Implication of Rural-To-Urban Migration In Nepal
(A Social Inclusion Perspective)
Final Report
Submitted by
Janga Bir Rana Magar
Kathmandu, Nepal
Submitted to
Social Inclusion Research Fund Secretariat (SIRF)
SNV Nepal (Code No. SIRF/AG/07)
Bakhundole, Lalitpur,
P.O. Box. 1966
Kathmandu, Nepal
2008
1
Abstract
The specific objectives of this study was to explore types and nature of
problems experienced by the selected migrants at destination including their risk
behaviours; to identify the present situation of the migrants, particularly in
terms of employment, education, living conditions; and to study on the social
inclusion problems and behaviour of the migrants by gender, cast ethnicity, and
class variation. This study has identified the migrants' families from rural-tourban in the selected municipalities, which have been the places of destination
of migrants from rural areas. The study area has been only the place of
destination of migrants. The research area Biratnagar Sub-metropolitan City is
the second largest urban centre in Nepal. Biratnagar has a growing number of
population since last some decades. It is assumed that the contributing factor to
increased population is skyrocketing migration movement from rural to urban
area (Biratnagar). Both quantitative and qualitative data is collected for the
study. Migration is an ongoing problem in Nepal. The process of rural to urban
migration has been increased enormously after the Maoists insurgency. Due to
the internal armed conflict between the state and Maoists have forced many
families to migrate as a result they were facing economic hardships, shortage of
food, lack of health facilities, obstacles of movement and lack of education.
However this study could not reveal such hardship in economic aspect but the
problem in political participation has been noticed. Availability of health,
drinking water and education facilities made them happy. The concern of most
of the respondents and participants of focus group discussion was social
security of the place where they are living. Management of migration is an
important issue which has given less or almost in any priority. At the same time
the problem of internal displacement is getting bigger and has been attracting
concerns of various authorities in recent days. If the entire concerned
stakeholder came together to find out the solution, it would not have a problem.
This is a less identified national problem and, therefore, the entire stakeholder
should be joining hands to resolve it.
2
Contents
Pages
Acknowledgements
Table of contents
List of tables
Abbreviation
Abstract
1. Introduction
1.1. Background of the Study
1.2. Objectives of the Study
1.3. Significance of the Study
1.4. Organizations of the Study
1-6
1-4
4-4
4-6
6-6
2. Research problem hypothesis and methodology
2.1. Statement of problem
2.2. Conceptual framework
2.3. Scope and limitation of the study
2.4. Study methodology
7-13
7-8
8-9
9-10
11-13
3. Literature Review
3.1. Concept of Migration
3.2. Theoretical Perspective of Migration.
3.3. Social Exclusion as a Concept
3.4. Historical and Cultural Context of Exclusion in Nepal.
14-19
14-15
15-15
15-15
15-24
4. Background Characteristics and Analysis
4.1. Impact of Migration on Rural and Urban Economy
4.2. Response of Ethnic people on Social Exclusion
4.3. Response of Dalits on Social Exclusion
4.4. Response of Higher caste (Bahun/ Chettri) on Social Exclusion.
25-30
19-27
27-28
28-30
30-30
5. Summery, conclusion and recommendation
30-33
6. References
7. Appendixes
7.2.Background information of respondents
7.3.Sample areas
3
Acknowledgements
This report has come to fruition only through the help and insight of a great many
people and organizations to whom I am deeply grateful. First of these is the
SIRF/SNV Nepal whom I would like to express my deepest gratitude for giving me
the opportunity to conduct this research.
My sincere gratitude goes to Dr. Jagannath Adhikari, Martin Chautari for his
constant guidance and support as well as to Mr. Padma Prasad Khatiwoda for
giving me valuable suggestions.
Similarly, I would like to express my sincere thanks to Ms. Bijayawatee Rai for
travelling to the district where the research was conducted. I also would like to
thank to Mr. Ram Kumar Adhikari, Mr. Dip Magar and Ms. Pasang Phutti Sherpa
for their encouragement and support during the period of conducting this research.
