST, HND, PGD, M.Tech
Technologist I
3.
Mr. M.A. Odeniyi
ANIST, HND
Technologist I
4.
Miss. M.O. Adesiyan
ANIST, HND, PGD,M.Tech.
Technologist I
5.
Mrs. B.A. Fatukasi
ANIST, HND,PGD
Technologist I
6.
Mr. S.B. Ogunsona
WASSC
Lab. Assistant
7.
Miss. O.B. Awoniyi
WASSC
Lab. Assistant
8.
Mrs. O.O.Olanrewaju
WASSC
Lab. Assistant
ADMINISTRATIVE STAFF
S/N
NAME
4. Mrs. E.O Adeyemi
RANK
Chief Confidential Secretary
5. Mrs. R. T. Akande
Chief Typist
6. Mrs G.R. Bolaji
Senior Office Assistant
INTRODUCTION
The Department of Science Laboratory Technology is an offshoot of Science
Laboratory Technology Training Scheme (SLTTS) which was initially offered by the
university in the Faculty of pure and Applied Sciences.
The Department took off fully in 2004/2005 academic session with sixty five (65)
students, five (5) academic staff, three (3) technologists and two (2) administrative staff.
The department of science Laboratory Technology is to provide its students with a
broad based knowledge of theoretical, technological and practical training in the multidisciplinary fields of sciences with options of specialization in Chemistry/Biochemistry,
Biology/Microbiology and Physics/Electronics.
The objectives of the programmes are:
-
To offer specialized courses and training for laboratory managers with sound (broad
based) scientific knowledge for laboratory for those who may opt for academic career.
-
To produce graduates who will be able to set up their own laboratories
-
To produce high-level manpower that will be able to fit into Research institutes and
universities as scientific officers and laboratory trainer/instructors who would have
understood the fundamental principles in the field of science and acquired enough
practical experience.
-
To produce academic and professional Laboratory scientists that emphasizes
technical planning, adaptation and maintenance, as well as developmental and
productive skills in laboratory and scientific disciplines.
-
To produce and promote sound scientists trained in the field of laboratory,
management, maintenance and control as a foundation for the growth and
development of laboratory scientists needed for the necessary industrial growth of the
country.
-
To produce modern management scientists in the area of laboratory management and
control in relation to the development of man power for a sound development of the
industrial based of the country.
The undergraduate students will find this hand book useful from time to time. For guidance,
students are advised to read this book and relate well with their level advisors course
coordinators, supervisors and head of department for clarification on any aspect of this book
that may not be clear to them.
Finally, I welcome you most sincerely to the Department and appeal for your cooperation with the entire staff and fellow students in making your stay in the Department an
enjoyable and memorable one
Dr. A. Lateef
Ag. HOD, SLT.
ADMISSION REQUIREMENTS
Five ‘O’ Level credit passes at WASSC/NECO which, must include English Language,
Mathematics, Chemistry, Physics and Biology. The Department has no waiver.
The department admits students through these routes:
(i)
University Matriculation Examination (UME)
(ii)
Pre-degree Science Programme runs by the Faculty of Pure and Applied
Sciences
(iii)
National Diploma with Upper credit and Higher National Diploma from
recognized Colleges and Polytechnics into 200 level as direct student.
(iv)
Programme/Sub-Discipline Structure to include period of formal studies in
the Universities Industrial Training, planned visit and projects:
The periods of formal studies in the university are as follows:
(i)
1 year common year (100 Level)
(ii)
4 years- B. Tech. Science Laboratory Tech. (SLT) (200-500 Level)
Total 5 years
Industrial Training is now observed at a stretch for 6 months. The whole of the Rain
(2nd) semester 400-level is set aside for this. See the attached curriculum.
v)
Course content specifications/Syllabus of all courses in the Programme/Sub
discipline/Discipline:
REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF A DEGREE
To be eligible for the award of a degree, a candidate must satisfy the following
conditions:
(i)
Pass all University/Faculty compulsory courses
(ii)
Pass all Departmental compulsory courses
(iii)
Spend the minimum number of semesters prescribed by the University
COURSE CODE
Science Laboratory Technology course codes normally comprise of three digits:
(i)
The first digit represents the level of the course,
e.g.
(ii)
–
100 level
2
–
200 level
The second digit represents the type of course
e.g.
(iii)
1
L
Lecture
P
Practicals
The third digit denotes the semester in which the course is to be taught,
e.g.
Odd number –
Harmattan semester
Even number –
Rain semester
CURRICULUM
–
47 units
Other than those in (i) above
–
8 units
(iii)
Computer Studies
–
2 units
(iv)
Faculty/Department Requirements
–
99 units
(v)
Industrial Training
–
4 units
(i)
University Requirements
First Year Degree Course
(ii)
General Studies
EVALUATION OF STUDENTS’ PERFORMANCE
EXAMINATIONS
Examinations are conducted in accordance with regulations approved from time to
time by the University Senate. To sit for any end of course examination, candidates must be
duly registered for the course, and attain 75% attendance at the course lectures/laboratory
practical/tutorials.
Students who are absent from lectures/laboratories/tutorials must
communicate their reasons to their course lecturers. Every course shall be examined during
the academic semester for which it is taken. End of course examination will consist of one or
more of the following:
(a)
Written examination 70%
(b)
Practical and/or continuous assessments 30%
Note that continuous assessment is for all courses taught.
MATRICULATION
All students entering the University for the first time will be required to matriculate at
a formal ceremony to be presided over by the Vice-Chancellor which normally takes place
after registration and having been certified that such candidates are qualified for the
courses offered them on admission. The Dean of each Faculty presents students from his/her
Faculty for matriculation while the registrar administers the Matriculation Oath. Students are
made to solemnly undertake and swear to observe and respect the provisions of the Ladoke
Akintola University of Technology, Ogbomoso, laws and status ordinances and regulations
which are now in force or which may be brought into force in addition to not belonging to
secret cult.
DURATION OF B. TECH DEGREE PROGRAMME
Normally, the B. Tech Programmes are five year programmes
A student admitted through UME or Pre-Degree is expected normally to spend a minimum of
five (5) years and a maximum of seven and half (7½) years
A student admitted through direct is expected normally to spend a minimum of four (4) years
and a maximum of six (6) years.
A student admitted though transfer is expected normally to spend a minimum of the number
of years left for him/her to graduate and a maximum of one and half (1½) of the number of
years left. For example, a student transferred to 300 Level has three years left to graduate.
Therefore he/she normally has a minimum of three (3) years and a maximum of four and half
(4½) years to graduate.
REGISTRATION FOR COURSES
Any student of the department must register at the beginning of each semester for courses
approved by the university authority. Normally a students is allowed to register for a
minimum of twelve (12) units and a maximum of twenty-four (24) units per semester, unless
otherwise stated in a situation where a final year student needs to exceed the maximum of
twenty-four (24) units for him/her to be able to graduate, a formal application to that effect
must be made in writing to the senate through the HOD and through the Dean for approval. A
student is free to "borrow" courses from other departments if he/she wishes to do so.
UNIT LOAD
A unit is fifteen one-hour lecturers or tutorials or a series of fifteen three-hour practical
classes, or the combination of these types of instruction.
REGISTRATION PROCEDURE
New Students
The procedure for the registration of new students is as follows.
i.
Obtaining the students pre-registration forms. Filling it and returning it to the
Admissions Officer with the require credentials.
ii.
Collecting the registration kit (green file) from the Admission Officer
iii.
Presenting the originals of the required credential to the Admission Officer who will
sign the pre-registration forms and academic clearance after the credentials have been
checked and verified and entry qualifications confirmed.
iv.
Proceeding to the Faculty Officer who will issue course registration forms and direct
students to the appropriate Heads of Departments for guidance in selecting courses.
v.
After selection of courses, filling course registration forms separately and completely
with biro and obtaining the signature of Course and Level Adviser.
vi.
Submitting course registration forms to the Faculty Officer for the signature of the
Dean; and
vii.
Finally, asking the Faculty Officer for copy of the course registration form.
ATTENTION: Note that registration is not complete until all payments are made and
registration forms are submitted to appropriate places.
Returning Students
i.
After due payments have been made, proceeding to the Faculty Officer and obtaining
course registration forms.
ii.
Consulting with the appropriate Head of Department for guidance in selecting
courses.
iii.
After the selection of courses obtaining signature of Course and Level Adviser.
iv.
Submitting
course
registration
forms
to
the
Faculty
Officer
for
the
signature of the Dean and
iv.
Finally, asking the Faculty Officer for copy of the course registration form.
SEMESTER AND SESSION
The University runs a semester system
A semester is normally a period of sixteen (16) five-day weeks of instruction. The period of
instruction is followed by a period of examinations.
A session consists of two consecutive semesters as determined by the University senate.
EXAMINATION OF COURSES
A course is normally taught in a semester, unless otherwise designed. A course is normally
assessed at the end of the period of instruction. Assessment in a course consists of two
components, the continuous assessment and the final examination. The continuous
assessment component earns 30%. It is made up of classroom tests, written assignments,
written reports and the likes. The final 'examination component earns 70%.
REGULATIONS IN RESPECT OF CONDUCT OF EXAMINATION
REGULATIONS
GOVERNING
THE
CONDUCT
OF
UNIVERSITY
EXAMINATIONS
DEFINITION OF TERMS
(i)
University Examinations
- University Examinations include semester.
- Professional and other Examinations involving the participations of both the
department or Faculty and the examination office.
- Continuous Assessment means course tests, tutorial and other graded assignments
done within the Department Faculty where the course is being taught.
(ii)
Semester
A semester is one-half of an academic year as determined by senate
(iii)
Session
A session consists of two semesters otherwise referred to as an Academic year as
determined by senate.
(iv)
Course Unit/Credit
-
One credit/unit represents fifteen of lecture/tutorial or 45 hours practical work per
semester.
-
Two units/credits represent thirty hours of lecturer/tutorial or 90 hours of practical
work per semester.
-
Three
credits/units
represent
forty-five
hours
of
lecture/tutorial
or
135
hours of practical work per semester.
-
There are courses that are purely theoretical or practical while some others are
combination of both.
EXAMINATION OFFENCES AND SANCTIONS
The sanctions for various examination offences committed by any student as approved by the
university Senates are as below:
S/N
EXAMINATION OFFENCE
1.
Involvement in leakages of examination questions
Sanctions
and/or marking scheme:
(a) Student(s) involved
(b) Staff involved
2.
3.
Expulsion
Dismissal
Illegal possession of answer script(s) by student
Suspension for two (2)
Blank answer script(s)
Semesters
Scripts(s) containing answers
Expulsion
Possession of answer script(s) filled with more than
one handwriting:
(a) Student(s) involved
(b) Staff complicity in multiple handwriting
Expulsion
Dismissal
malpractices
4.
5.
Possession of unauthorized text(s) and illustration(s)
Suspension for four (4)
of any form that aid examinations malpractices
semesters
Impersonation (mercenary) in writing examination:
(a) Student involved
Expulsion
(b) Staff complicity in impersonation
Dismissal
malpractices in any form
6.
Impersonation in any form
Expulsion/dismissal of parties
involved
7.
Student involvement in assault on personnel involved
in invigilation;
(a) Assault on personnel involved in invigilation
Expulsion
(b) Harassment and/or battery of personnel
involved in invigilation
8.
Harassment of co-students for non-cooperation in
examinations malpractices
(a) Battery of co-student for non-cooperation in
Suspensions for two (2)
examination malpractices
9
Falsification of identify, such as names,
Suspensions for four (4)
matriculation number, etc by a student
10
Giraffing
Suspension for two semesters
11.
Exchanging of scripts or information during
Suspension for four (4)
examination failure to submit examination answer
semesters
script
12.
Failure to submit examination answer script
Suspension for two (2)
semesters
13.
Transfer or receipt of information during examination Suspension for four (4)
semesters for all parties
involved
14.
15.
Failure to obey invigilator’s institutions during
Suspension for two (4)
examination
semesters in any form
Insubordination
Suspension for four (4)
semesters
16.
Failure to appear before the Examination
Suspension for four (4)
Malpractices Panel after invitation.
semesters after which the
student will then face the
panel on original offence
PROCEDURE FOR INVESTIGATING ALLEGED EXAMINATION MISCONDUCT
(a)
At the discretion of the Chief invigilator, a candidate may be required to leave the
examination venue when his/her conduct is judged to be disturbing or likely to disturb
the examination. The Chief Invigilator shall report immediately any such action taken
to the Dean through the Faculty Examination Coordinator after the completion of the
examination by the candidates.
(b)
Any candidates suspected of any examination irregularity shall be required to write
and submit to the Chief Invigilator a written statement in the Examination Hall
Failure to make a written statement shall be regarded as an admission of the charge
against such a candidate.
(c)
The Dean shall, within 48 hours of receipt of a report, set up a panel of not less than
three academic staff to investigation shall be made available within two weeks
through the Dean Registrar (Academic) to the Registrar who shall on the basis of the
recommendations, determine whether or not the matter should receive the attention of
the Students Disciplinary Committee.
(d)
The student Disciplinary Committee shall within weeks of receiving such a report,
investigate and recommend penalty in cases of proven misconduct to the ViceChancellor in accordance with section 17 of the University Act.
PENALTIES
(a)
Any candidate found cheating or aiding and abetting cheating in any
examination shall be rusticated for two sessions in addition, the result of such
an examination shall be nullified for any such candidate. A student so
rusticated shall be barred from examination(s) that fall during the period of
rustication.
(b)
At the end of the period for which he has been rusticated, a candidate
penalized under (a) above thereafter resume his courses at the appropriate
point in the following Academic Year.
(c)
A candidate penalized under 3 (a) above who is subsequently found guilty of
cheating a second time shall be dismissed from the University.
(d)
A candidate who is found guilty of bringing pieces of paper on other
unauthorized materials into the examination venue contrary to the regulations
shall be deemed to have been involved in examination misconduct and shall
therefore be rusticated for two sessions.
(e)
A candidate penalized under 3 (d) above who is subsequently found guilty of
committing an examination misconduct a second time shall be dismissed from
the University:
(f)
In a situation where an individual, not registered for a particular course, writes
an examination on behalf of a candidate. He/she shall be handed over to the
Law Enforcement Agents, if he/she is from outside the University while the
candidate so helped shall be dismissed form the University.
THE COURSES GRADING SYSTEM
SCORE%
LETTER GRADE
POINT
0-39
F
0
40-44
E
1
45.49
D
2
50-59
C
3
60-69
B
4
70-100
A
5
GRADE POINT, GRADE POINT AVERAGE AND CUMULATIVE GRADE POINT
AVERAGE
GRADE POINT (GP)
If a student has a score of 61% in a course that has 3 units, then the student's letter grade is B
and the corresponding point is 4. Therefore the student's grade point (GP) for that course is 3
x 4 = 12.
GP = number of units X corresponding point.
GRADE POINT AVERAGE (GPA)
The grade point average (GPA) is the average of grade points for the semester.
If a student results for the Harmattan Semester are as follows
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
Course
Units
Score %
Letter Grade
Point
GP
MTH 201
3
60
B
4
12
MTH 203
2
54
C
3
6
MTH 207
3
64
B
4
12
MTH 211
3
80
A
5
15
STA 207
4
60
B
4
16
BCH 201
3
50
C
3
9
CSE 201
3
65
B
4
12
GNS 209
2
71
A
5
10
23
92
The entries under (6) are the products of corresponding entries under (2) and (5).
For example the 15 for MTH 211 is obtained from 3 x 5.
The sum of the units is 23
The sum of the GPs is 92
Therefore the average of the GPs is
GPA = 92= 4
.
23
Note that GPA is computed for per semester.
Cumulative Grade Point Average (CGPA)
The cumulative grade point average (CGPA) is the grade point average of all the courses
taken to date.
