CONNECTEDNESS: A NEW DIMENSION OF CMC?
Ruth Rettie
Kingston University
Kingston Hill,
Surrey, KT2 7LB.
United Kingdom.
R.Rettie@Kingston.ac.uk
ABSTRACT
There has been relatively little research on consumer usage of text messages and Instant Messenger, whilst mobile phones
and email usage have been more widely addressed. This study compares consumer usage of four communication
channels: Instant Messenger, text messages, mobile phones and email, with the focus on consumer choice of
communication medium. The research used grounded theory and focus groups among young people.
Medium choice depended on functional factors, communication motives, personal preference and a perceived need for
'connectedness'. The paper argues that connectedness is a new dimension of CMC which presents major new
opportunities for technological development.
KEYWORDS
CMC, Connectedness, Email, Mobile Phones, Instant Messenger, Text Messages.
1. INTRODUCTION
Venkatesh (1998, p 670) writes, "the recent convergence of communication and information technologies has
created possibilities unthinkable only a few years ago". In the last decade usage of new communication
channels has expanded dramatically: given the proliferation of channels, how do users choose
communication channels? This research attempts to answer this question by comparing consumer usage and
attitudes to four communication channels: Instant Messenger, text messages, mobile phones and email. The
focus on consumer channel choice highlights connectedness as an important dimension of communication
that helps to explain usage of interpersonal media. Previous work on each of the four communication
channels is discussed briefly before reviewing the literature on communication channel choice.
1.1 Four communication channels
1.1.1 Instant Messenger
Instant Messenger (IM) is a proprietary, simplified version of Internet Relay Chat, which allows two or more
people have a conversation, in real-time, using text based messages with context awareness. In the U.S. 40%
of Internet users use messenger (Nielsen NetRatings, 2002). IM is used to avoid boredom, to socialise
(Schiano et al, 2002, Leung 2001), and to maintain contact with casual acquaintances (Lenhart et al, 2001).
Leung (2001) found seven motives for messenger use among college students: affection, inclusion,
sociability, entertainment, relaxation, escape and fashion. Nardi, et al (2000, 79) found that in the inactive
state of IM, participants sometimes monitor the presence of others, and use the medium "to sustain a sense of
connection".
1.1.2 Text messages
Short Message Service (SMS) or text messages were introduced in 1992. GSM (Global System for Mobile
Communication, 2003a) estimates that 360 billion SMS messages were sent through their networks in 2002.
SMS messages are quick, cheap, convenient and discrete (Eldridge and Grinter, 2001), less formal and more
private than email (Clarke and Strong, 2000), and used socially for networking, co-ordination, and managing
relationships (Döring, 2002). Grinter and Eldridge (2001) found that 63% of UK messages are sent from
home; they identify the 'goodnight ' text as a new type of message content.
1.1.3 Mobile phone calls
Globally, the number of mobile subscribers is estimated at 1 billion; in Europe, there are approximately 357
million subscribers (Gibney, et al, 2002; Global System for Mobile Communication, 2003b). Research on the
usage of mobiles has found they are useful for hyper-coordination, security, socializing, relieving boredom
and as a vehicle for parental control (Ling and Helmersen, 2000) and to express identity (Alexander, 2000).
For some, the mobile becomes almost a body part, an extension of the hand (Hulme and Peters, 2002).
1.1.4 Email
The number of email messages sent daily, worldwide, is expected to increase from 31 billion in 2002 to 60
billion in 2006, (Levitt and Mahowald, 2002). Lee (1996) described email as a hybrid medium combining
elements of phone calls and letters, i.e. conversational informality in text format. Research on email has
found that people are more uninhibited, non-conformist and conflictual when using email, and that email
broadens communication circles (Ducheneaut, 2002). Although, the primary use is communication, usage
includes socializing and developing relationships (Finholt et al, 1990). Schiano et al, (2002) found that
teenagers mainly use email for non-personal communication.