My appreciation is also due to the local facilitators and all the respondents in the
field area, without whose local knowledge and information this report would not be
in the form it is today.
It is impossible to mention the name of each and every person who provided me
with their valuable inputs in helping me accomplish my activities. However, I
dedicate my final, and most important, words of appreciation to the people who
selflessly gave their time and shared their experiences with me. Without their vital
input this research would not have been possible.
Thank you,
Janga Bir Rana Magar
30 May, 2008
4
Chapter one
Introduction
1.1. Background of the study
Migration is a form of spatial mobility, which involves a change of usual residence
of a person between clearly designed geographical units. Migration has been and
important component of population redistribution in Nepal. One of the serious
population problems emerging during last decades is the migration of people from
rural to urban areas, which warrants national strategic planning to manage to reduce
or to reverse the trends. This proposed research aims to assess the social, economic,
and demographic situation of the migrants including factors contributing for the
migration. The research mainly concentrates on what processes are involved in
migration and how it creates exclusion or inclusion among migrants in the places of
destination.
The important aspect of migration is the social transformation that took place
amongst migrants and migrants’ families is contact with urban life altered their
attitude as they prefer to small size of the family. Migration is altogether not
undesirable as it helped the house holds ameliorate their wretched economic
condition, which they had experienced prior to their migration. Given the
conventional beliefs regarding differences in social bonds in cities and rural areas,
we could expect place of residence to have an effect on social isolation in the sense
that urban residents have a higher probability of social isolation than rural residents.
Studies have also shown that less educated individuals which is the major weakness
of the rural migrants, run higher risks of social isolation than people with medium
or high education. Ethnic minorities and Dalits more often than others feel they
cannot afford certain forms of social activities, which can very well have an impact
on their feeling of social inclusion. And the present situation of Terai conflict has
shown that, the migrants specially from hilly region is getting the feeling of
exclusion and insecurity.
Migration in Nepal
Rural-to-urban migration is a historical phenomenon. There is a tendency of people
moving from rural-to-urban areas of the country from the very beginning. It has
5
been found as evidence that the urban cities grew because of the rural people
coming to there and settling as inhabitants. The urban population is growing fast.
Taking as example, the total population of Kathmandu according to 2001 census
was hardly one million, and nowadays it is estimated to be around three million.
Rural-to-urban migration has been a natural phenomenon and no one can restrict
and control this because migration is treated as a rights-based approach currently.
Table 1 below presents of the trend of urban growth rates in Nepal. From a mere 2.9
per cent level of urban population in the 1950, the urban population has gone up to
almost 16 percent. At that time there were only 10 urban centres with a combined
population of only 238275 in 1952/54, the urban population increased to 336,222
or 3.6 pre cent of the total in 1961 with the addition of six towns. The 1971 census
recorded a total urban population of 461,938 or 4.0 pre cent of the total population,
by reclassifying five new urban centres and declassifying five that had been
included in the 1961 census. The 1981 census added seven more urban centres and
reached a total urban population of 956,721 or 6.4 per cent of the total population.
By 1991, Nepal had 33 urban centres, 10 urban centres were designated after 1981,
six in 1983 and four in 1987. Immediately after the 1991 census, three more centres
were added. The total urban population as recorded in the 1991 census stands at
1,659,719, or 9.1 per cent of the total population. With the addition of three more
towns, the combined urban population as of 1992 statistics at 1,759,964 or 9.5 per
cent of the total population. Migration has played an important role in the growing
number people in the urban areas. Natural growth rate is low in urban areas as
compared to rural areas. But the percentage of population is higher in urban areas
than in rural areas due to the sky rocketing flow of migration in urban areas from
rural areas (KC, 2003).