Example: Suppose our student in 15.2 who is a direct admission student has the following
cumulative records:
HARMATTAN
RAIN SEMESTER
Course
Units Grade GP
Course
MTH 201
3
B
12
MTH 202
3
C
9
MTH 203
2
C
6
MTH 206
2
B
8
MTH 207
3
B
12
MTH 208
3
C
9
MTH 211
3
A
15
MTH 212
4
B
16
STA 207
4
B
16
MTH 210
2
B
8
BCH 201
3
C
9
STA 208
4
B
16
CSE 201
3
B
12
CSE 202
2
B
8
GNS
2
A
10
CSE 204
2
B
8
23
92
Units Grade
GNS 202
2
GPA= 92 = 4
C
24
23
GP
6
98
GPA = 88 = 3.667
CGPA=GPA=4
24
CGPA=92 + 88=180=3.89
23
24 47
GOOD STANDING PROBATION AND WITHDRAWAL
Good standing: At the end of the semester a student is said to be in good standing if his/her
cumulative grade point average (CGPA) is at least 1.0.
Probation: A student shall be on probation for the duration of the semester following a
semester at the end of which he/she is found not to be in good standing.
Withdrawal: A student shall be advised to withdraw from the programme if at the end of the
probational semester he/she still has a CGPA less than 1.0.
GRADUATION REQUIREMENTS
To qualify for the award of the degree of the programme admitted into, a student must be
found worthy in learning if he/she satisfies the following conditions.
-Passed all the University required courses
-Passed all the Department required courses
Satisfied residential requirements in terms of duration of studentship with respect to
mode entry.
CLASSIFICATION OF DEGREE
The degrees awarded by the University are classified according to CGPA as follows:
CGPARANGE
CLASS OF DEGREE
4.50 – 5.00
First Class Honours
3.50 – 4.49
Second Class Upper Honours
2.40 – 3.49
Second Class Lower Honours
1.50 – 2.39
Third Class Honours
1.00 – 1.49
Pass
LEVEL ADVISERS
The level advisers are to assist/advise students on choice of courses. They should also
provide academic guidance and counseling to the students, particularly the week ones.
Students are encouraged to interact adequately with their level advisers, who also
double as their level academic record keepers.
PROGRAMMES OF INSTRUCTION
To be awarded a B. Tech Degree of the University a student must pass all of the
following courses or parts there of as specified on the programme.
UNIVERSITY REQUIREMENTS
The University requires each student of the Department to offer and pass the following
courses in order to qualify for an award of a degree of the University.
Departmental Requirement for B. Tech (Science Laboratory Technology). Restricted
electives in ***
PLAN OF OFFERING COURSES
HARMATTAN SEMESTER 100LEVEL
COUSE CODE
TITLE
UNIT
MTH 101
Elementary Mathematics 1
5
BIO 101
General Biology 1
3
PHY 101
General Physics 1
4
CHM 101
Introductory Chemistry 1
4
GNS 101
Use of English 1
2
FAA 101
Fundamental of Drawing
2
PHY 103
Experimental Physics 1
1
BIO 103
Experimental Biology 1
1
CHM 191
Experimental Chemistry 1
1
LIB 101
Intro to use of Library
0
TOTAL
23
RAIN SEMESTER 100 LEVEL
COURSE CODE
TITLE
UNIT
MTH 102
Elementary Mathematics 11
5
BIO 102
General Biology 11
3
PHY 102
General Physics 11
4
CHM 102
Introductory Chemistry 11
4
GNS 102
Use of English11
2
PHY 104
Experimental Physics 11
1
BIO 104
Experimental Biology 11
1
CHM 192
Experimental Chemistry 11
1
CSE 100
Introduction to Computing
1
TOTAL
24
HARMATTAN SEMESTER 200 LEVEL
COURSE CODE
TITLE
UNIT
BIO 201
SYSTEMATIC BIOLOGY
2
BOT 201
REVIEW OF PLANT KINGDOM
3
MCB 201
GENERAL MICROBIOLOGY
4
CHM 211
BASIC INORGANIC CHEMISTRY
4
CHM 231
BASIC PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY
3
SLT 203
WORKSHOP TECHNOLOGY & PRACTICE
2
GNS 207
SCIENCE IN HISTORY
2
TOTAL
20
RAIN SEMESTER 200 LEVEL
COURSE CODE
TITLE
UNIT
SLB 202
BIOLOGICAL LABORATORY TECHNIQUES
2
CHM 252
BASIC PRINCIPLES OF CHEMICAL PROCESSES
2
SLP 204
ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS
AND BASIC INSTRUMENTATION
3
SLP 208
ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT & INSTRUMENTATION
3
ZOO 202
REVIEW OF ANIMAL KINGDOM
3
GNS 202
LOGIC IN PHILOSOPHY
2
CHM 222
BASIC ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
4
TOTAL
19
HARMATTAN SEMESTER 300 LEVEL
COURSE CODE
TITLE
UNIT
SLC 301
CHEMISTRY LABORATORY TECHNIQUES
2
STA 207
STATISTICS FOR PHYSICAL SCIENCES
3
SLP 305
INSTRUMENT MAINTENANCE
3
SLP 307
PHYSICS LABORATORY TECHNIQUES AND
PRACTICE
2
SLT 309
QUALITY ASSURANCE TECHNOLOGY
2
CSE 201
BASIC COMPUTER TECHNOLOGY
2
SLT 315
PRODUCTION MANAGEMENT
2
GNS 301
INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION SKILLS
2
TOTAL
18
RAIN SEMESTER 300 LEVEL
COURSE CODE
TITLE
UNIT
SLC 302
COLOUR CHEMISTRY & TECHNOLOGY
3
MTH 210
MATHEMATICS METHODS 1
4
SLP 306
APPLIED ELECTRICITY
4
SLT 308
PHOTOGRAPHY & ILLUSTRATIONS
2
SLT 310
GLASS BLOWING TECHNOLOGY
2
GNS 302
INTRODUCTION TO ORAL COMMUNICATION
2
SLT 314
HAZARDS & SAFETY IN THE LABORATORY
3
TOTAL
20
HARMATTAN SEMESTER 400 LEVEL
COURSE CODE
TITLE
UNIT
SLT 401
LABORATORY ORGANIZATION & MANAGEMENT
2
SLT 403
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3
SLT 405
SAMPLING TECHNIQUES
2
SLC 407
GENERAL BIOCHEMISTRY
3
SLC 409
WATER & WASTE WATER TREATMENT
2
SLC 411
ANALYSIS OF RAW MATERIALS & DRUGS
3
SLT 413
DATA MANAGEMENT
3
TOTAL
18
RAIN SEMESTER 400 LEVEL
SLT 492 INDUSTRIAL TRAINING
ATTACHMENT (4 UNITS)
HARMATTAN SEMESTER 500 LEVEL
COURSE CODE
SLT 501
SLT 591
TITLE
UNIT
LABORATORY ORGANIZATION & ADMIN II
2
OPTION ELECTIVES
12
FREE ELECTIVES
3
SUPERVISED PROJECT
3
TOTAL
20
RAIN SEMESTER 500 LEVEL
COURSE CODE
SLT 592
TITLE
UNIT
OPTION ELECTIVES
12
FREE ELECTIVES
3
SUPERVISED PROJECT
3
TOTAL
18
BIOLOGY/MICROBIOLOGY OPTION
500 LEVEL HARMATTAN SEMESTER
OPTION ELECTIVES
COURSE CODE
TITLE
L T P U
SLB 543
FOOD PROCESSING & ANALYSIS
2 0 3 3
SLB 545
ADVANCED BIOLOGICAL LABORATORY
TECHNIQUES & PRACTICE
SLB 403
SLB 555
2 0 3 3
MICROBIAL PHYSIOLOGY
AND METABOLISM
2 0 3 3
GENERAL VIROLOGY
2 0 3 3
FREE ELECTIVES
COURSE CODE
TITLE
L T P U
SLB 549
SOIL MICROBIOLOGY
1 0 3 2
SLB 551
FOOD MICROBIOLOGY
1 0 3 2
SLB 503
ENVIRONMENTAL MICROBIOLOGY
1 0 3 1
BIOLOGY/MICROBIOLOGY OPTION
500 LEVEL RAIN SEMESTER
OPTION ELECTIVES
COURSE CODE
TITLE
L T P U
SLB 542
INDUSTRIAL MICROBIOLOGY
SLB 556
HISTOLOGY
&
2 1 3 4
HISTOCHEMICAL 2 0 3 3
TECHNIQUES
SLB 546
ENVIROMENTAL
POLLUTION
& 2 0 3 3
MANAGEMENT
SLB 548
BIOLOGY OF STORED PRODUCTS
2 0 32
FREE ELECTIVES
COURSE CODE
TITLE
L T P U
SLB 552
PETROLEUM MICROBIOLOGY
1 0 3 3
SLB 554
ENZYME BIOTECHNOLOGY
1 0 3 3
CHEMISTRY OPTION
500 LEVEL HARMATTAN SEMESTER
OPTION ELECTIVES
COURSE CODE
SLC 523
TITLE
L T P U
INSTRUMENTATION & ANALYTICAL
CHEMISTRY
2 0 3 3
SLC 527
INDUSTRIAL CHEMISTRY PROCESS
1 0 3 2
SLC 547
PETROCHEMISTRY
2 0 0 2
SLC 541
ENVIRONMENTAL CHEMISTRY
3 0 0 3
FREE ELECTIVES
COURSE CODE
TITLE
L T P U
SLC 511
RADIONUCLEAR CHEMISTRY
2 0 0 2
SLC 535
POLYMER CHEMISTRY
2 0 0 2
SLC 537
DYE & TEXTILE CHEMISTRY TECHNOLOGY
1 0 3 2
SLC 539
WOOD PULP & PAPER CHEMISTRY
2 0 02
SLC 531
CHEMISTRY OF LANTHANIDES & ACTINIDES
1 0 0 1
CHEMISTRY OPTION
500 LEVEL RAIN SEMESTER
OPTION ELECTIVES
COURSE CODE
SLC 522
SLC 524
TITLE
L T P U
ADVANCED CHEMISTRY LABORATORY
TECHNIQUES & PRACTICE
2 0 3 3
NUTRITIONAL BIOCHEMISTRY
1 0 3 2
SLC 526
THEORY OF MOLECULAR SPECTROSCOPY
2 0 0 2
SLC 528
CHEMISTRY OF NATURAL PRODUCTS
2 0 0 2
SLC 530
FOOD CHEMISTRY
1 0 3 2
SLC 532
COORDINATION CHEMISTRY
1 0 0 1
FREE ELECTIVES
COURSE CODE
TITLE
L T P U
SLC 534
HETEROCYTIC CHEMISTRY
2 0 0 2
SLC 536
NON-AQUEOUS SOLVENTS
1 00 1
SLC 538
QUANTUM CHEMISTRY
2 0 0 2
PHYSICS/ELECTRONICS
500 LEVEL HARMATTAN SEMESTER
OPTION ELECTIVES
COURSE CODE
TITLE
L T P U
SLP 503
DIGITAL ELECTRONICS
2 0 3 3
SLT 505
ADVANCED LABORATORY PRACTICALS
0 1 6 3
SLP 507
COMPUTATIONAL PHYSICS
2 1 0 3
SLP 509
NUCLEAR & PARTICLE PHYSICS 1
2 0 3 3
SLP 531
NUCLEAR ENGINEERING PHYSICS 1
2 0 3 3
FREE ELECTIVES
COURSE CODE TITLE
L T P U
SLP 511
VACUUM PHYSICS & FILM THIN TECHNOLOGY
3 0 0 3
SLP 513
FUNDAMENTALS OF ENERGY PROCESS
3 0 0 3
SLP 536
ELECTRONIC DEVICES: DESIGNS & FABRICATION
2 0 3 3
SLP 517
FIELD GEOLOGY & INTERPRETATION
2 0 3 3
SLP 519
PRINCIPLES OF GEOPHYSICS
2 0 3 3
SLP 503
LASER PHYSICS (APPLIED OPTICS)
2 0 3 3
PHYSICS/ELECTORNICS
500 LEVEL RAIN SEMESTER
OPTION ELECTIVES
COURSE CODE
TITLE
L T P U
SLP 502
ACOUSTICS
1 0 3 2
SLP 504
MATERIAL SCIENCE
2 0 3 3
SLP 506
BASIC FLUID MECHANICS
SLT 508
VECTOR & TENSOR ANALYSIS
2 1 0 3
SLP 510
NUCLEAR & PARTICLE PHYSICS II
2 1 3 4
FREE ELECTIVES
COURSE CODE
TITLE
L T P U
SLP 511
SOLAR ENERGY
1 0 3 2
SLP 514
ATOMIC & MOLECULAR SPECTROSCOPY
1 0 3 2
SLP 516
SEMICONDUCTOR TECHNOLOGY
2 0 0 2
COURSE CONTENT
SLT 202- BIOLOGICAL LABORATORY TECHNIQUES I
Use of simple and compound microscope, fixatives for plants and tissues processing,
microtomy, stains, staining techniques and histochemistry methods. Types of blood cells,
structure and characteristics.
SLP 204- ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS AND BASIC ELECTRONICS
Network analysis using kirchoff's voltage law (kvl), kirchoff's current law (kcl), superposition
and Thevenin's theorem. Response; periodic waveforms and their effective values, power and
energy in electric circuit, single time constant circuits. AC circuits vacuum thermionic
devices e.g. valves C.R.T Junction and zener diodes and their applications.
SLP 208- ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS & INSTRUMENTATION
Transistors, Bipolar Junction transistor (BT J), Field-effect transistors (FET), unijunction
transistors (UJT), Transistors configurations, output and input characteristics Transistor
biasing and stability. H-parameters, Darlington pair Amplifiers. Multistage Amplifiers.
Feedback fundamentals. Multivibrator, Operational Amplifier (OA) and its applications.
SLC 301- CHEMISTRY LABORATORY TECHNIQUES & PRACTICE
Volumetric Analysis, Calibration of volumetric apparatus, Acidimetry and Alkalimetry;
installation and maintenance of balances; sensitivity weighing methods, Methods of
Expressing the Concentration of Solutions Equivalent Weights and conversions -Oxidation reduction and participation litrations, PH measurement & butter solutions.
SLT 302- COLOUR CHEMISTRY AND TECHNOLOGY
Colour and constitution. Chemistry, properties of dyes and pigments. Classification of dyes
and fibres. Dyeing mechanisms. Preparation and dyeing of natural and synthetic fibres.
Colour fastness properties. Quality control procedures and colouration industry.
SLP 305-INSTRUMENT MAINTENANCE
Electrical and Electronic components Electrical quantities, Ohm's law in circuitry, resistors,
capacitors, semi-conducts; transducers; photo emissive, photo-multipliers and photodiodes.
Measuring instruments, Analytical, Audio-visual, and diagnostics. Care and safety; practical
use of measuring instrument Study of components layout: Circuit training, referring to
manufacturer's data. Reading circuit diagrams; repair differential electronic devices,
Maintenance, services, and repair procedures of electric devices, electrical and electronic
circuits, diagrams and designs, types of maintenance. Factors affecting maintenance.
Corrective maintenance. Power supplies.
SLP 306-APPLIED ELECTRICITY
A.C. circuits using complex Analysis, Low noise Amplifiers design, oscillators, Rectification
and smoothing circuits, Filters, Regulators, power supply design. Integrated circuits and their
applications introduction to logic gates and their applications.
SLP 307- PHYSICS LABORATORY TECHNIQUES AND PRACTICE
General Laboratory Techniques in mechanics; construction graduation of meter rules,
production and construction of standard weight and helical springs pulleys and force diagram
boards, lever system, spring balance, thermometers. Construction of resonant tubes and
sonometers boxes, simple plane mirror. Use and maintenance of optical equipment
cathetometer, microscopes interferometers and lasers. Construction of reflectors, p-n junction
transistors and solar cells.
SLT 308- PHOTOGRAPHY AND ILLUSTRATION
Fundamentals of light and vision, the geometry of image formation, optical aberrations and
lens performance, camera and camera lenses, optical filters. Introduction to the chemistry of
photography, photographic process, colour photography, manufacture of films, plates and
papers: special applications of photography.
SLC 309- QUALITY ASSURANCE TECHNOLOGY
Chemical, biological and aesthetic methods of, quality of food and beverages including
parameters such as taste, flavour, appearance, moisture and fatty acid contents, minerals,
contaminants etc. Statistical methods of quality assurance, sampling plan, process control etc
and marketability of stored products.