1.2 Communication channel choice
Communication literature includes two concepts which help to explain media choice: social presence and
media richness. Short, et al, (1976, p65) suggest the use of social presence theory for analysing mediated
communication, "We hypothesize that communications media vary in their degree of social presence, and
that these variations are important in determining the way individuals interact." Social presence is the extent
to which a medium conveys the actual presence of participants. In mediated communication, the absence of
non-verbal communication reduces social presence.
Media richness (Daft and Lengel, 1986, p560) is "the ability of information to change understanding
within a time interval". It is measured by its capacity for multiple cues and immediate feedback. Media
richness theory suggests effective communication is related to the appropriate choice of medium: lean media
are better for simple task related messages, whereas face-to-face is more effective for socially sensitive and
complex communication.
Computer-mediated communication is low in social presence (Rice and Love, 1987) and lean in media
richness (Walther, 1992). Reduced social cues (Sproull and Kiesler, 1986), and the absence of non-verbal
content may be compensated by overt social-emotional expression (Hiltz and Turoff, 1978) and increased
verbal immediacy (Walther, 1992; Gunawardena, 1995).
Uses and gratification theory (Katz, Blumler, and Gurevitch, 1974) explains the choice of communication
media in terms of the satisfaction of recognized needs and desires. Flaherty, et al (1998) found that face-toface communication was preferred to CMC for all social motives except for pleasure. Clark and Brennan
(1990) identify eight factors that constrain media choice: co-presence, visibility, audibility, co-temporality,
simultaneity, sequentiality, review-ability and revisability. Trevino et al (1987) found media choice in
organizations was influenced by: ambiguity of the message, richness of the medium, symbolic cues in the
medium and situational determinants.
2.
METHODOLOGY
The objective of the research was to explore communication channel choice and therefore qualitative
research was used. Six 1½-hour single sex focus groups were held, with four groups of university students
and two of teenagers, 13 - 14 years (female) and 15 - 16 years (male). Respondents were all users of IM, text
messages, mobile phones and email. The groups were recorded, transcribed and analyzed using grounded
theory as developed by Glaser and Strauss (1967). The content of each transcript was analyzed, line by line,
generating 95 open codes. This was followed by axial coding to develop connections between categories,
and then selective coding, integrating categories to build a theoretical framework.
3.
RESULTS
3.1 The four communication channels
3.1.1 Instant Messenger
"It’s like a text phone conversation"
male, 15/16 year old
IM is used for entertainment and socializing rather than for the delivery of information. Respondents felt
the main advantages of IM were its low cost and near-synchronicity, which created interactive conversation,
impossible with email. IM typically uses a small part of the screen while the user is multi-tasking or engaging
in other, simultaneous, conversations. The medium is undemanding: there is no cotemporaneous feedback
and users have time to think before responding. Respondents felt that IM is less personal than phone and text.
3.1.2 Text messages
"When you get a text, inside you feel kind of something, you feel something, I’ve got a text"
male student
Text is used in three quite different ways: to convey short factual information, for conversation, or as a
virtual greeting card. The main advantages of text are its ubiquity, impact, low cost and speed. Text messages
have immediate impact, but are less intrusive than phone calls. The medium is durable; messages may be
forwarded, or saved and shown to friends. Text is less socially demanding than phone calls, and is sometimes
used to avoid leaving messages on answer phones. 'Texting' is also seen as fun in its own right and ideal for
relieving boredom. Text messages are seen as personal despite their brevity, because the mobile phone itself
is so personal. Receiving a text is a pleasant experience; a text can be a small token of esteem that can be
saved and reread.
3.1.3 Mobile phone calls
"I forgot my phone the other day, and I felt naked without it."
male student
For most of these young respondents their mobile was their main telephone; the word 'phone' was used
interchangeably with 'mobile'. The main advantages of the phone are ubiquity, synchronicity and ability to
convey emotional connection between the participants. Voice tone improves comprehension; talking and
listening are easier and more immediate than typing. The mobile is inherently personal because it is carried
on the person; it is almost an extension of the physical person. However, the medium is demanding in terms
of social skills, concentration and time; this can deter use.