Table 1: Urbanization and Rural-Urban Growth Rates
Year
Percent
Urban
1952/54
2.9 (10)
1961
3.6 (10)
1971
4.0 (16)
1981
6.4 (23)
1991
9.2 (33)
2001
14.2 (58)
2006
16.0 (58)
Source: CBS, 2003; NDHS, 2006
Urban
4.53
3.23
7.55
5.89
6.05
-
6
Growth rate
Rural
1.56
2.03
2.40
1.79
1.72
-
Total
1.65
2.07
2.66
2.08
2.25
-
Note: The figures in the parenthesis indicate number of urban centres in the
respective censuses.
Urban population growth in Nepal is conditioned by reclassification amalgamation
of rural areas. The dichotomy between urban and rural in many urban centres is
vague. In this situation, once considered rural-to-urban migration would constitute
intra-urban, urban-to-urban or even rural-to-urban migration.
The effect of rural-to-urban migration has been increased in several sectors. The
enormous pressure for shelter and services has rapidly frayed the urban fabric,
especially in the Kathmandu valley. Today, the Kathmandu valley municipalities
(Kathmandu, Lalitpur and Bhaktapur) are facing several challenges to maintain
their infrastructure, employment and sanitation properly. Proliferation of slum is
rapid out side and inside the ring-road; public transport is overcrowded and
overused as are roads, public latrines and public spots; the water supply system is
fragile, allowing sewerage to sleep into drinking water and spreading infectious
diseases1.
In the last decade, the major cities has increasingly become the major employment
centre, especially for teenagers and youths working in carpet and garment
industries, restaurants, hotels, retail shops, trekking centres and bus terminals etc. A
study conducted by CWIN2 on child labour in Nepal revealed that out of the 34 ragpickers interviewed in different places in Kathmandu, 20 were migrants and 14
were non-migrants. The average daily earnings were reported to be approximately
equal to US dollar 0.5. About 60 per cent of the country’s population falls below
the poverty line and high levels of unemployment and underemployment persist in
rural areas. There is a gradual shifting of the rural poor to urban areas.
Migration from rural to urban areas by gender also shows changes. The
preponderance of males in urban areas reflects and early stage of urbanization in
Nepal in which movement of people from rural to urban areas is mostly male.
Except for a few women involved in white collar jobs, the majority of migrant rural
women work as labourers in the non-agricultural sector. Wool-spinning, carpetweaving and knitting are the major employment sectors for rural migrant women in
1
2
KC, Balkumar, 2003
CWIN Annual Report 2005
7
urban areas, especially in the Kathmandu valley. Textile is another sector with a
high concentration of female workers. In both sectors women are paid low wages.
These women face insecurity, sex abuse and adverse effects on their health in the
long term. According to a UNICEF report3, women’s employment, particularly of
migrant women, is inversely related to mechanization and size of investment in the
industrial establishment.
1.2. Objectives of the study
The overall goal of the proposed study is to assess the social, economic and
demographic situation of the migrants including factors contributing for the
migration. The following are the specific objectives:

To explore types and nature of problems experienced by the selected
migrants at destination including their risk behaviours;

To identify the present situation of the migrants, particularly in terms of
employment, education, living conditions; and

To study on the social inclusion problems and behaviour of the migrants by
gender, cast ethnicity, and class variation
1.3. Significance of the Study
Nepal has been experiencing an increasing volume of internal migration since the
control of endemic malaria in the Tarai and inner Tarai areas in the early nineteenfifties. Whereas Tarai has continuously served as primary receiving area and
mountain and hill as sending areas, internal migration has been become as long
standing phenomena and it’s volume is increasing day by day. Rural-to-urban
migration takes place in societies in transition from agricultural to urban and
industrial economies. Such migration encourages qualified workers to move from
rural villages to urban areas and their periphery. Often those left at home get
trapped in a vicious circle of poverty and rural underdevelopment. Rural areas thus
continue to leg behind in spite of heavy investment in rural development efforts.