SLT 314- HAZARDS AND SAFETY IN THE LABORATORY
Common laboratory accidents/injuries and their control measure
First aid treatment of more common injuries encountered in laboratories
Description, construction, location and contents of first box
Avoidance of waste improvision techniques, Installation of common laboratory equipment.
Car and maintenance of laboratory equipment Standard laboratory fittings and services:
correct use and care.
SLT 315- PRODUCTION MANAGEMENT
Production system, Factory Location, Capacity., Process Planning: Facility Planning, Product
Design, Inventory Management, Production, Planning and control, Workshop, Value
Analysis.
SLT 310- GLASS-BLOWING TECHNOLOGY
The origin, types and nature of glass, sample analysis of glass composition.
Properties of different glasses commonly used in the laboratories.
Design of glassblowing workshop, identification of various tools and equipment used in the
glassblowing workshops
Hazard of glassblowing, safety measures and regulation. Glass tubing storage
Construction of simple glass apparatus, use of bends, T-junctions, ring deals.
SLT 401- LABORATORY ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT I
Planning and designs' of teaching, industrial and research laboratories, Stores policy; stores
design and management Laboratory Administration maintenance-inspection of laboratory
premises and equipment Handling of Service Departments and Special Purpose Rooms,
Glassware, washing .and sterilizing facilities; radioisotope laboratories; photographic units;
cold-rooms: hot-rooms; animal houses; reprographic units; laboratory workshops; audiovisual aids, visual aids; glassblowing shops.
SLT 403- RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Project proposal-Aims and objectives, scope and methodology. Design and execution of
scientific experiments and projects. Different types of scientific experiments. Scientific
measurements and data collections. Literature search and retrieval. Factors affecting accuracy
of experimental measurements. Research work-review of previous works and justification for
the project. Main investigations- theoretical consideration, experimental works, field works
and data collections, and designs. Analysis of data / results-collation of findings, assessment
of accuracy, further investigations, result consideration and objective. Documentation- format
of write up, major headings and sub headings, citing of references, tables, and figures, listing
of references, appendices and phraseology.
SLT 405- SAMPLING TECHNIQUES
Sample collection grab, composite sampling. Sampling equipments; metals and non-metals,
Sampling preservation, sampling labeling checks on sampling techniques, sampling custody.
Sampling of micro-organisms, selection of test organisms for assay.
SLC 407 - GENERAL BIOCHEMISTRY
Chemistry of amino acids, proteins and their derivatives; methods of isolation and
identification, acidity and alkalinity, pH and PK values and their effects on cellular activities;
Buffers. Chemistry/Structure of Carbohydrate, lipids and nucleic, acids, primary, Secondary,
Tertiary and Quaternary structures. Nomenclature of nucleotides; Effect of acid and alkali on
hydrolysis of nucleic acids. Structures and functions of major cell components; prokaryotic
versus eukaryotic organisms.
SLT 409- WATER AND WASTE WATER TREATMENT
Background, sample water analysis, sources of water pollutants, flow, dispension,
degradation amounts and composition of wastes, biological aspects, particles, transport in soil
and ground water sinks for water sinks for water treatment, conventional processes in
handling sewage, water treatment, plant wastes, advanced waste treatment. Effects of water
pollution.
SLT 411-ANALYSIS OF SELECTED MATERIALS INCLUDING DRUGS
Various techniques in use for the analysis of crude materials. Analysis of environmental
samples, e.g. pesticide residue, hydrocarbons and air. Analysis of heavy metal contaminants.
Organic functional groups and drug analysis. Sol-geochemical analysis.
SLT 413-INFORMATION AND DATA MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS
Information Systems components. Data, information and knowledge. Information flow.
Information as a resource. Organizations and management. Information system as a
sociotechnical systems. Planning and development of strategic information systems.
Applications of information Technology for competitive advantages and business innovation
Systems. Systems and Management Concepts. Managerial decision making, cultural
dimension of information system development. Operational needs of information systems,
information system planning, control and maintenance. Operational of professionalism: Code
conduct, business ethics and the professional. Professionalism in relation to quality miracle.
SLT 415-SEMINAR
This course provides a forum in which students, discuss current topics and careers in the
fields of science laboratory technology. Students also have an opportunity to synthesize their
cooperative work experience with practical experiences.
SLT 501- LABORATORY ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT II
Management Techniques and functions: The concept and relevance of management to
laboratory practice. Selection and Management of Staff Organization of laboratory Practice
Elements of law. Common and statutory laws and relevance to laboratory practice such as
health and safety, The basic approach.The health and safety at work etc Act of 1974
SLP 503- DIGITAL ELECTRONICS
The transistor as a switch, power dissipation base over drive storage drive and switching
speed, logic gates: NAND OR with close logic, the TTl AND gate, Truth table, noise
margins, Television pole, open collector and triastate, TTl, CMOS, NMOS, ECl
Combinational systems, Bolean algebra, identities, De-Morgan's law, Karmaugh maps. Quin
McChusky minimization by computer aided techniques. The half and full adder. Hi-flop: RS, J-K and D types edge and level trigger, master slave types, the shift register, circuit
techniques, Oscillation sine wave amplitude control. sequencing frequency stability,
waveform discrimination. Practical ramp generators. Conversion techniques, frequency to
voltage staircase generators analogue to digital D to A, Termination of pulsed lines, Beargon
diagram, low noise amplifier design, use to discrete components for minimum noise.
SLP 504- MATERIAL SCIENCE
Metals, Polymers, Ceramics and their properties. Atomic structure and Bonding Crystal
structure. Imperfection in crystals and their effect on crystal properties. Radiation Damage.
Strengthening mechanism phase transformation. The electron microscope and its application
in material science. Polymetric materials. Molecular structure of ceramics.
SLP 505-ADVANCED LABORATORY PRACTICALS
Instrumentation, Design and construction of circuit training, soldering, circuit Analysis,
Reading circuit diagram. Electronic Maintenance.
SLP 506- BASIC FLUID MECHANICS
Fluid statics; Newtonian and non-Newtonian fluids, forces on submerged surfaces. Equations
of fluid motion. Flow measurements, forces exerted by flowing fluids, laminar and turbulent
flow. Reynolds number flow in pipes and channels, dimensional analysis, one two or three
dimensional steady flows of a comprehensible fluid, critical flow, small amplitude waves,
shock waves fluid machinery.
SLP 507 - COMPUTATIONAL PHYSICS
Use of numerical methods in physics; various methods of numerical integration,
differentiation, numerical solutions of some differential equations in physics, Statistical
analysis of experimental data.
SLP 508- VECTOR AND TENSOR ANALYSIS
Vector algebra. Vector, dot and cross products. Equation of curves and surfaces. Vector
differentiation and applications. Gradient, divergence and curl. Vector intergrate, line surface
and volume integral. Green 2 stroke's and divergence theorems. Tensor products of vector
spaces. Tensor algebra. Symmetry. Cartesian Tensor.
SLP 509- NUCLEAR AND PARTICLE PHYSICS I
Nuclear structure, Nuclear properties nuclear size, nuclear masses, nuclear forces, nuclearnucleon scatterinq, nuclear models. Radio-active Decay: Alpha, beta, gamma decays. Nuclear
reactions.
SLP 510- NUCLEAR AND PARTICLE PHYS·ICS II
Nuclear
instrumentations
spectroscopy.
Neutron
and
physics:
radiation
detection
Production,
techniques,
detection
of
detectors,
neutrons.
nuclear
Fission
and
fussion. Nuclear reactor and nuclear energy. Elementary particles: Conservation laws, partial
classification. Strong electromagnetic and weak interactions.
SLP 511- VACUUM PHYSICS AND THIN FILM TECHNOLOGY
Design and characteristics of vacuum systems; different types of vacuum pumps and their
uses, measurement of low pressure, different types of pressure gauges, use of valves and
other vacuum materials. Industrial uses of vacuum systems, vacuum heating, furnaces,
induction heating, electron bombardment heating. Vacuum evaporation by various means,
evaporation sources and techniques, substrate and surfaces preparation for thin film
deposition in vacuum. Epitaial grow processes. Heat treatment for thin film, compatibility of
film and substrates, sputtering techniques, deposition of thin insulating films by n. f.
sputtering, preparation and use of masks for thin film deposition. Characterization and
application of thin films.
SLP 513- FUNDAMENTALS OF ENERGY PROCESSES
Theory of modern energy conversion, transmission and storage methods; windmills, Heat
engines, Classical engines, Ocean thermal energy converters, thermoelectric, therrninonic,
fuel cells, production of hydrogen,electrolytic, chemical thermolytic, photolytic, hydrogen
storage. Photoelectron converters. photo thermo voltaic converts, Biomass, photosynthesis,
production of methanol and ethanol from vegetable matter.
SLP 514-ATOMIC AND MOLECULAR SPECTROSCOPY
The hydrogen atom. Relativistic effects and spin Identical particles and symmetry. Many
electron atoms. Coupling schemes and vectors model Zeeman effects, Hyperfien structure.
The diatomic molecule, the Frank-Condon principle. X-ray diffraction. Microwave methods
Resonance phenomena; ES, MMR and optical pumping and Mossbauer scattering.
SLP 517 - FIELD GEOLOGY & INTERPRETATION
A field course involving the fundamentals of structural geology; descriptions of
deformational structures; field mapping techniques and the detailed interpretation of
topographic and geologic maps. Determination of geometric forms of contours; interpretation
of surface data, Three-point problem.
SLP 519- PRINCIPLES OF GEOPHYSICS
Gravity and magnetic methods and data interpretation, spontaneous potential and electrical
resistivity methods, concepts or electrical potential, current density and conductivity of rocks,
potential distribution in a homogenous earth and apparent resistivity: ER field equipment, its
use and data interpretation.
SLC 521-APPLIED SPECTROSCOPY
A survey of spectroscopic and optical methods with emphasis on their application in
elucidation of structures of organic, inorganic and organometalic compounds. Principles and
applications of UV, IR, NMR and Mass spectroscopy.
SLC 523-INSTRUMENTAL METHODS OF ANALYSIS
Spectrophotometry, Colourmetry and Flamephotometry Quantitative analysis. X-ray
methods, flourescence methods, electorgravimetry, coulmetry, potetiometry conductometric
titrations, voltametry and amperometry and refractometry.
SLC 522-ADVANCED CHEMISTRY LABORATORY TECHNIQUES & PRACTICE
Chemical Recovery of Substances Purification of Organic Compounds. Solvent Extraction,
Gravimetric and Centrifugation techniques refractometry and chromatographic methods
(various types).
SLC 525- RADIOCHEMISTRY AND NUCLEAR CHEMISTRY
Natural radioactions fusion, fission decay processes, nature of radiation. Nuclear models.
energetics of nuclear reaction. Principles and measurement of radioactivity. Applications of
radioactivity.
SLC 527 -INDUSTRIAL CHEMISTRY PROCESS
Hydrogen and carbon monoxide synthesis, gas, exoprocess, water gas, source of hydrogen
and its application. Industrial organic materials, Raw materials. Technical and economic
principles of processes and product routes. Flow diagrams. Selected oils and fats, soaps and
detergents, sugar, varnishes, plastics, wood-pulp and paper. Environmental pollution.
SLC 529- PETROCHEMISTRY
Petroleum in the contemporary energy scene. Nature, classification and composition of crude
petroleum and natural gases. Distribution of petroleum and natural gas resources (the global
and Nigerian situations). Petroleum technology survey of refinery products and processes.
Petrochemicals in industrial raw materials. Prospects for the petrochemicals industry in
Nigeria.
SLC 531- CHEMISTRY OF LANTHANIDES AND ACTINIDES
Second and third row transition elements. Lanthanide and Actinides (f block) chemistry is
discussed in terms of electronic configuration, characteristic oxidation states, spectroscopy,
magnetic properties, complex formation and separation processes.
The elements and the position of the two series in the periodic table. Comparison of the two
series.
SLC 533- FOOD MICROBIOLOGY
The occurrence and interactions of microorganism with food. Intrinsic extrinsic parameters of
foods that affect microbial growth. Methods of detecting the presence of microbes in foods.
Milk, meat and water microbiology. Effects of microbial growth of foods-fermentation,
spoilage and food-borne disease; food sanitation and microbiological food quality control.
SLC 535- POLYMER CHEMISTRY
Large scale industrial polymerization processes. Polymer Tech. polymer processing,
injection, extrusion, compression and transfer moulding of thermoplastics. Polymer additives.
Polymer surface coating and adhesive.
SLC 537- DYE AND TEXTILE CHEMISTRY
Principle of yarn manufacture both natural and man-made. Basic machine processes
involved. Textile processing, bleaching, dyeing theory and printing. Surface activity. Colour
fastness and factors affecting it. Colouring matters. Management problems in textile
industries.
SLC 539- WOOD, PULP AND PAPER CHEMISTRY
Forest conservation, exploitation and aforestation. Species, anatomy, physical properties and
classification of wood. Preparation of wood from pulping. Physical and chemical methods of
pulping. Bleaching reagents and pulp bleaching. Pulp- properties and uses.
SLC 524- NUTRITIONAL BIOCHEMISTRY
Food nutrients; Energy values of foods and energy expenditure by mammalians. Nutritive
values of foods carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins, mineral elements and water
Nutritional disorders prevention and therapy. Nutritional status and nutrient requirements.
Recommended dietary allowances. Assessment of nutritional status. Nutrient requirements in
relation to physical activity and ageing, diet and disease obesity and under nutrition.
SLC 526- THEORY OF MOLECULAR SPECTROSCOPY
Quantum theory of rotation and vibration. Theory of microwave, Raman, UV, Visible and
NMR spectroscopy. General introduction to electron spin resonance. Massbauer effect,
nuclear quadrupole resonance and other modern techniques.
SLC 528- NATURAL PRODUCTS CHEMISTRY
Chemistry of terpenoids, steroids, and alkaloids, antibiotics, lavanoids. Prostaglandins and
chlorophylls. Other natural products of pharmaceutical importance. General methods of
isolation, separation, purification and structural determination of the natural products.
Classifications, Discussion of chemistry of important members; Biogenesis.
SLC 530- FOOD CHEMISTRY
Occurrence, structure and functions of carbohydrates, protein, fats and oil, physical and
chemical properties. Starch behavior during baking and staling of bread. Glucose syrupchemistry of enzymatic and non-enzymatic productions. Ripening and maturing of fruits
pectic substances and their uses. The chemistry of fermentation process in the food industry.
Effect of enzymes in foods Enzymatic and non-enzymatic browning. Oil rancidity.
SLC 532-ADVANCED COORDINATION CHEMISTRY
Definition, Recognition and Applications of Co-ordination, Nomenclature, Co- ordination
formular and Isomerism in complexes. Stereochemistry of complex molecules. Theories of
structure and bonding. Physical methods of structural investigation. Magnetic properties.
Absorption and vibrational spectra. The spectrochemical series. The Nephelauxetic series and
the John-Teller distortions. Stabilization of unusual oxidation states by complex formation.
Thermodynamic stability of complex compounds, the stability constant, the chelote effect.
Preparation and reactions of complexes.
SLC 534- HETEROCYCLIC CHEMISTRY
The synthetic and mechanistic aspects of fused heterocyclic system particularly Quinolines,
Isoqinolines, Bezofurans, Benzothiophenes, Indoles, Bezqpyrylium salts, Coumarin
Chromonnes. Application of heterocyclic systems in drug synthesis.
SLC 536- NON-AQUEOUS SOLVENTS
Classification and general characteristics, solute-solvent interaction. Otonic solvents.
Oxyhalide solvents. Liquid halides. Dinitrogen tetroxide, sulphur dioxide.
SLC 538- QUANTUM CHEMISTRY
Prostulates of Quantum mechanics; operators; angular momentum; solution of the hydrogen
atom problem. Theory of atomic spectra. Self-consistent Field theory. Computational aspects.
Peturbation and variation methods.
SLB 542-INDUSTRIAL MICROBIOLOGY
Nature of industrial microbiology, microorganism of industrial importance; aspects of the
biology of moulds, yeasts, bacteria, actinomycetes and viruses of importance in various
fermentation. Culture techniques and maintenance of selected cultures. Mutation, strain
selection and development, hybridization; media formulation and economic; optimization of
fermentation media at laboratory scale, perimeter design operation; Antifoams; aspects of
biochemical engineering; patents and patent law.