3.1.4 Email
"Email's just a bit like a postcard really, just say like the weathers nice and did this yesterday, and so and so,
just to sort of generally keep in contact"
male student
Respondents felt the role of email has changed and it was now mainly used to sustain social networks.
The asynchronicity of email makes it socially undemanding and allows time flexibility, which is convenient
for different time zones. The proliferation of SPAM and the ease with which emails can be forwarded deter
use for intimate communication. Many did not check their email regularly and messages can be lost because
in-boxes are too full, consequently email is unreliable for important communication. Forwards (forwarded
emails often containing jokes) are used for keeping in touch without effort.
3.2 Communication channel choice
Respondents frequently had all four technologies available and so channel choice was often pertinent.
Respondents were aware of the advantage of near-synchronicity afforded by SMS and IM. These
technologies provided 'thinking time' without the disruption and discontinuity of asynchronous
communication such as email. Less socially confident, or time-pressured participants, sometimes chose
leaner media with low social presence in order to avoid social embarrassment, or to save time either through
quicker communication or multi-tasking. Channels are not exclusive and can be complementary;
simultaneous and sequential use were both common. For example, a text to advise of an email, or talking on
the mobile while using IM.
Media choice depended on functional factors, personal preference, communication motives, and the 'need
for connectedness'. Functional aspects include: cost, availability, time, typing proficiency, and messagespecific characteristics such as sensitivity, confidentiality, quantity and urgency. Email, IM and text are less
appropriate for personally sensitive communication: respondents were also conscious of the ease with which
text-based messages can be forwarded. Personal preferences were relevant, some were happy to talk on the
phone, others found it embarrassing except with close friends and family. Communication motives were
mainly intrinsic or instrumental, and included relaxation, entertainment, social and affection. The main
motivation for mobile use was affection, for email it was social, and for IM it was entertainment. Text
message motives were generally either social or affection.
The most important, and least obvious choice factor, was the need for connectedness, a concept which
emerged from the research. The need for connectedness varied, sometimes respondents just wanted
connectedness without conversation, which IM could provide, at other times there was no desire for
connectedness and they would just send an email. Although mobiles increased connectedness, this could
generate anxiety and feelings of social inadequacy, therefore, less connected channels were sometimes
preferred. However, with partners and close family members, the need for connectedness was strongest and
they preferred to use their mobile phones. The channels provided different levels of connectedness:
respondents agreed that they generally felt most connected when using mobiles, followed by IM and text,
with email providing least connection.
3.3 Connectedness
"….you don’t need to reply, I just had to text to have contact out of here"
(excerpt from a text message, girl, 14 years).
The perceived connectedness of a medium appeared to be a function of media richness, social presence,
interactivity, duration, and information processing mode. Media richness affects the quantity and quality of
cues, e.g. voice tone; social presence creates awareness of the other party in the connection. Interactivity
creates the experience of connection through two-way communication, and is facilitated by synchronicity and
near-synchronicity. A longer duration of communication increases the experience of connectedness; duration,
in turn, may depend on the cost structure of the medium. Audio information processing has to be
cotemporaneous with audio source, which discourages multi-tasking, prevents scanning, increases focus and
generates a greater sense of connectedness. Threading in audio conversation is automatic, and whereas few
people can read and type, most can talk and listen: this facilitates connectedness in audio communication.
Channel connectedness is the perceived extent to which the medium facilitates the experience of
connectedness, but, the connectedness experienced during a specific communication will depend on the
particular circumstances and the participants. The concept of connectedness is related to the concept of social
presence, but it is not equivalent. Social presence refers to the perception of the other participant, whereas
connectedness is an emotional experience. The difference between the social presence and connectedness of
a channel is illustrated by IM and text messaging. The awareness that others are online in IM conveys
connectedness even when there is no message exchange; similarly, the exchange of 'goodnight' text messages
creates connectedness: in each of these examples there is virtually no social presence.