3
UNICEF Report 2005
8
Despite the attempt to gain knowledge of such important aspects of migration,
rural-to-urban migration has not been monitored by any governments. National
statistical organizations do not attach much importance to collection census or
survey data to capture the magnitude, nature, causes, and consequences of rural-tourban migration. Despite having an overwhelming pattern of migration, rural-tourban migration has been relatively neglected by the policy makers and the
planners. As a result, causes and consequences of migration particularly from social
inclusion perspective has been virtually unknown to the development scientists.
As the rural resources of land and forest are exhausted, people are compelled to
search for option for their living. Rural-to-urban migration is the only way out for
people looking for better opportunities in terms of occupation, employment,
education, and other infrastructural facilities. This scenario has both pros and cons.
On the one hand, the deprived ones after coming to the cities or urban areas make
their fate. On the other, the rural areas get trapped in underdevelopment because of
loosing able persons to towns and cities.
This empirical research will highlight the internal migration (rural-to-urban
migration) in Nepal as a major component of population change. The major
problem regarding internal migration is lack of migration statistics in a comparative
way for various migration characteristics. One knows that the growing pattern of
rural-to-urban migration has been becoming problematic because it is such a
phenomena which imbalances population redistribution. More volume of
population is concentrated in the cities and the VDCs become a sparsely distributed
population. The urban areas also get problems of many kinds due to the
skyrocketing flow of people from the rural areas. The host community people in the
urban areas have to face diverse kinds of problems such as intolerance, crime,
looting, and so on.
The Process of migration has both individual and group consequences. For the
individual, migration may result in stress, in the disorganization of daily life, or
even in various forms of mental illness. The migrant often sustains a period of
unemployment, final insecurity, and educational disadvantage in competing job
market. The migrants have to cope with a new environment is to seek out others
who share their cultural and geographical backgrounds. They have to face
9
difficulties in adjusting new environment such as cultural and social differences in
the place of destination. The migrants may not have access in social resources due
to the lack of proper information and discriminating behaviour of host communities.
It creates exclusion.
This research is exploring the socio, economic and demographic situation of
migrants as well as their age-sex characteristics and problems they are facing. This
research is also trying to figure out the overall implication of rural-to-urban
migration. The research is exploring the social inclusion problems of migrants
which will be helpful for the government and non-government agencies and
researchers for the policy implication regarding the migrants.
This study is exploring the recent trends in migration, especially the rural-to-urban
migration. It will further identify how migrants are excluded, what processes are
involved, and how to reduce this gap. Particularly, the issues of the excluded groups
those who have been migrants or have the family members of the migrants will be
explored by this study.
1.4. Organization of the Study
This study encompasses five chapters. The first chapter constitutes the introduction
with objectives of the study and significance of the study. The second chapter
describes the statement of problem, conceptual framework, scope and limitation of
the study and study methodology. The third chapter accommodates the literature
review which includes concept of migration, theoretical perspective of migration,
and social inclusion as a concept. The fourth chapter analyses the available data
with background characteristics and the fifth chapter summarizes the research
findings with conclusion.
10
Chapter Two
Research problem hypothesis and methodology
2.1 Statement of problem
When people leave their places of origin, they have to face many problems. Social
exclusion is one of the main problems. The migrants have to leave their traditional
norms and values at the origin and have to habituate with the new and recent ways
of lives in the cities. This creates exclusion. As a result many incidents of political,
social, cultural and economic exclusion are heard among the migrants to the city
areas. Exclusion, thus, has been one of the burning implications of the rural-tourban migration in Nepal.
Of the three demographic processes: birth, death, and migration, the latter remains
the least understood and researched area in Nepal. There has been a steady increase
in the volume of rural-to-urban migration since 1971. But the level of information
varies and makes it difficult to trace trends of rural-to-urban migration in Nepal.
There are several problems in the field of rural-to-urban migration in Nepal. The
major problems of internal migration are discussed here below.