SLB 543- FOOD PROCESSING AND ANALYSIS
Principles and practice of food processing. Techniques of processing and preservation of
Nigerian foods with regards to their physical-chemical properties. Canning containers, outline
of canning operation, principal spoilage organisms in canned foods. Use of radiations in food
preservation. Insect contaminants as spoilage organisms. Laboratory Examination of canned
foods. Methods of detecting contaminants in foods.
SLB
545-
ADVANCED
BIOLOGICAL
LABORATORY
TECHNIQUES
&
PRACTICE
Preparation of physiological salt solutions and buffer solutions for use in physiology and
pharmacology. Dilution methods of drugs. Aerating systems and temperature control.
Surgical instruments; use and care of catherters, cannule, respiratory, pumps, mercury
manometers. The recorders (polygraphs.) Care and use of transducers. Recording and
measurement of physiological changes. Study of electronic and photoelectric equipment
commonly used in laboratories and their applications. Preparation and measurement of buffer
solutions. Buffering of perfusion fluids and other biological fluids. Microbiological
Techniques.
SLB 548- BIOLOGY OF STORED PRODUCTS
Invertebrate pests of stored fish, wild life products, meat, tuber root crops, vegetables, fruits,
cereals, legumes, leather, and timber, the detailed life cycles, identification of various stages,
behavioural pattern and structural adaptations enabling them to act as efficient pests. The
effect of environmental conditions on the abundance of invertebrate pests Vertebrate pests of
stored products and the damage they cause. Microorganisms as pest factors which influence
or inhibit their continued spread. The effect of storage structure on the biology pests.
SLB 549- SOIL MICROBIOLOGY
Characteristics of Soil environment; microbial and fauna of soil; microbial activities in soil,
nitrogen cycle, carbon cycle; mineral transformation by microorganisms; Ecological
relationship among the soil pathogens; effect of peptides on soil microorganisms;
biodegradation and biofuels generation.
SLB 550- MEDICAL MICROBIOLOGY
Pathogenic bacteria, fungi and viruses of both human and veterinary importance. Concept of
pathogenecity and virulence with respect to development of diseases. Clinical samples: pus,
urine, CSF, blood aspirates, faeces-handling and laboratory processing methods.
SLB 551- ANALYTICAL MICROBIOLOGY AND QUALITY CONTROL
Microorganism as reagents in quantitative analysis, selection of test organism for assay
(antibiotics, amino acids, vitamins, etc) responses of microorganisms use in assays; obtaining
and measuring response of microorganism. Preparation, of assay samples; methods of assay;
interpretations of results; aspects of quality control; plant and equipment sanitation;
microbiological standards and specifications.
SLB 552- PETROLEUM MICROBIOLOGY
Origin and chemical evolution of the atmosphere, hydrosphere and biosphere, biological
oceanography. Morphology and biostratography of major group of microfossil. Biological
origin and accumulation of petroleum and sedimentary basis. Hydrobiology, petroleum
pollution and its source and biological control. Oil spillage. Petroleum degrading
microorganism, hydrocarbonoblastic bacteria. Metallomonass bacteria that cause rusting of
oil pipes.
SLB 554- ENZYME BIOTECHNOLOGY
Principles of industrial large-scale production of enzymes (techniques in fermentations)
Large-scale extraction and purification. Principles and Designs of immobilized-enzymes
reactors. Characteristics of free versus immobilized enzymes. Immobilized coenzymes and
white cells. Enzyme utilization in industrial processes.
SLB 555- GENERAL VIROLOGY
Historical background and development of Virology; Structure and composition of viruses;
cultivation, isolation and identification of viruses; Antiviral agents such as interferon,
bacteriophages; plant and animal viruses.
PROSPECTS OF SCIENCE
LABORATORY
TECHNOLOGY
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF SCIENCE LABORATORY TECHNOLOGY
PROGRAMME
Consequent upon increase in the number of industries and establishments in the preseventy and early seventies which led to astronomical increase in industrial and technological
activities in the country then, there was a re-orientation in the education policy of the country.
Technical education was therefore accorded more prominence and this led to the emergence
of several polytechnics and colleges of technology with one of the newly introduced courses
being Science Technology which later transformed into Science Laboratory Technology.
Science Laboratory Technology was first introduced in 1948 (exactly sixty years ago),
as an in-service training scheme for Laboratory Assistants and Attendants in the then
University College, Ibadan. The scope and the content of the programme have now been
widened to take care of industrial, research and teaching laboratories. Through the unrelented
effort of the Nigerian Institute of Science Technology (now Nigerian Institute of Science
Laboratory Technology), the course became a full professional course with its graduate now
playing notable roles in all the sectors of the country's economy.
Goals and Objectives of the Programme
The following are some of the goals and objectives of the programme;
1.
Carry out chemical analysis and quality control in industry (oil, food, brewing,
detergent, textiles e.t.c.) hospitals, schools, colleges, and research institutions.
2.
Carry cut general, physical, biological and chemical analyses in industrial and
academic laboratories.
3.
Carry out maintenance of instrumentation in physics and electronic laboratories.
4.
Carry out biochemical analysis and experiments in hospitals, schools, colleges, and
institutes.
5.
Prepare students for employment in related work such as sales, marketing,
administration and management in the industries and also for self employment.
Specialization
A student of Science Laboratory Technology has the option to specialize
in any of the following areas:
-
Chemistry/Applied Chemistry
-
Microbiology
-
Biology/Microbiology
-
Geology
-
Biochemistry
-
Chemistry/Biochemistry
-
Instrumentation
-
Physics with Electronics
Prospects
Since Science Laboratory Technology involves the application of pure science to solving the
numerous problems of mankind and the profession is widely dedicated to human services and
to the control of material world so as to ensure a smooth National Technological
development, the service of a Science Laboratory Technologist in every sector of the
economy is therefore indispensable while the range of her area of need is-broad and varied.
1.
In the Food and Agricultural sector:
Among the basic and fundamental human needs is food, without which survival will be very
difficult. The need can only be met and satisfied by the application of scientific fanning
which involves the use of pesticides, fertilizers, and scientific storage systems. Science
Laboratory Technologist comes to the aid of the farmers by making available "artificial
manure".
Science Laboratory Technologists in the government and industry, aware of the need to
control pests, weeds and other diseases without contaminating the environment, are devoting
great efforts to toxicological studies on herbicide and pesticides. Insects have also been
eradicated by radiation using a measure dose of gamma radiation. The production and
application of all the enumerated pest control drugs and other methods are handiwork of the
Science Laboratory Technologist.
2.
In chemical Industries:
Industries had been in Nigeria since the olden days but crude methods, low skills and
operation, the knowledge of the technology, source and quality of power had so much
disturbed the growth and development of industry. However, by taking Science Laboratory
Technology beyond the confinement of the laboratory, a lot had been achieved to meet the
aspiration of a country undergoing industrialization. Virtually every manufacturing industry
relies very much on chemical productsand in most cases on chemical processes as well. The
contributions of SLT are noticeable in the following industries - chemical and allied products,
brewing, power and steel, cosmetics and toiletries, starch and starch products, textile,
footware and leather products, paper and paper products, electronic goods, photographic
materials, geology and mining, telecommunication, water resources development, radio and
television broadcasting, petroleum industry and plastic' products industry. In the
aforementioned industries, Science Laboratory Technologists are involved in product
development, quality control, prediction, sales and management.
3.
In Paints, Ceramics and Glass Industries:
The job of a Science Laboratory Technologist in the paint industry includes the development,
production and quality control analysis of the paints. Moreover, Science Laboratory
Technologist has through the knowledge of Chemistry and Physics, produced ceramics that
can withstand the stress and heat imposed by supersonic speeds of aircraft and by nuclear
reactors. The production of glass, which started from the Egyptians, involved the use of hand
operations. Today, the industry has been fully and completely mechanized. The process
involves mixing sand, soda, lime and other materials together and melted together in a
furnace at a very high temperature to produce molten glass. While the glass is still molten, it
is shaped as desired and made to cool to form a rigid piece. This is what we refer to as
scientific glassblowing in SLT.
4.
In the Health sector:
Science Laboratory Technologists are involved in carrying out chemical and biochemical
analyses and experiments in hospitals. They are equally involved in the synthesis of drugs in
pharmaceutical industries as well as in drug development and quality control.
5.
In National Defence:
The contribution of Science Laboratory Technology to national defence is very multifarious
ranging from the development of weapons, communication, to the application of scientific
medicine. Science Laboratory Technologists play prominent roles in both the production and
quality control sections of the defence industry.
6.
In Crime Detection and Control:
Science Laboratory Technologists are employed in forensic laboratories where fingerprints
are used as a unique means of personal identification, the basis of which is that each
individual pattern is both unique and unchanging throughout one's lifetime. A thorough
examination of the fingerprints will help the Science Laboratory Technologist, serving as a
detective, to identify the criminal. No wonder then that Science Laboratory Technologists are
usually given employment in the forces and other law enforcement agencies such as Army,
Navy, Airforce, Police, NAFDAC, EFCC, and ICPC.
7.
In Schools, Colleges, Hospitals and Research institutions:
As earlier on stated in the general objectives of the programme, graduates of the programme
are employed in schools, colleges, hospitals and research institutions to carry out chemical,
physical, biological and biochemical analyses. In some institutions especially polytechnics,
they are usually involved in the teaching of technical courses and techniques.
8.
Self Employment:
A Science Laboratory Technologist, by virtue of his/her training, needs not turn him/herself
to a nuisance by moving from pillar to post to look for employment which is not readily
available. He should endeavour to become an employer of labour rather than a job seeker. A
Science Laboratory Technologist can get himself involved in manufacturing, provision of
services and consultancy.
Manufacturing
1.
Production of soap and detergents
2.
Production of candle and chalk
3.
Production of sachet/bottled water
4.
Production of fruit juice and yoghurt
5.
Production of jams and honey
6.
Constitution of baby foods
7.
Constitution of livestock feeds
8.
Production of body and hair creams
9.
Manufacturing of laboratory wares-glasswares (test-tubes, pipettes, burettes, round
bottom flasks and beakers) and wood wares (test-tube holders and racks).
10.
Development and production of paints
11.
Production of laboratory slides-biological specimens.
12.
Repair of damaged laboratory glasswares
13.
Production of dyes and colourants
Provision of Services
1.
Supply of laboratory equipment
2.
Supply of chemicals and other consumables
3.
Provision of wholesale services to manufacturers
4.
Provision of laboratory service - chemicals analysis, biological analysis such as
water, soil and effluents.
5.
Collection and preservation of biological specimens for supply to schools,
hospitals and institutes.
Consultancy services
1.
2.
3.
4.
Serving as a consultant on design and construction of a laboratory.
Serving as a consultant on design and construction of a workshop - glassblowing and
photography.
Serving as a consultant on setting up of industries.
Serving as a consultant to procure necessary registration papers by industries
especially NAFDAC registration number.
HINTS
ON
HAZARDS AND SAFETY
IN
THE LABORATORY
HAZARDS AND SAFETY IN THE LABORATORY.
HAZARDS AND SAFETY IN THE LABORATORY.
The laboratory is a place [room or building] used for scientific experiments and research. A
laboratory hazard refers to a danger or a risk in the laboratory.
LABORATORY ACCIDENTS.
An accident can be defined as an unplanned (not necessarily injurious or damaging) event
which interrupts the completion of an activity.
An accident can also be defined as the occurrence that interferes with the orderly progress of
activity.
Laboratory accidents are very common and they occur as a result of unsafe acts and practices.
Accidents may cause injury which sometimes results in death or permanent disabilities.
Therefore, nowadays serious attention is paid to this matter because these accidents cause
heavy losses, both to man and properties.
CAUSES OF ACCIDENTS IN THE LABORATORY.
If the causes of accidents are known, it becomes easier to minimize. The general causes are:
(i)
Unsafe physical conditions. These include improper illumination, improper
ventilation, unsafe clothing, etc.
(ii)
Moving objects. Sometimes moving objects or falling objects may cause
accident.
(iii)
Personal factors. Some personal factors may cause accidents. Such factors
include:
(a). Lack of awareness (or ignorance). In some cases, the laboratory worker may
not be aware of certain hazards of their action in the laboratory, and may not see
the need for rules and regulations in the laboratory.
(b) Lack of knowledge. Sometimes the laboratory worker may want to make inquiry through
experimentation without adequate knowledge of how to go about it. An unqualified
laboratory assistant may cause this type of accident.
(c) Lack of the right attitude. Carelessness or insufficient care can lead to injury, and also
cause damages to equipment, for instance using the mouth to pipette toxic and corrosive
liquids. Over-carefulness on the other hand could waste time, money and reduce the student’s
experience.
(iv) Unsafe acts. It is a violation of commonly accepted procedure not to use
Safety devices; not to obey proper instructions or not to follow safety precautions in the
laboratory.
(v) Exposure to harmful substances.Injuries due to accidents are also caused due to
exposure to harmful substances like toxic gases, fumes, dust, vapors, mists and aerosols.
SAFETY IN THE LABORATORY
Safety refers to protection from danger, harm or risk in the laboratory. A sound spirit of
cooperation and unselfishness on the part of all the laboratory staff is the best safeguard
against accidents. The chief responsibility for the promotion of this kind of spirit rests with
the head of the section. He is in the best position to give the necessary lead to his staff and
should maintain close contact with every one under his control.
STEPS TO BE TAKEN TO ENSURE SAFETY IN THE LABORATORY
1.
The most important steps to safety are cleanliness and tidiness, which in themselves
promote an accident-free environment. Clustered benches not only cause accidents but
clearly indicate muddled working on the part of the person responsible. Inadequate locker
and storage arrangement may contribute to this state of affairs.
2.
Equipment should always be well maintained. Adequate notice boards should be provided
so that safety rules may be prominently displayed.
3.
The fire, hospital and ambulance facilities available and their telephone numbers should
be displayed on the notice board.
4.
Provision should be made for the training of all the staff by regular meeting and
discussion on the matters of safety. It is recognized that verbal instruction is far more
effective than a printed notice. The service of inspectors of factories may be obtained for
this purpose.
5.
All establishments, particularly research and educational institutions, should nominate
their own safety officer. The duties of this officer include the dissemination of safety
literature, organization of first aid facilities both central and local and promotion of safety
lectures.
6.
To supplement the work of the safety officer, all personnel should receive training in first
aid. In this connection the various Red Cross organizations are usually willing to assist
7.
Encouragement should be given to staff to see potential hazards and to report on them. An
accident book should be maintained for only recording accidents which can assure
prevention
8.
In order to ensure safety in the laboratory, certain preventive measures must be taken
these are listed below:
(a) The laboratory assistant should turn-off the gas, water and electricity after each
practical exercise
(b) In addition to having a suitable fire extinguisher, it is necessary to have a fume
cupboard for toxic gases, a sand bucket, a scoop with a long handle, a fire blanket to
curb all sorts of fire accidents in the laboratory.
(c) The design of the laboratory should permit free movement
(d) The laboratory should not be overcrowded
(e) The fittings on the laboratory walls and floor should not stick out into the pathway in
the laboratory
(f) It should be possible to open the laboratory windows without climbing the stools or
worktables. In the design, the main control for the gas, electricity and water should be
accessible to laboratory workers to operate in case of emergency
(g) To keep the laboratory clean and safe, there is need to design a daily routine of duties
for the laboratory assistants.
(h) First aid kits should be made available and accessible to laboratory workers.
9.
The laboratory workers require a set of rules for proper regulation safety and protection in
the laboratory. Below is a set of rules that must be followed while working in the
laboratory:
COMMON RULES AND REGULATIONS IN THE LABORATORY
1. Never eat, drink or smoke in the laboratory.
2. Always put on protective devices such as laboratory coat, gloves, safety spectacles, safety
shoes, aprons etc. at every practical session.
3. Get familiar with the locations of fire alarm, first aid kit, fire extinguisher, telephone and
other safety equipments.