The identification of connectedness as a dimension of communication led to an extensive literature search
for the concept. The need for connectedness is recognized in psychology: Adler's (Adler and Brett, 1998)
concept of social interest refers to an individual's attitude and relationship to society, or social connectedness;
this determines both success in life and mental health. Social connectedness scales have been developed to
measure this dimension of behaviour (Lee and Robbins, 1995).
In social psychology (Smith and Mackie, 2000) the pursuit of connectedness is one of the three basic
motivating principles, which underlie social behaviour, this fundamental need for belonging and
connectedness promotes social relationships. Smith and Mackie (p 497) recognize the role of connectedness
in mediated communication, "Like traditional channels of communication, electronic communication is used
as much for enhancing connectedness as for attaining mastery through task performance".
There are few references to the experience of connectedness in communication literature; the references
found all relate to IM or similar technology, suggesting that connectedness is particularly apparent in IM, and
a new area of communication theory. Bradner (2001 p. 68) comments, "these affordances (i.e. connectedness
and plausible deniability) highlight important aspects of communication that impact adoption and are not
part of current media theories."
Nardi, et al, (2000, p79) report an ethnographic study of IM in the workplace and describe "some
unexpected uses of IM that highlight aspects of communication which are not part of current media
theorizing". Challenging the assumption of traditional media theory that communication is primarily the
exchange of information, the authors define outeraction as "a set of communicative processes outside of
information exchange, in which people reach out to others in patently social ways to enable information
exchange." These include negotiating conversation availability, conversational preambles and "creating and
maintaining a sense of social connection to others", (p 6). They found IM users monitored availability of
colleagues and exchanged greetings even when they did not want to exchange information; these 'awareness
moments', (p 7) "argue for a richer notion of communication than current media theories allow. Even when
no direct information exchange is taking place, people want to maintain connection with others, outside the
context of specific events of information exchange." However, whereas Nardi et al describe the connectedness
found in IM use in the workplace as something extrinsic to the communication process, in this research
connectedness was also part of the communication experience and occurred, to varying degrees, in all four
channels studied. Connectedness is not exclusive to IM, but is more noticeable because awareness technology
enables connectedness without information exchange, whereas, for example, on the phone it occurs during
the information exchange.
The concept of connectedness is related to background awareness, in that awareness of presence creates
the experience of connectedness. Researchers on distributed group work have found that background
awareness enables opportunistic encounters that facilitate co-ordination and motivation (Isaacs et al, 1997).
Hubbub (Isaacs et al, 2002) is a text based system similar to IM, which was designed to provide awareness
information, encourage opportunistic conversations, and allow people to stay connected when on the move.
Unlike IM, Hubbub incorporates auditory cues both in terms of sound IDs and shortcut sound messages
(earcons) associated with common messages (e.g. 'hi', 'thanks', LOL). A study of Hubbub usage found that
users enjoyed a sense of awareness of colleagues even when messages were not exchanged. Some users
simply exchanged greetings, indicating that Hubbub was used for connection, as well as for the exchange of
information. Most users developed a sense of connection with remote colleagues; this was expressed by one
respondent as "a sense of virtual companionship". This research on Hubbub indicates the potential for
connection technology in the workplace, potential for social usage is demonstrated by the connectedness
orientated communication devices devised by Kuwabara et al (2002).
Kuwabara et al (2002) argue that much of ordinary daily communication involves the development of
social relationships, but that most network communication is content orientated, i.e. aimed at the meaningful
exchange of the contents of messages. However, they point out that connectedness orientated communication
can be observed in conventional network communication, for instance in SMS communication, when the
"fact that a short message is transmitted may be more important than its contents", (p 3271). Connectedness
orientated communication is defined as exchanges which help people to be aware of each other and
contribute to maintaining social relationships; this communication need not be accompanied by written or
audio content.
Kuwabara et al (2002) describe four different connectedness orientated communication devices: two of
these monitor the presence and status of the user, translating this into changing light or video patterns and
passively creating a feeling of connection. The remaining two allow the user to convey status or mood
information, so that a sense of connectedness is created with minimal interruption. These creative devices can
be used to support distant family members, friends and distributed co-workers, sustaining connectedness
without the disruption of active communication. For example, their FamilyPlanter prototype is a small device
containing optical fibres that move and emit light when sensors on a similar remote device detect movement;
thus, the device conveys information about the presence of a remote family member in a non-intrusive way,
creating connectedness. Their FaintPop consists of small photo-frame devices containing small pictures of
family members or friends. To communicate users touch the picture of the recipient, using different strokes to
communicate neutral, negative or positive messages, whilst at the recipient end these messages are translated
into colours and animations of the relevant pictures.
Although the authors above focus on connectedness outside traditional communication, in this research it
was also found to be relevant to more traditional mediated communication. This is supported by ethnographic
analysis of telephone conversation content (e.g. Hutchby, 2000) which demonstrates that a large proportion
of telephone conversation is not the simple exchange of information.
3.4 Research Limitations
To ensure experience with all four technologies all respondents were under 25 and therefore the findings of
this research may be specific to this age group. These younger respondents sometimes preferred less
connected channels because they were less socially demanding. Older people are more socially confident:
social motives could be less relevant and time pressure more important in their choice of IM or text
messaging. This research was a small exploratory study; there is a need for larger scale research including
different age groups to validate the concept of connectedness in mediated communication.
4.
CONCLUSION
Previous research has suggested the superiority of richer media for gratifying communication needs
(Flaherty, et al, 1998); however, the young people in this study often preferred less rich media. Each of the
four technologies researched has its own inherent advantages and different degrees of connection; these
create specific roles and gratify different communication needs. These roles derive from communication
norms (such as use of abbreviation, absence of social niceties, length, etc) as well as from the intrinsic
characteristics of the original technology (e.g. word limit, synchronicity, sensory type). Contrary to
predictions, as technologies converge, with email and messaging being available on mobiles, and SMS and
VOIP (Voice Over Internet Phone) available on PCs, the different formats are likely to be retained because of
their specific roles. However, for these young people, the social role of email was tarnished by SPAM.
This research suggests there may be scope for interfaces that combine the benefits of different channels,
for example, the use of context-awareness technology in telephony, and the development of email-style
storage, organisation and subject notification on SMS. User penetration might be increased by voice to text
conversion, and text to voice for those intimidated by text interfaces. To increase user choice, design for
convergent personal communication devices could focus on enabling multiple formats, for instance enabling
SMS messages from email interfaces. Nardi et al (2002) suggest the integration of text-based awareness into
remote collaboration media and audio conferencing to facilitate negotiation of availability.
Designers could also develop new formats, such as the connectedness orientated devices developed by
Kuwabara et al (2002). Microsoft's new IM software (available from www.threedegrees.com) develops the
connectedness of IM allowing users to listen to music together and to send audiovisual animations called
'winks' onto each other's screens and. Saunders, (2003), quotes Microsoft's Erin Cullen, "… it's not about
communicating, it's about experiencing things together, having group situations and places where they can
socialize together". There may also be potential for technology that facilitates connectedness during
communication in existing communication channels, for example, sensors could convey information about
the emotional state of the participants, so that the closeness of romantic telephone conversation is enhanced
by the sound of heartbeats.
The identification of connectedness as a characteristic of mediated communication may help to explain
user attitudes to different media, for example, the experience of connectedness may be weak in video
conferencing and video phones because despite visual cues there is no eye contact, inhibiting rather than
increasing connectedness. Similarly, poor audio quality and automated answering machines disrupt telephone
connectedness. More generally, the concept helps to explain the importance of synchronicity, in that if
communication is in real time there is an experience of togetherness, this feeling of connectedness is
weakened by discontinuity in time. Connectedness is a neglected dimension of CMC which helps to explain
media choice and presents major new opportunities for technological development.
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