4. Get familiar with the position of main switches for water, gas and electricity supply to the
laboratory
5. Long hair or head ties should be well packed and avoid lose jewelry in the laboratory.
6. Be familiar with the emergency route and procedure
7. Avoid looking into the mouth of the test tube while heating or adding reagents
8. Ensure there are no obstruction with the doorways and emergency exists
9. Always wash your hands before leaving the laboratory
10. While diluting strong acids, pour the acid a little a time to water in a slanting position. Never
add water to acid.
11. Never try to slow down or stop a centrifuge with your hand
12. Always label containers accurately with the name and concentration of contents
13. Avoid tasting chemicals or eating seeds or plants meant for biology practicals
14. Do not sniff material that may be toxic
15. Always use the fume cupboard in carrying out experiments that produce harmful gases
16. Do not handle materials or operate equipment you are not familiar with
17. All apparatus not in immediate use should be kept in the cupboard
18. Make sure that the laboratory is kept clean after each practical exercise
19. Make sure all services e.g. gas, water, electricity are put off at the end of the days work.
20. Inform other staff of any breakage, faulty equipment and other defects
21. Check that all Bunsen burners are put off and there is no naked flame before using flammable
solvent
COMMON LABORATORY ACCIDENTS AND SAFETY MEASURES
An accident can be defined as an unplanned (not necessarily injurious or damaging) event
which interrupts the completion of an activity.
An accident can also be defined as the occurrence that interferes with the orderly progress of
activity.
Laboratory accidents are very common and they occur as a result of unsafe acts and practices.
Accidents may cause injury which sometimes results in death or permanent disabilities.
Therefore, nowadays serious attention is paid to this matter because these accidents cause
heavy losses, both to man and properties.
CAUSES OF ACCIDENTS IN THE LABORATORY.
If the causes of accidents are known, it becomes easier to minimize. The general causes are:
(i)
Unsafe physical conditions.
These include improper illumination, improper
ventilation, unsafe clothing, etc.
(ii)
Moving objects. Sometimes moving objects or falling objects may cause
accident.
(iii)
Personal factors. Some personal factors may cause accidents. Such factors
include:
(a). Lack of awareness (or ignorance). In some cases, the laboratory worker may not be
aware of certain hazards of their action in the laboratory, and may not see the need for
rules and regulations in the laboratory.
(b). Lack of knowledge. Sometimes the laboratory worker may want to make inquiry
through experimentation without adequate knowledge of how to go about it. An
unqualified laboratory assistant may cause this type of accident.
(c). Lack of the right attitude. Carelessness or insufficient care can lead to injury, and
also cause damages to equipment, for instance using the mouth to pipette toxic and
corrosive liquids. Over-carefulness on the other hand could waste time, money and reduce
the student’s experience.
(iv).
Unsafe acts. It is a violation of commonly accepted procedure not to use
safety devices; not to obey proper instructions or not to follow safety
precautions in the laboratory.
(v).
Exposure to harmful substances. Injuries due to accidents are also caused due
to
exposure to harmful substances like toxic gases, fumes, dust, vapors, mists and
aerosols.
1. ACCIDENTS FROM GLASS AND SAFETY MEASURE
For accidents glass is the laboratory worker’s worst enemy. Glass apparatus should be
erected methodically and deliberately and never in a hurry since this is the chief cause of
accident.
Cutting Glass Tube and Rod
To cut small diameters of glass tubing of rod into shorter lengths, first mark it with a
glass-knife of triangular file. Place the thumb on each side of the mark and close it. Then pull
the glass slightly towards its ends and at the same time break it away from the body in the one
motion. When breaking and size of tubing, the hands should be protected with a piece of
cloth. The ends of the cut tube and rod should always be flame-polished before being used in
apparatus
Heating Glass
Depending upon its composition and its thickness, glass is susceptible to stresses and
strains and can withstand only limited thermal and physical shock. Heat resistant glass wares
must always be used for heating liquids. It should also be used when heat is likely to result
through diluting or dissolving a substance and this operation should never be carried out in
non-resistant glass vessels.
Carrying Glass
To avoid accidents when glassware is transported, non slip floors are necessary in the
laboratory and sensible shoes should always be worn. The route should be free from
obstruction and spilled liquids should be immediately wiped off. Never be in a hurry; many
major accidents have occurred through person falling or being struck by door when carrying
glass apparatus or dangerous chemicals in glass containers.
Damaged Glasswares
Damage glassware should not be used nor should be issued to other people. If it is
badly damaged, it should be replaced. If repairable, it should be put in the repairable
glassware box to await attention.
Boring Corks to Take Glass Tubing
Corks or bungs should always be held by their sides between fore finger and thumb
and bored on a piece of scrap wood. Bore from the narrow end by rotating the borer in one
direction only. The size of the borer should be compatible with the size of the glass tubing to
be inserted so that no undue forcing in assembly will be necessary. For most purposes, it is
essential that the cork or bung grip the tube reasonably tightly and therefore when inserting
the tube, it should be held well down close to the point of entry. A little lubricating medium
such as glycerol assists the operation.
2. ACCIDENT FROM FURNITURE AND WORKING EQUIPMENT
Furniture
All laboratory furniture, whether of wood or of metal, must be of the highest quality
and should have a non absorbent finish. The benches must be the correct height in accordance
with the work to be done on them and should incorporate sufficient sinks to allow any person
working at the bench speedy access to one of them during an emergency. The shelves on or
above the benches should not be too high and should have a light beading affixed to the front
of them so that bottles are not easily knocked off. All service pipelines should be painted with
the appropriate service color which allows them to be more easily identified. Suitable types of
rubbish boxes in sufficient numbers should be provided. Broken glass or chemical refuse
which would be dangerous if deposited in the normal waste bins, requires separate bins.
Equipment
When checking equipment, particular attention should be paid to temperature
regulating devices and to gauges and valves or pressure equipment. Protective items such as
respirators, goggles and gloves, if openly displayed are far more likely to be regularly used
than if hidden away in cupboards. Glass-fronted cabinets may be used to ensure that the
appliances are seen and protected from dust. Respirators must be regularly disinfected and
rubber gloves kept in good condition by occasional powdering. Laboratory goggles should be
comfortable and lightweight. These are worn for any operation which constitutes a risk to the
eyes such as working involving acids, bromine, and ammonia, cutting of sodium and chipping
and grinding operations. Person should not be allowed to enter laboratory where eye dangers
exist unless they are wearing eye protection.
3. ACCIDENTS FROM CHEMICALS
Accidents are said to occur in the laboratory through chemicals. Human contact with
chemicals can take place through the following ways
(a) ingestion
(b) Direct contact from spills or by improper handling
(c) Inhalation of vapors, fumes or dust
(d) Indirectly through explosion.
4. ACCIDENTS FROM ACIDS
More accidents occur in the laboratory through mineral acids than from any other
liquids. Concentrated acids are the most dangerous.
When acids are diluted the acid is poured into water and never water to acid. During
the process of pouring acid and other corrosive liquids, rubber gloves and goggles
should be adopted.
Acids should be poured slowly, if the bottle is tilted too much, air locks will be
caused and the acid discharge in spurts.
The bottle should be held with the hand placed on the opposite side so as to avoid
contact with drips which may run down.
After pouring and replacing the cover, the bottle should be flushed on the outside
with water. When the skin is splashed with acids or other corrosives, it must be
flushed immediately with plenty of water and afterwards a solution of sodium
bicarbonate should be applied.
If acid is splashed on the bench, it must be wipe up at once. Any vessel which
contains acid should be rinsed out with water and not left to be washed with acid
drops remaining in it.
Whenever acid is discarded, plenty of water should be run into the sink and at the
same time the acid should be slowly poured away.
Concentrated acids in bottles or desiccators must be discarded before these are put out
for washing up.
Never put concentrated acid and alkalis adjacent to each other on shelves.
5. ACCIDENT FROM POISONS
Apart from the scheduled poison which should be kept under lock and key, many
other substances handled daily in the laboratory such as oxalic acid are also
poisonous. For complete safety, it is advisable that all chemicals be regarded as
poisons. Poisons are not necessarily taken into the system by the way of the mouth
but may also be inhaled or absorbed through the skin. Certain basic rules are therefore
to be observed in handling chemicals, and if these are adhere to the probability of
poisoning becomes remote.
Full use should be made of spatula when dispensing chemicals and if necessary,
robber gloves should be worn. Food should not be eaten in the laboratory nor should
the laboratory vessels be used for drinking purpose. On leaving the laboratory the
hands must be washed with soap and water before taking food.
For any substance which gives off toxic fumes, the fume cupboard must always be
used. All experiments giving off fumes even if the fumes are not dangerous should
also be performed in fume cupboard. These keep the laboratory atmosphere clean.
When working with cylinders of dangerous gases such as chlorine, carbon (II) oxide,
aspirator should be used.
Mouth pipettes should not be used for poisonous, corrosive or volatile liquids. A
rubber bulb pipettes, safety pipettes or burettes must be used. The use of rubber bulb
pipettes is more hygienic and is to be recommended for all liquids.
6. ACCIDENTS FROM EXPLOSION
The building in which laboratory tests involving the handling of explosives are
carried out is ideally a single story of fire proof construction. The building should be
well ventilated and should have wooden floors and benches. Special spark proof
electrical fittings and the other safety precautions necessary for areas involving fire
hazards should be adopted. The facilities in the laboratory should include fume
cupboards, the provision of appliances for personal protection including protective
clothes, and good arrangement for personal hygiene. The normal service must be
provided and these should include steam. Dermatitis has to be carefully guarded
against in explosive laboratories because of the handling of nitro compounds. Bulk
inflammable solvents and explosive samples must be kept in special stores situated
away from the main building.
The first rule in the safe handling of explosive is that they must not be subjected to
friction or shock. For this reason, smooth bottles of good quality, closed with soft
rubber stoppers are necessary. Rooms in which dangerous dusts are produced should
be constructed in a way which allows the dust to be easily and regularly removed.
Volatile inflammable vapors.
If the concentration of the vapor reaches certain limits and is mixed in the right
proportion with air, ignition causes combustion which proceeds at high speed and
with great violence. The sudden expansion which accompanies the combustion
constitutes an explosion. Explosion generally occurs when the vapor concentration is
low. It is for this reason that empty inflammable solvent containers owing to an
accumulation of air and vapor mixed within them can be more dangerous that when
full.
Many gases are also explosives when mixed with oxygen or air and a piece of
apparatus which has been used for containing or transporting such gases should be
made safe after use by filling with water or blowing air through them.
7. ACCIDENTS FROM GAS CYLINDERS
The storage room for gas cylinders should be unheated but protected from extreme
heat or cold and direct sunlight. The room also requires good top and bottom
ventilation. Smoking or the use of naked light should be prohibited inside the store.
The light fittings should be the vapor-proof types and the light switch should be
positioned outside the room. The best position for the store is close to an outside exit.
Separate storage for empty and full cylinders is advisable. Outside storage is
necessary for cylinders containing poisonous gases but these must be adequately
protected from ice and snow and the direct rays of the sun.
Cylinder should be stored in an upright position and secured to the walls with their
protective metals caps in place. Acetylene cylinders must always be stored upright
and kept apart from oxygen cylinder. If a cylinder suffers damage of any kind, it
should be returned to the suppliers accompanied by a statement giving the exact
nature of the damage.
8. ACCIDENTS FROM THE DISPOSAL OF CHEMICALS
A quantity of unwanted chemicals usually accumulates in chemical laboratory and
stores owing to the destruction of labels through contamination or as residue. Such
chemicals may be of known or unknown character and in either case their disposal
may involve a considerable element of danger. All disposables should be carried out
by a responsible person and if any dought exists in his mind concerning the handling
of the particular chemical, someone else with special knowledge of the chemical
should be consulted.
In order to accurately assess the degree of danger involved in the disposal of a
chemical, a sound knowledge of its properties is necessary. If the nature of the
chemical is unknown, extra care is required and very small quantity of the substance
should be tested before the disposal is attempted. If the substance is a solid, its
appearance, odor or inflammability may suggest the best method of disposal and
similarly in the case of a liquid, miscibility, volatility and inflammability may prove
to be important indication.
During disposal, all the necessary safety precautions should be taken. Rubber gloves
and goggles should always be worn. If substances are to be put down the drain, it
should first be ensured that this method of disposal is in accordance with the
regulations of the local authority. It is safe to dispose off chemicals one at a time and
they should never be mixed.
9. ACCIDENTS FROM FIRE.
I.
Handling of inflammable solvents
The daily handling of inflammable solvents with low boiling points, such as
ether, is the most dangerous and the degree of danger increases as the boiling point of
the solvent becomes lower. At the flash point of the solvent, vapours are given off
which form inflammable and sometimes explosive mixture with air. These vapours
are capable of traveling considerable distances and when ignited flash back with great
rapidity to their source. The handling of inflammable solvents should be carried out in
fire-proof rooms designed for the .purpose and provided with alternative exits. Naked
lights, smoking and the carrying of matches should be strictly restricted in all areas
where the nature .of the work is such that inflammable vapours, gases or dust might
be produced. Proper containers bearing the word “no naked light” should be used for
inflammable solvent and the container should be distinctively colored or otherwise
marked so as to be easily identified. Experiments involving inflammable solvents,
hazardous work should be carried out in a fume cupboard so that if a fire occurs it can
be confined and more easily extinguished.
II.
Heating.
The best method of heating low boiling point solvents is by steam. Heating
mantles can be used because its large heating surface is an advantage over naked
flame since the actual temperature of the mantle may be maintained at a lower level
than the ignition temperature of the liquid. Fore medium boiling point liquids, water
baths are permissible if electrically heated or used in conjunction with a safety burner.
i.
Distillation and Extraction.
For operation involving distillation or extraction the apparatus is best erected on a
metal tray containing a layer of sand. Glass joints are preferable to cork or rubber
bungs which may deteriorate and leak hot vapour. Distillation vessels should never be
filled to more than one half of their capacity and should be filled only when cool.
Where laboratory fires are concerned prevention, is certainly better than the cure.
Check that the bunsen burner is put off after the days work. The prevention of fire too
depends on good laboratory keeping. This involves tidiness in all laboratories and
storerooms, the constant checking and maintenance of laboratory service and the
efficiency of fire fighting equipment. The hand-size and larger sizes of fire
extinguishers should be available in all laboratories. In addition large extinguishers
should be available in corridors.
All laboratory staff should receive instructions as to their function in the event of fire
and a good warning system should be installed. Accumulators of rubbish, such as
paper, rags and wooden materials should be avoided as they constitute a major fire
hazard in the laboratory.
Spilled solvents must be wiped up immediately and the use of electrical apparatus,
such as hair dryers to increase the rate of evaporation of inflammable solvents should
be avoided.
The mere provision of fire appliances is not enough but regular familiarization with
them ensures complete safety. Regular fire drills should be held with full use of the
various appliances during the practice. The equipment should be regularly checked
and extinguished ones refilled. Safety shower which can be used in an emergency
should be installed above the exits or in other carefully selected places in chemical
laboratories to give a cascade of water and can be used by the person with their
clothing on fire on those who may have been splashed with acid or other corrosive
substances. Although showers are preferred to fire blankets, the provision of both is
desirable. Fire blankets may be strategically placed around the laboratory for quick
location.
10.
ACCIDENTS FROM STORAGE
A well designed store minimizes the hazards associated with the storage of chemicals,
.liquid reagents and gas cylinders. It must be ventilated and spacious enough to allow
good clearance. The store should be situated if possible on a ground floor with a
fireproof door, opening to the outside. This allows direct access to the open air in an
emergency and the convenient and safe delivery of packages. The store should be
constructed in such a way that moderate and even temperature can be maintained.
Separate rooms are required for the safe storage of acids, ammonia and gas cylinders.
Safety measures such as adequate fire extinguishers, protective clothing and vapourproof light fittings are normally provided in location where hazardous materials are
involved. In addition, a good supply of sand, a shovel and all purpose respirator and
essential sprinkler system are recommended only if the materials stored are safe when
water is used.
11.
ACCIDENTS FROM ELECTRICITY
The passage of small electric current as low as 25miliampare A.C. or 50miliampare D.C.
through the human body may be sufficient to cause death by failure of the heart or respiration.
It is not always high voltage which is responsible for fatality since the degree of danger to life
by shock depends on the particular condition prevailing at the time of contact. The resistance
of the body varies according to circumstance and the area of contact. Wet or damp conditions
are particularly dangerous.
The growth in recent years of the amount of electrical equipment used in the laboratory has
also increased the need for safety measures. In much of the apparatus, voltage above 500v is
used and special precautions are necessary. In those departments or laboratories where a great
deal of work with high voltage is undertaken, it is necessary to provide specially protected
high tension (h.t.) enclosure. The enclosure described, which is efficiently earthed is of
permanent metal construction and completely enclosed. Any apparatus which can become
‘live’ at a dangerous voltage when the door or any other aperture into the cage is opened to
the main supply are disconnected. The accidental closing of the gate is impossible since any
person inside enclosure can be easily seen by others having a reason to close it. Only
authorized experimental staff may enter the enclosure without special permission and when it
is necessary for other technical staff to enter, the officer responsible for the enclosure takes
custody of fuses. The position and number of the fuses are not replaced until the visiting
technician has vacated the enclosure.
If high tension work is carried out on the open benches in the laboratory a light wooden
screen at a convenient height should be erected around the edges of benches. This draws the
attention of passersby to the dangerous possibility of the work and also restricts apparatus and
electrical leads to confines of the bench.
The floor of the laboratory should be covered with good insulating materials.
The high tension bench should be made of wood and any metal pipes should be well hidden
and in such a position that they cannot be accidentally touched or contacted by wires.
Electrical switches, sockets and tapes should preferably be situated in recess in the front of the
bench in a position convenient to the operator. This avoids the necessity for reaching over the
bench to adjust control. It should be possible to make the whole apparatus dead by the
operation of a single switch which should be clearly marked high tension switches so that it
can be operated. It should not be permitted for any one person to work alone in a room or
laboratory when using high tension benches. High tension benches should not be left by the
responsible person, even for a few seconds when the apparatus is live. When the laboratory is
closed all apparatus must be made dead. The high tension terminals should be protected and
the use of naked wiring avoided.
All electric parts and wiring should be installed by a competent electrician and periodically
inspected by him.
Before any local extension of the existing wiring is carried out. It is a common fault in
laboratory that more and more electrical equipments is needed without regard for the
overloading of supply cables
All electrical apparatus and instruments should be inspected for faults by a competent
technician before being installed in the laboratory. Never handle electrical switch and
connections with wet hands or when standing in water.
12.
ACCIDENT FROM RADIATION
In the course of their duties laboratory workers may be subjected to harmful ionizing radiation
from radio isotopes or from X-rays produced by certain types of equipment. To overcome any
possibility harmful effects, safe marking methods have been devised but since they are constantly
being improved, laboratory workers should keep themselves up-to-date with current safety measures
to ensure maximum safety in the laboratory.
The nature of symptoms associated with exposure to radiation depends on several factors including
the nature of the radiation and the amount absorbed.
Because harmful radiation destroys the body cells, workers may be required to undergo blood counts
before beginning experimental work and at regular intervals thereafter. Regular medical examination
may also be necessary. Radioactive materials may enter the body by inhalation, ingestion or
absorption through the skin. Protective devices such as reparatory gloves and coats should be worn by
workers.
Strict protective measures are adopted to ensure that working areas and the atmosphere and equipment
within them are not contaminated by unwanted radioactive materials. These measures include the
provision of adequate shielding, special methods of ventilation and cleaning and efficient method of
working. Sources coursing radiation which are firmly sealed in strong containers of sufficient strength
to exclude the possibility of contact with the source and to prevent the dispersal of the radioactive
materials are called sealed sources. Sources of ionizing radiation not confined in that way are known
as unsealed sources. The container for sealed source should be undamaged and uncorroded to avoid
the necessity for any position to expose him to radiation risks by physically examining the contents
the containers should be clearly marked with the nature of these contents. The standard isotope
containers which are usually made of stainless steel or aluminum may be transported in strong outer
containers.
FIRST AID TREATMENT OF COMMON INJURIES IN LABORATORIES.
First aid is the immediate treatment and care given to a victim of an accident or sudden illness until
the necessary professional medical assistance is available. The treatment in the first aid is only
temporal and it is given to achieve three objectives.
1. To sustain or preserve life
2. To prevent the victim’s condition from getting worse.
3. To promote the victim’s recovery.
First aid procedure in an emergency situation is as follows;
1. Quickly remove the victim from the hazard provided it is safe to do so
2. Ensure that the patients breathing are maintained. If the victim is not breathing, begin
artificial respiration immediately. If the heart beat is absent begin resuscitation. For these,
the services of a trained person is helpful
3. Control serious bleeding to prevent heavy loss
4. Treat for shock
5. Treat burns and deal with localized injuries (such as cut on foreign bodies in the eye)
6. Reassure the casualty and help lessen the anxiety
7. Do not allow people to crowd around as fresh air is essential. Get them to contact the
ambulance and doctor.
8. Where necessary, your last action is to hand over the victim to the doctor or take him to
the hospital.
FIRST AID ARRANGEMENTS IN THE LABORATORY
FIRST AID ROOM
Where the number of people working in the laboratory exceeds 250, a suitable ambulance room
should be maintained solely for the purpose of treatment. The room should be in charge of qualified
person who should be available during the hours when the laboratory is open and a record of accidents
and sickness cases treated should be kept.
FIRST AID ROOM EQUIPMENT
The following list of equipments should be kept in the first aid room.
1. Sink with hot and cold water
2. Examination couch with rubber sheet
3. Table for dressings
4. Table with smooth top
5. Desk
6. Chair
7. Blankets
8. Pail for dirty dressings
9. Instrument cabinet
10. Medicine cabinet
11. Sterilizer
12. Oxygen cylinder and administering apparatus
13. Self contained breathing apparatus
14. Accident report book
15. Smaller items of equipment including bowls, kidney dishes, towels, jugs, medicines
glasses and jars for lotion.
16. First aid box or cupboard
CONTENTS OF FIRST AID CUPBOARD OR BOX
The contents of the box should be comprehensive as listed below;
1. Adhesive plaster 25mm wide
1
2. Adhesive (strip) plaster dressing (65mm x 90cm)
2 boxes
3. Paracetamol tablets
100
4. Bandages 25mm
9
5. Bandages 50mm
9
6. Bandages 75mm
6
7. Boric acid powder
25g
8. Burn cream (or jelly)
1 tube
9. Camel hair brush
1
10. Castor oil
11. Cotton wool (sterile) 12.5g
6
12. Cotton wool (dispenser)
1
13. Dried milk
1 tin
14. Eye bath
1
15. First aid manual
1
16. Forceps, dressing
1
17. Funnel, plastic
1
18. Kidney dish
1
19. Measuring cylinder (50ml)
1
20. Notebook
1
21. Olive oil
50g
22. Oxygen unit with mask
1
23. Petroleum jelly
50g
24. Safety pins
12
25. Scissors blunt 125mm
1
26. Sodium bicarbonate powder
250g
27. Sodium bicarbonate solution
500ml
28. Splints (wooden rectangular)
8
29. Table spoon (stainless)
1
30. Teaspoon (stainless)
1
31. Thermometer, clinical
1
32. Tumbler (unbreakable)
1
33. Wound dressing, sterilized
34. Container (small, medium, large)
6
35. Sodium chloride crystals
250g
TYPES OF INJURY AND THEIR TREATMENTS
A. SHOCK
A condition of shock may be caused by most injuries and may arise almost at once or some
hours after the accident. If the injury is painful shock may be more severe. The degree of
shock depends to a large extent on the patient and conditions producing severe shock. Severe
shock can result in the collapse of the patient and can be fatal.
Symptoms of shock
1. Shallow respiration
2. Weak and rapid pulse
3. Cold sweat
4. Subnormal temperature
Types of shock and their treatment
(a) Mild shock
In case of mild shock any tight clothing is loosened. The patient is allowed to get plenty
of fresh air but should not be kept warm. After reassuring the patient the injury is then
treated. Calmness on the part of the person rendering first aid does much to reassure the
patient.
(b) Electric shock
The victim must be removed from contact with live apparatus or the supply shut off.
Electric shock is called ASPHYXIA and in this case, artificial respiration must be started
at once because statistics have shown that when treatment is begun within a minute of the
electrical shock, 90% of the victim recovery is ensured whereas after a delay of six
minutes only 10% recover
(c) Asphyxia (deficiency of oxygen in blood)
This may be caused in a number of ways such as drowning, poisoning, insufficient
oxygen in the air or by electrical shock. The effects of any of these are the same, namely;
a deficiency of oxygen in the blood. In the laboratory the more likely causes of asphyxia
are electrocution, suffocation and inhalation of poisonous gases.
The first aid treatment for asphyxia is to remove the cause, or remove the patient from the
cause and, except in case where the tissue has been damaged, to commence artificial
respiration immediately. Whenever possible pure oxygen should be administered while
artificial respiration is being applied. For the administration of pure oxygen, the
disposable type of oxygen cylinder is ideal. The oxygen is administered instantly by
simply pressing the valve outlet and a light plastic face masks is provided with the unit.
General treatment of shock
To treat a patient for shock, he or she must be laid down and completely wrapped in blankets
or by other warm material at hand. The head should be kept low by raising the foot of the bed.
If the patient is on the ground and there are no injuries to the legs, something should be placed
beneath them provided be is conscious and no symptom of internal injury are apparent, hot
drinks may be given as a stimulant. A doctor should be summoned as quickly as possible.
ARTIFICIAL RESPIRATION
Many means of artificial respiration have been used, of these are; Schaefer, Riley,
Sivester, Holger Nielsen and insufflations method are still in use. The methods most
suitable for cases of asphyxia likely to be encountered in the laboratory are silvester ,
Holger Nielsen back- pressure arm-lift and the mouth to mouth or mouth to nose
insufflations method.
SILVESTER METHOD
1. First lay the casualty on his back
2. Place a folded laboratory coat or other clothing beneath his shoulder
3. Clear the victim’s mouth if necessary and turn the head to one side
4. Kneel just behind the casualty’s head.
5. Grasp the wrists and cross them over the lower part of the chest
6. Rocking the body forward, press down on the victim’s chest
7.
Release the arms backwards and outwards as far as possible
8. Repeat the procedure twelve times a minute.
HOLGER NIELSON METHOD
This may be employed if the patient is suffering from facial injuries which may
make direct insufflations impracticable.
1. Place the patient face downward. Remove any obstruction to the airway and bring the
tongue forward
2. Bend the victim’s arm at the elbow and turn the head to one side so it rests on the
hands with the palm of the hands facing downwards
3. Kneel on the knee, which is position at the side of the victim’s head
4. Place the opposite foot close to the patient’s elbow
5. Stretch out the arms and place the hands with the fingers spread outwards and
downwards, one on each shoulder blade.
6. Press lightly on the lower half of the shoulder blades. For adult the recommended
pressure is 9-11kg
7. In order to exert the pressure rock the body forward, with the arms straight, until it is
almost vertical. Exert the pressure for about 2.5 seconds and then relax it by rocking
backwards. During this motion shade hands under the victim elbow and draw his
arms upward until the pulled forward. This movement also takes about 2.5 seconds
after the arms are lowered. Repeat the whole cycle of operations.
INSUFFLATION METHOD
The mouth –to-mouth or mouth-to-nose method is best because it is simple and
easy to apply and causes the operation no fatigue. The method is as follows
1. Tilt the head backwards until fully retracted and at the same time ensure that the
air way is unobstructed, hold the mandible forward.
2. Place yourself on the left hand side of the victim and use the thumb and
forefinger of the right hand to close the victim’s nose. The left hand supports the
lower jaw.
3. Breathe in deeply and placing your lips so as to form a complete seal over the
mouth of the victim, blow in air. More forceful blowing is required for adults that
for children.
4. When the chest of the victim is seen to rise, remove your mouth, whereupon the
chest wall of the victim relaxes. Repeat the inflation at the rate of 12-20 times per
minute. The insufflations method may also be applied by mouth-to-nose
technique. This should only be applied when it is not possible to open the
victim’s mouth sufficiently for the mouth-to-mouth operation to be effectively
used. In the mouth-to-nose method, retract the head fully as before and while the
mandible is pushed upwards and forwards, close the victim’s mouth by the first
two fingers of the right hand. Place your mouth over the nostrils of the victim.
B.
WOUNDS
A wound is caused when the skin is broken owing to an injury. The degree of
seriousness of the wound depends usually on the depth of penetration and the amount
of damage suffered by the deeper tissues.
TYPES OF WOUNDS
1. Incised wound: these wounds are caused by sharp instruments and they have no ragged
edges and bruising does not occur. The wound bleeds freely and gapes open. In the
laboratory, the most common cause of incised wounds is broken glass. Incised wounds are the
easiest to treat, stab wounds may be caused by the sharp end of a piece of glass tubing and
may penetrate deeply and cause bleeding beneath the surface. With this type of wound the
risk of infection is far greater. Deep stab wounds may also penetrate internal organs if the
wound is large and the edge gapes, it may require stitching and medical aid is necessary to
stop bleeding..
2. Lacerated wounds: when the tissues are torn and the edges of the wound are irregular, the
injury is called a lacerated wound. Bleeding may not be as severe as with an incised wound
but bruising will be seen around its edges. Shock is usually more severe with lacerated
wounds. In the case of large laceration, the hemorrhage (bleeding) could be severe and must
be stopped before the wound is treated. These types of wounds may be enveloped in a large
dressing or a clean towel. Medical assistance should be obtained.
3. Contusions: in many cases, although the skin may be unbroken, considerable damage and
bruising of the tissue may have occurred. Underlying organs may also have been injured.
Such damages to the small blood vessels beneath the skin causes the blood to ooze into them
and the skin appears red and may later become dark purple. Swelling occurs. This type of
wound may be caused by a fall or heavy object falling onto the body. For this type of wound,
treat first for shock. Apply a bandage socked in cold water to the affected part. If possible
elevate the part and rest it.
Infection of wounds
Infection of the wound is to be avoided at all costs. Germs may be introduced into the wound
by dirt from object which caused the wound or from the skin or clothing of the wounded
person. Infection may also be caused by the introduction of germs when the wound is dressed.
Every care should be taken., therefore, to ensure the dressings used are sterile and that all
water used for cleaning is itself clean or has been boiled. The hands must be thoroughly
cleansed. The wound should not be touched during treatment nor should the sterile part of the
dressing be handled when it is being applied.
GENERAL TREATMENT OF WOUNDS
1. STOP THE BLEEDING
In order to stop bleeding it is necessary to have an understanding of how blood circulates
through the body. The blood is pumped from the heart through the arteries under pressure.
The wave of pressure is evident when the pulse is felt. If through an injury, an artery is
opened, the bright red oxygenated blood issues from it in spunts because of the pumping
action of the heart and arterial bleeding can be recognizes in this way. Because the blood
in the arteries is under pressure, arterial bleeding is the most diffult to stop. Pressure is
applied on the proximal side of the wound.
Venous bleedings can be recognized by the dark colour of the blood which flows steadily
and not in spurts as does arterial bleeding. Venous bleeding unless it is a large vein which
has been opened can be applied by tying a narrow bandage round the limb on the distal
side of the wound. The bandage is tied tightly enough to collapse the artery which has a
thicker wall.
Laboratories are not usually situated in places far removed from medical assistance but if
help is not forth coming within fifteen minutes from the time of application, tourniquets
should be loosened for a few seconds. If the bleeding continues, the tourniquet should be
applied in a different place but close to the original position, then treat the patient for
shock.
2. CLEAN THE WOUND
Clean the wound or in the case of serious wounds, the area around the wound. Bleeding
helps to clean a wound with a pricked finger or similar small wound may even be
encouraged by squeezing. Small foreign bodies should be wiped away from the area in a
direction away from the wound by a swab soaked in antiseptic lotion. Small glass
fragments may be removed by tweezers . The wound should be well cleaned with a weak
antiseptic lotion such as diluted Dettol. If the wound is large, only the skin around the
wound should be cleaned. Soap and water saline solution on clean water may also be used
for cleaning wounds. A sterilized dressing is then applied and a pad is usually necessary
to press this firmly on to the wound. Large pieces of glass or other deeply embedded
fragments are not removed from wound but are left for doctor’s attention. When bandages
are applied to the wound, the area around such fragment is built up with dressings to
avoid pressure on the fragment. A ring pad can also be employed for the purpose.
Wounds bleeding profusely should be tightly dressed.
3. REST THE WOUNDED PART.
Rest the wounded part if the wound is serious and get medical aid. The injured part mat
be supported by a sling or the limb may be tied to another or to some part of the body.
C. BURNS
TYPES OF BURNS.
(a) Slight burns: when there is no general disturbance apparent in the victim, the burns is
known as slight burn.
(b) First- degree burns: are those which cause the skin to redden and smell.
(c) Second degree burns: candle blisters to form.
(d) Third-degree burns: Involve the destruction of the superficial layer of skin.
(e) Severe burns: A severe burn is one which demands that the victim should receive
urgent general treatment for shock rather than the local treatment of his wound.
Causes of Burns in the Laboratory.
Burns received in the laboratory may be caused by
1. Flames, hot objects or electrical objects,
2. Acids, alkalis, corrosive chemicals.
General Treatment For Thermal Burns.
The person is first treated for shock. Before treating any burns, the first aid personnel
should wash their hands thoroughly and wear a mask or clean handkerchief covering
the mouth and nose. It was formerly recommended that the victims clothing be cut
away to disclose the area of burn. Modern treatment suggest however, that if the burn
is also extensive that it cannot be exposed without removal of clothes, the exposed
areas should be covered with a sterile bandage, cloth or towel and the patient removed
to hospital for treatment.
Treatment for slight Thermal Burns.
Slight burns can be more successfully dealt with by first aid methods. They should be
first washed with soap and water and then bathed with a saturated solution of sodium
bicarbonate. The area should then be covered with a piece of gauze on tint which has
been soaked in bicarbonate solution and lightly squeezed out. If the burns are on the
face a mask dressing consisting of two halves is made. In the upper half of the mask,
holes are left for the eyes and a cut away portion, a hole for the mouth is formed.
Treatment For Electrical Burns.
These are treated as for thermal burns.
Treatment of Severe Burns.
In cases of severe burns, the patient is treated for shock immediately. The patient
should not be moved and medical help or the ambulance should be summoned at once.
Blankets must not come in direct contact with the burns.
Treatment of Persons With Clothing On Fire.
If a person’s clothes catch fire, the victim should be laid on the floor with the
burning side uppermost. This prevents the flames spreading and protects the
neck and head or some other handy extinguishing materials. The patient is re
assured and treated for shock.
Treatment for Burns Caused By Corrosive Substances.
Acid Burns:
The treatment for acid burns is simple. Any person at the scene of the accident
can render invaluable assistance by applying plenty of water to the affected
parts as quickly as possible. The usual laboratory procedure is to get the victim
quickly to the nearest sink. When the area of contamination is large this is not
satisfactory because of the physical difficulties involved in applying water from
the tap. The victim’s clothes may have been contaminated in which case they
must be removed at once. This is best done while the victim stands under a
discharging shower. When the affected parts of the body have been well
flushed with water, they should be bathed with sodium bicarbonate solution and
wet dressings applied as for thermal burns.
Alkali Burns:
This should be irrigated immediately with plenty of water and then with a 5%
solution of sodium bicarbonate. Finally a paste of glycerin and powdered
magnesium oxide is applied
Phosphorus Burns:
These are highly dangerous and oily or greasy dressing should not be used. A
1% solution of copper (II) sulphate has been recommended. Another
recommended treatment is to immerse the burned part into water immediately.
It should then be soaked in a 2% solution of
sodium bicarbonate and
afterwards swabbed with a 1% copper sulphate solution. This is followed by a
further washing with sodium bicarbonate solution.
D.
EYE INJURIES
Eye injuries from chemicals
Strong acid or alkali in the eyes is extremely dangerous and the sight may be
permanently lost unless immediate treatment is given. Alkali is especially
dangerous and damages the eyes more extensively and intensively and more
rapidly than acids. The eyes must be irrigated at once with plenty of water. The
irrigation is best done by the victim himself under the nearest tap. When the
eyes are injured, however, it is a natural tendency to close them and in
rendering first aid, it may be necessary to forcibly hold open the eyelid and
thoroughly irrigate the eyes with water, a little liquid paraffin or drop of castor
oil in the eyes will help to relieve pain. The victim should then be sent to the
hospital.
Eye injury from foreign bodies
Foreign bodies, such as particles of solid substances which enter the eye should
be carefully removed by means of a piece of moist hair or by hair brush, the
part of which has been dipped in liquid paraffin. The movement of the brush
should be towards the inner corner of the eyes, which allows the particles to be
more easily removed. To locate the particle the lower eyelid is drawn gently
down and away from the eye. If the particle is under the top lid a match stick is
placed horizontally across the lid and the lid is turned back over the match. If
the particle is embedded continued efforts to remove it may result in further
serious eye injury. The drop of liquid paraffin or castor oil should be used to
give temporary relief and the eye should then be covered with a pad to check its
movement and the victim taken to a doctor.
If the eyes are damaged by thermal heat or by hot metal a few drops of castor
oil should be put in the eye. In the case of metal small particles may be
removed by careful irrigation
E. Poisoning and their treatment
In accordance with pharmacy and Poisons Act 1933, persons or institutions
concerned with scientific education or research are allowed to purchase poisons
for the purpose of their work. Since laboratory workers are offered the
privilege, it is important that the user take every possible care in the storage and
usage of such chemicals. It is impossible to keep locking up the many other
poisons which are in common use in chemical work. Because laboratory
workers are above average intelligence and are well trained, cases of poisoning
are rare. All laboratory personnel, however should have knowledge of the first
aid treatment necessary to combat poisoning which may occur by swallowing,
inhalation or absorption through the skin.
Classification of poisons
1. Corrosive poison:
Corrosive poisons are those which destroy the tissue with which they come into
contact. Examples are strong acids and alkali. If corrosive or caustic poison has
been swallowed, the victim retches and vomits. Suffocation may occur and there
will be considerable shock.
2. Irritant poison:
Irritant poison causes the stomach and the intestine to become irritated and
inflamed. Examples are arsenic compounds antimony compounds and phosphorus
compounds, if irritant poisons have been swallowed, the lips and mouth are not
stained. Any vomiting may be blood stained. Other symptoms are diarrhea, nausea
and shock.
3. Nerve poison:
Nerve poisons are absorbed into the blood and upset the nervous system. Examples
are morphine, opium and strychnine. The poisoned nerve may cause the patient to
have conclusion to become drowsy with the pupils of the eyes contracted and face
flushed.
4. Poisonous gases or fumes:
Poisonous gases or fumes may give warning of their presence by their irritating
effects or by their smell. Some are odorless even though they may be present in
dangerous concentration. The gas or fume may cause poisoning by inhalation or by
skin contact.
TERMS USED IN THE TREATMENT OF POISON
1. Emetic:
Emetics are substance given to induce vomiting and to rid the stomach of the
poison. They may have to be given forcibly. Examples are;
(a) Mustard: one tablespoonful (30g) is added to a glass of warm water. A
quarter of this amount is given and this is followed by a glass of warm
water. The procedure is repeated at one minute interval until all the
mustard has been used.
(b) Salt water: two tablespoonfuls (60g) of salt is dissolved in glass of warm
water and administered. This is repeated at one minute intervals until four
glass full have been given. Emetics are never administered when the
patient is;
i.
Unconscious or in convulsion
ii.
Unable to swallow
iii.
Suffering from the swallowing of a corrosive poison.
2. Antidote:
An antidote is a substance administered to render the poison harmless or to
retard its absorption. Examples are magnesia (for strong acid poisoning)
vinegar or lemon juice (for strong alkali poisoning). Antidote may themselves
be poisoning and following administration may have to be removed from the
stomach. When the nature of the poison taken is unknown and cannot be easily
ascertained, it is better to give a general antidote to avoid any waste of time. In
all cases where the special antidote is not known, the universal antidote is
administered. The universal antidote consists of 2 parts activated charcoal, 1
part magnesium oxide, 1 part tannic acid mixed together. It is best kept dry
until required, 15 grams is given in a half-glass of warm water. After the
antidote is given, the stomach is washed out, except after corrosive poisoning
3. Demulcent:
Demulcent soothe the pain of inflamed membrane. Examples are milk barley
water, white of eggs, demulcents are usually administered after the poison has
been removed.
Treatment for gas or fume poison
The affected person should be carried into fresh air at once and must not be allowed to walk.
If breathing has stopped or is poor, artificial respiration is given immediately. The direct
insufflations method is best and in case of poisoning by chlorine or bromine, only the method
should be used. Oxygen should be administered and is given in spite of the fact that breathing
may be good, the patient is kept warm and quiet. Some poisonous gases may cause
convulsion which when subsided may be brought on again by noise or by excitement of the
patient.
INSTALLATION OF COMMON LABORATORY EQUIPMENTS.
Each type of laboratory has its own problem in connection with the installation of equipment,
and the best opportunity of overcoming such problems is to have the laboratory designed. In
many cases several provision must be made for supporting either delicate or weighty item.
The effect of local conditions such as temperature, sunlight, dust, draught, noise and
vibration, must also be given an attention. Similarly, any hazard which may be involved,
must not be overlooked. The placement of the equipment too must be related to the position
of the laboratory service outlets.
VIBRATION.
The mounting of most precision equipment is greatly influenced by the effects of vibration
support have been advocated. It has been observed that the horizontal components of
vibration are much more serious than the vertical. The shielding effect of the supports, which
can be considered as an oscillating system loosely coupled to the walls, ceilings, or floor of a
room, is determined by the resonance between the support and the wall. To eliminate the
vibration it is necessary to interpose a system with a natural frequency lower than that of the
vibration. To damp the natural oscillation of the support itself, piers which have a separate
foundation from the building, are the best sunk into the ground, and on a ground floor. The
extent at which anti-vibration measures need to be employed naturally depends upon the
amount of vibration encountered in building and this is associated with its location.
Vibration may be due to many causes such as machinery, passing traffic, underground trains,
movement of persons in the neighbourhood and movement of the apparatus. It is necessary to
investigate and if possible remove or damp the source of vibration, before taking expensive
step to remedy its effects.
BALANCES AND THE BALANCE ROOM.
There must be a balance room. The balance room must be situated in the proximity of the
people who will use it. The room should be situated on an outside wall, and the rays of sun
should not enter it. It should be well away from possible sources of vibration such as moving
machinery or places where there is a great deal of personal traffic. Balance room and other
neighbouring doors should be fitted with springs to avoid vibrations when they are slammed.
To avoid draught, it is preferable to have only one door opening into the room and to
ventilate the room by means other than opening of the windows.
Air conditioning is the best means of ventilating and maintaining the constant humidity and
temperature which are necessary for very accurate balances. The recommended humidity for
balance rooms is 50% and suitable temperature is 250c. The balance room should be made
easy to clean and minimize dust, if it cannot be totally prevented.
A foot mat must be placed at the entrance door for cleaning the legs before entry.
The floor should not be swept but should be washed and mopped. All corners between the
floor and the wall should be covered and other steps taken to prevent the accumulation of
dust.
BALANCE SUPPORTS
The major difficulty to overcome in balance room is that of vibration.
Vibration makes it impossible to read a balance accurately, and shortens its life by excessive
wear on the knife edge.
The best way to prevent vibration is to interpose a number of dissimilar stable materials
between the balance supports and the source of vibration. Individual concrete bench units
faced with terrazzo may be used. Fixed slabs supported in the wall may also be made for the
purpose.
In the instances where in spite of solid mountings excessive vibrations still persist and
eliminator should be place below the feet of the balance.
In recent times, vibration isolated tables are produced to cope with vibration problems
surrounding sensitive equipment.Table are available which are supported on a tabular steel
column. The balance sit on a plate, which is itself isolated from the table top by means of
rubber isolators. (this is for a more sensitive balance ).
Recommended methods of supporting balances to reduce vibration have been suggested but
one of them is the Haslam method which states that holes are made in the floor of the balance
room which penetrate the foundations. The holes are filled with concrete but interposing
paper-like material between the concrete and the floor of the building creates a 13-25mm
space. When it has been set the material is removed and the space is filled with a bituminous
preparation. Above the concrete foundations brick pillars are erected on the top of which is a
further 13mm of concrete surmounted by a 38mm layer of cork. Finally a heavy slab of
polished slate is laid on the cork.
THE GLASS-BLOWING EQUIPMENT
* To assist ventilation, and to allow the heat, water vapour, and gases given off by burners to
escape, glass blowing room should have high ceilings with ventilators placed high up.
*The acoustic properties should be such that the noise from burners is reduced to minimum.
It may therefore be necessary to use acoustic tiles on the walls and ceiling.
* Adequate day lighting should be provided but direct sunlight should be avoided.
*The window should be so arranged that the glassblower does not face them directly, rather,
the light should enter either from behind him or at right angles to him.
*Artificial lighting is required and fluorescent lighting is the best for this purpose.
*The walls should be painted green or some other suitable colour, which enables the burner
flame to be easily seen.
*A fume cupboard (designed to permit the use of hydrofluoric acid) and a wash-up sink are
also essential.
*Metal rubbish boxes raised off the floor by short feet are necessary to allow hot pieces of
glass to be safely discarded without the possibility of fire or damage to the floor.
*Adequate room should be allowed for horizontal storage of glass tubing’s and rod.
*Adequate electrical sockets should be provided, to cope both with the machinery such as
drills, clutters, grinders and other equipment available in the workshop.
*There must be an ample supply of fuel gas, oxygen and compressed air.
*The gas cylinders are best situated outside the room and from them the supply is fed to the
glass blowing bench and to the equipment/burners.
*Needle valves should be provided on each burner for precise control.
*The glass blowing top should be covered with hard black cement asbestos and should have a
raised edge around its edge to prevent glass roll off.
The universal type of lathe is the most suitable to cope with the diverse nature of
glassblowing, since permanently horizontal lathes restrict the work to straight seals and
similar horizontal operations.
*The lathe should be well protected from draughts and should not be near doors or windows.
It should have all-round accessibility and plenty of space should be left at the ends so that
long tubes may project through the ovens for glass annealing should be level and firm so that
hot glass apparatus will not be distorted by gravity effects.
*The oven should be insulated to prevent heat losses. The base should be at normal bench
height to allow large items of glassware to be easily placed in it. For the same reason the
doors should open the full length and height.
*The oven should be thermostatically controlled. For convenience the oven should be
positioned as near to the glassblowing bench as possible.
HEAVY EQUIPMENTS.
Because of vibration, noise, and other annoying features, heavy moving equipment may need
to be accommodated in rooms separate from laboratories. If possible it should be housed on a
ground floor.
LABORATORIES STILLS (FOR DISTILLATION).
Still is an apparatus used for making liquors by distilling. In most laboratories one often hears
still room. i.e. distilling room. Some items of equipment have to be fixed to the laboratory
walls e.g. the manesty distillers
.
*The still should be mounted in a room where the damp atmosphere created will have no
harm effects on other apparatus. It should be positioned so as to allow the distilled water
container to be supported on a wooden stand directly beneath it, and with good ventilation the
room is kept reasonably free from vapours.
*The effluent from the still itself should be discharged into a small copper funnel soldered
into the top of a copper tube. The copper tube is to be led down the wall to discharge into the
drain.
*The electrical supply socket should be set on the wall level with the body of the still, to
make the electrical leads to the still elements as short as possible.
*Similarly, the water supply tap should be situated on a level with the fine control inlet valve
so that the connecting hose to the still is kept short.
SPECTROGRAPHIC EQUIPMENT
*Spectrographic equipment should be kept in a room, which can be completely or partially
darkened.
*The quality of the furniture and various interior finishes in the spectrographic laboratory
should be comparable with the expensive equipment housed there. This is mainly to provide
the necessary conditions for the preservation of the equipment, and also to induce a careful
attitude in persons working in the room.
*The finishing of the ceilings, walls and floor should be such that they are easy to clean and
there should be no edges or projections on which dust can accumulate.
*The room should be dry, free from fumes, and able to be ventilated. Substances likely to
give rise to fumes should not be kept in the room.
*To serve the equipment, sufficient electrical outlets, both a.c. and d.c. may be required and
in appropriate positions.
*The laboratory should be electrically safe. If water is to be used in the laboratory the outlets
and feed pipes should be kept away from electrical sockets.
*Because spectrographs are heavy, the laboratory benches should be strongly constructed.
Similarly, because it is undesirable, and in any case difficult, to move these instruments once
they are in position, the bench layout should allow all-round accessibility to them.
*Other laboratory furniture should include a desk for calculations and other written work, a
filling cabinet for recorded data etc, and some bookshelves.
*Moveable cupboard units and drawers and wall shelves for samples and reagents are very
necessary in the laboratory.
*A photographic darkroom, adjacent to and directly accessible from the laboratory, is
required for development of plates.
*For clearing electrodes a grinding wheel, a vice, and a number of files are also required.
*A small workbench for this purpose is best positioned just outside the laboratory.
CARE AND MAINTENANCE OF LABORATORY EQUIPMENTS.
The maintenance, cleanliness and periodic overhaul of the equipments in laboratories is the
key to the efficiency of any department. Since it is not possible to give methods for the
upkeep of all the items of equipment to be found in various laboratories, therefore, selected
examples will give some indication of the need for care and maintenance which laboratories
equipment requires.
BALANCES
Balances are of different designs. The present day laboratory work which necessitates the use
of balances ranging from student quality with a sensitivity of 2mg to those used for ultramicro work with a sensitivity of 10-8g.Intermediate balances of analytical, semi-micro, and
micro quality are also used and have sensitivities of the order of 0.1mg, 0.02mg and 1ug
respectively
Note: Persons other than those specially skilled should not be allowed to repair balances of
the higher order of sensitivity.
CLEANING OF BALANCES
*Balances should be cleaned occasionally by a trained personnel. Assuming the balance to be
cleaned is a free-swinging centre-pivot beam type, the following procedure, which must be
carried out in a dust-free atmosphere, is adopted.
*At each side of the balance a piece of glass or a sheet of white glazed paper is laid on the
bench.
*White linen gloves or rubber finger stalls are worn by the operator to prevent grease from
the fingers being transferred to the balance parts, with the balance in the rest position, and
commencing with the pan supports, the parts are removed and placed on the glass or paper on
the respective sides of the balance. Great care should be exercised when the beam is being
removed and it should afterward be supported on the bench in such a way that the pointer is
not likely to be damaged. The balance case should now be thoroughly cleaned.
*A damp chamois leather is used for cleaning the glass, which is afterwards polished with a
well-washed cloth.
*The interior of the case is brushed out with a camel hair brush and may be finished by
seeking out dust from cracks and crevices with a fine vacuum nozzle. It is finally polished
with a piece of chamois.
*The pillar and other metal parts, plain and knife edges are also cleaned with chamois.
The balance pans should not be cleaned with anything which removes the plating, but, if
necessary may be wiped with a cloth moistened with alcohol and should be finally polished
with chamois.
*The brass pans on cheap balances may, if badly tarnished, be cleaned with metal polish or
duraglit.
*A plastics cover should be kept over the balance case at all times when the balance is not in
use, as added precaution against dust.
MAINTENANCE OF THE LABORATORY STILLS
Laboratory stills must be regularly examined and periodically overhauled and cleaned.
The time allowed between each descaling depends on how long and how frequently the still
is operated, and the hardness of the water used in it.
In electric stills the scale forms rapidly around the heating elements, and regular cleaning not
only prevents damage to these and increases the output of distilled water but also saves
electricity.
Stills in regular use should be descaled at least every three months in districts where the water
is hard, and at the same time the fibre washers between the head of the element and the body
of the still should also be renewed.
MAINTENANCE OF THE LABORATORY OVENS
Materials spilled in them should be removed, or they may corrode the floor of the oven and
expose the element.
The action and accuracy of the controls should be checked, and if actuated by the making and
breaking of points these should be carefully cleaned and at reasonable intervals reset.
MAINTENANCE OF ELECTRIC FURNACES
*These require regular attention.
*The moving parts e.g. door gear and door switch platforms, require periodic lubrication.
*Springs and pivot points should also be given a light smear of graphite grease.
*If the body of the furnace is made of metal the exterior may require a coat of heat-resisting
aluminium paint.
*The chamber should be cleaned regularly with emery paper, and all scale removed.
*The protection of the chamber is important and it should be regularly bruised clean when the
furnace is cold.
*When the furnace is given a more thorough overhaul the chamber should, if necessary, be
reglazed and suitable glazing compounds may be applied with a brush.
*After glazing the heat of the furnace must be slowly raised to a temperature recommended
by the manufacturer. It is then allowed to cool, but if the glazing is not smooth the process
should be repeated.
*Thermocouples need occasional checking and for this purpose should be removed.
*The pyrometer itself may need checking.
*Indicator lamps should also be checked and occasionally be renewed.
*The operation of the energy regulator must be checked.
*If the furnace chamber shows signs of serious wear or damage it is recommended that the
furnace be returned to the manufacturer for repairs.
MAINTENANCE OF MICROSCOPES
To maintain microscopes in perfect condition the following points should be observed:
*The instrument should be kept, when not in use in its protective box.
*If wanted for regular use it should be kept under a plastics cover.
*The eye pieces should be kept in the draw tube to prevent dust falling into the tube.
*The objectives should be stored in screw-top containers.
*The moving parts of the microscope require light greasing occasionally.
*The lens which is the important part requires careful and regular attention.
MAINTENANCE OF MICROSCOPE LENSES
A microscope lens is cleaned inefficiently more damage will be caused than if the dust had
been allowed to accumulate upon it.
The correct procedure for the cleaning is as follow;
Firstly, we try to remove the dust by directing a stream of dry air on to the lens with hand
bellows or other similar means and never by blowing directly on to it with the mouth.
Alternatively, the lens may be gently stroked with a camel hair brush which has been warmed
against a hot surface such as an electric light bulb.
In this case, the brush tends to pick up the dust by electrostatic attraction.
The above method is referred to as dry method. If this method fails a wet method can be
applied.
Wet Method
Xylol is used for wet cleaning and a lens tissue paper should be moistened with a minimum
quantity of this liquid.
The damp tissue is gently wiped across the lens, which is immediately polished with dry
tissue paper.
In this case of oil-immersion objective lenses on which the oil has been allowed to dry, this
method may have to be repeated several times, Nevertheless, heavier applications of xylol
must be avoided or the solvent action of the liquid may loosen the lens in its mount.
Microscope condensers and mirrors may be cleaned the same way and if lens tissue paper is
unobtainable a soft cloth which has been well washed may be used.
OTHER LENSES
Lenses should never be touched by the fingers. They should be kept in a dry cool, dust-free
atmosphere and if possible in their own protective cases.
Rules for cleaning any lens
*Remove all dust particles using camel hair brushes joined to a rubber bulb which blows air
over the lens surface purpose.
*All grease should be removed from lenses by the use of very small quantities of either a
proprietary brand of lens cleaning fluid or pure organic solvent.
*Plastics lenses should be cleaned with an appropriate proprietary brand of lens cleaning
fluid or with soapy water applied with a lens tissue.
*Coated lenses may be cleaned with acetone or xylol but ordinary tap water which may
contain free chlorine, should not be used.
AVOIDANCE OF WASTE IN THE LABORATORY
Most services are provided on benches in the laboratory, therefore, all benches required water
supply and this entails the provision of sinks and a drainage system through which wastes are
being removed or avoided.
Type of sink materials
Sinks receive very harsh treatment in most laboratories by dumping corrosive material
(chemicals) in the sink and cause its damage. Therefore a careful choice of material for sinks
must be made.
The materials are;
1. Glazed fireclay (Glazed porcelain)sink: This is a common and inexpensive material
used for sinks. It covers the porous material and hence should be of good quality and
adequate thickness. They can be broken by heavy physical shock and by heat but they
are quiet resistance to moderate use, lasting and easily kept clean. This type of sink is
the best for teaching where the sink is subjected to heavy wear.
2. Porcelain-on-metal sinks: The base metal for porcelain-on-metal sinks is iron steel.
The disadvantage of this type is the tendency of the porcelain to chip-off. When this
occurs, they are liable to be attacked by corrosive substances, because of this reason
they are not suitable for heavy wear. They are easily scratched, and after a period of
time may become stained.
3. Metal or Metal-lined sink: This can withstand physical damage and resist
temperature changes. Most of them are easily cleaned and have pleasant appearance.
Stainless steel is the most widely used metal. If it well kept flushed it is not subjected
to attack to any great extent by chemicals, but is unsuitable for sinks in working
benches in chemical laboratories.
4. Polythene sinks: These sinks were fabricated or consisted of a metal base line with
polythene in the past. The moulded variety, which is kind to glassware, is suitable for
laboratories in which quantities of solvents harmful to polythene are not used.
5. Drip Cups sink: These are used in positions where a sink is unnecessary or would
take up valuable bench space but where a drainage outlet is essential. For this reason
they are often used in fume cupboards and on benches where working wastes are
required. These cups are available in polythene or glazed fireclay or glass. It may be
bench or wall mounted.
DRAINAGE WASTE PIPES
Waste pipes suffer heavy wear and for this reason must be well sloped. The nature
and temperature of the effluent affects the choice of material.
The main materials used for the pipes are;
1. Chemical stoneware: It is strong, unattacked by corrosive liquids(except
hydrofluoric acid),easily cleaned because of its smooth surface.
2. Polythene: It is resistant to acids, alkalis and most solvent, especially when they
are diluted by the waste water which normally flows in the pipes. It is also
unaffected by soft water and mercury. Chlorine attacks it at the surface and
bromine and iodine are absorbed, which causes the material to become somehow
brittle
3. Polyvinyl Chloride (P.V.C): It is resistant to chemical attack, rigid and compares
favourably with low-density polythene.
4. Lead: Only chemical lead, which is of high purity, should be used for laboratory
drainage purposes. Lead is attacked by mercury, nitric acid at high temperatures
and gives trouble in the presence of acids when joined to brass wastes. Lead pipe
is heavy and unless it is well supported along its length, it sags, it is expensive.
5. Cast-iron: It is a risky material in laboratories where acids are used and in any
event should not be conceal in solid floors. It should not be used directly under
benches or in the immediate vicinity of sinks, but suitable for main drainage runs
in which the effluent has been already considerably diluted. Example; Duriron or
Tantiron
6. Glass: This is borosilicate glass which is virtually uncorrodible is a versatile
material for laboratory waste lines and is now very popular. It has the advantage
that blockages can be easily seen and it is more robust than its name suggest. The
high cost of this material prevents its wider use.
LABORATORY APPARATUS
CLAMPS
Due to corrosion, clamps should be periodically immersed in oil for an hour or two.To avoid
the laborious and unsatisfactory cutting of cork sheet by hand for recorking clamps. Spare
cork shapes may be purchased in bulk from manufacturers. These should be affixed by a glue
which is not affected by heat. After applying the glue to the surfaces and fixing the corks in
position, the jaws of the clamp should be tightened on to a bung so that pressure is applied
until the glue hardens.
PESTLES
Loose heads on pestles should be refixed and up-to-date adhesive suitable for this purpose
and having exceptionally high resistance to impact is the epoxy resin.
Araldite AW.106. If to be used must be mixed with a hardener:
Araldite AW. 106
100parts by volume
Hardener HV.953U
100parts by volume
Until a uniform colour is obtained. The parts to be bonded should first be cleaned with a
grease solvent and the mixture applied with a small brush to both surfaces. Leave to harden
for 12hours at room temperature. Any resin which exudes from the joint should immediately
be removed with a little acetone on a rag.
GENERAL GLASSWARE
A box for damaged glassware should be provided in the laboratory stores where the damaged
material should be kept until a quantity sufficient to make repairs worthwhile has
accumulated. Glassware which cracked, or so badly chipped or scratched that cannot be
repaired, should be thrown away. Burette is the glassware with highest casualty. Burette
breakages are largely due to careless washing underwater taps, small pieces being broken
from the tops of the burettes as they are withdrawn. To prevent this, a short piece of P.V.C.
tubing should be attached to each of the swan neck outlets in the laboratory. Other damaged
burette is usually restricted to the jets. If the top of the burette is to be repaired, a mark made
right around the stem at a point just below the damaged portion is touched with a fine point of
red-hot glass. The damaged portion then readily falls off.
FILTER FLASKS
MEASURING CYLINDERS
Any small cracking to the above apparatus can be corrected by carefully heated and smoothed
in the blow pipe flame.
THERMOMETERS
Thermometer repairs usually entail the joining up of broken mercury threads. This is not a
difficult operation and the immersion of the thermometer in a freezing mixture usually
suffices. Freezing mixtures, however, may not be readily available, and provided sufficient
care is exercised the thermometer may be waved in a yellow Bunsen flame, which drives the
mercury into the safety reservoir at the top of the capillary.
DESICCATORS
Many samples are left in desiccators with the best of intentions, only to be forgotten. All
samples should, be labelled. Old grease on the ground faces should be cleaned off regularly
and fresh grease applied. If cleaning is neglected the lid sticks and when efforts are made to
open it in the proper way by sliding it sideways it becomes difficult to move which on force
got broken. The condition of the drying agent is most important and should be regularly
renewed.
METALWARE
Maintenance of metal wares have been discuss under laboratory benches and tables.
LABORATORY FURNITURE
BLACKBOARDS
Blackboards are writing surfaces in the laboratories. To remove grease, the board should be
first clean down with a rag soaked in methylated spirits. One of the several proprietary brands
of blackboard paint may be used to resurface it, but such paint may be prepared as follows:
Dissolve 50g shellac in a pint of alcohol and place a mixture of 25g good quality lampblack,
25g emery powder, and 25g ultramarine blue on a fine strainer. The shellac solution is poured
on to the powders and stirred constantly until they gradually pass through the strainer.
BENCHES AND TABLES
Benches and tables constitute the main items of laboratory furniture and it is the tops of these
which require the most maintenance. In many laboratories the modern finishes such as
formica, stainless steel, P.V.C and certain enamels are used. The maintenance is to wipe from
them spilled liquids to prevent any harmful effect.
In most teaching laboratories bench tops are made of wood and these hardwoods contain
natural oils, therefore can be treated with raw linseed oil and thereafter with wax furniture
polish.
Alternatively, the bench may be left unpolished and given light applications of raw linseed oil
at regular intervals.
In laboratories where chemicals are extensively used, bench tops require extra protection and
the best method is to impregnate them with wax which should be work well into the grain. A
treatment involving the hot application of wax dissolved in xylene is the method of acidproofing bench tops. All laboratories workers must be encourage to use a piece of asbestos
beneath heated apparatus, since the waxed surface suffers from heat reflected down on to the
bench top.
In some laboratories metal wares are extended to bench top. apart from retort stands, tripods
and other items. They deteriorate very rapidly in chemical laboratories and need repainting at
regular intervals. It is essential that all rust be removed before painting. The metal bench
should be well scrubbed with a wire brush and afterwards rubbed down with emery paper
until a smooth surface is obtained. Aluminium paint is best for laboratory use and withstands
the effects of and heat better than any other.
Advantages of Metal bench tops
1. They cannot be attacked by pests
2. They are fire proof and free from shrinkage, warping and distortion
3. They have greater mechanical strength and a greater storage capacity in terms of
material-space ratio
4. They have good appearance
5. They are easily cleaned
Disadvantages of Metal bench tops
1. They are noisier
2. They have no natural warmth
3. If metals are chipped they may rust
4. Metal bench tops cannot be easily reconditioned after years of service
Examples of materials used in metal works: Stainless steel, zinc, galvanised iron,
aluminium, lead, nickel, monel metal and steel
Advantages of Wood bench tops (Teak)
1. They are durable
2. They resist attack by chemical and heat
3. They have pleasant appearance especially when polished
4. They are not expensive to construct
5. They have natural warmth or constant temperature
6. They cannot rust
Disadvantages of Wood bench tops (Teak)
1. Some of the wood are costly e.g. Teak
2. They are not readily available
3. Some of the woods are unsuitable for heavy wear because of its lower impact
resistance e.g. Mahogany
4. They could be burn by fire i.e not fire proof
Examples of wood used for bench tops: Teak, afrormosia, mahogany, iroko, European oak,
European beech, makore and afzelia