Lack of information: Information on causes and consequences of either
international or internal migration at both macro and micro level is severally
lacking. There is a large gap between the increasing volume of migration and timely
documentation. As a result, the migrants have to face exclusion of many kinds.
No mechanism to monitor population movement: There is no systematic
monitoring of population movements by national and international authorities.
Central Bureau of Statistics (CBS), the only agency of Nepal responsible for the
record keeping and dissemination of diverse types, even having conducted series of
10 decennial censuses, has not concentrated yet on counting and reporting all types
of population movements. Unless a mechanism to monitor all kind of migrants in a
form of the record of population movements is made, regulating migration becomes
a buzz talk only.
Issues of exclusion: Migrants have to face many types of exclusion. Those having
no permanent certificates of the migration have to be deprived of many civil,
11
political, economic and social rights. One example can be given in the context of
Nepal that many migrants to the city areas have been deprived of right to vote in the
upcoming election of the Constituent Assembly.
2.2 Conceptual frame work
Place of destination
Place of origin
Rural to Urban
Migration
Push factors
Rural income
Pull factors
Urban income
Development
change:
infrastructure,
technologies,
communication
etc.
Demographic
change: sex
ratio, marriage
trends,
dependency ratio
etc.
Social inclusion/
exclusion
Cultural change:
diffusion of culture,
diffusion of religion
etc.
Social change: inter
community
interaction,
heterogeneous
society, looting
robbery etc.
Economic
change: diffusion
of skills, supply
of cheap labour
etc.
Political change:
biasness in
participation,
survival strategy,
community
interaction etc.
Others: tension between native and migrants in
terms of wage rate, resource use, water, fuel,
grazing land, forest, buying and selling land,
common properties, inter community
interaction, randomness of people etc.
Rural-urban migration once viewed favorable in the economic development
literature. Internal migration was thought to be a natural process in which surplus
12
labor was gradually withdrawn from the rural sector to provide needed manpower
for urban industrial growth. Starting from the assumption that migration is primarily
an economic phenomenon, which for the individual migrant can be a quite rational
decision despite the existence of urban unemployment, the Todaro model postulates
that migration proceeds in response to urban-rural differences in expected income
rather than actual earnings (Todaro, 1974).
There are various factors contributing internal migration (rural-urban) in Nepal such
as state policy, free buys and sells of land, welfare policy of state. Similarly,
unemployment, economic underdevelopment, political instability, low wage salary,
poor working facilities, unsuitable institution, desire for better life etc. are the push
factors of internal migration in Nepal. The consequences of internal migration
(rural-urban) migration, both negative and positive are to be considered. Some of
the consequences of internal migration (rural-urban) are identified as follows which
creates social inclusion and exclusion to the migrated people in urban area.

Development expansion: Expansion of rapid development in migrants area
(urban area), new infrastructure building say construction of roads, power,
farming system, drinking water distribution system, schools colleges,
veterinary, communication system etc. are improved. But the migrant people
might be at risk of excluding from these development resources. Because
they have low access in these facilities due to the lack of information and
knowledge. They may not have access to all development efforts.

Demographic change: Increasing man-land ratio, over supply of cheap
labour, changing sex ratio, changing marriage trends, changing dependency
ratio etc. are demographic consequences of rural-urban migration. Because
of these changes migrant people may have face various types of exclusion
such as in employment, buying land and house, uses of public resources etc.

Social impact: There might be intercommunity interaction programs,
formation of heterogeneous society, social disharmony, looting, robbery are
social impacts rural-urban migration. Community interaction practices may
contribute in the some part of inclusion but there might be risk of exclusion
13
to the migrants such as education, employment, resources, information,
adjustment in the new society etc.

Cultural change: Cultural problems, diffusion of culture and diffusion of
religion are another consequences of internal migration. The migrants have
to leave their traditional norms and values at the origin and have to habituate
with the new and recent ways of lives in the cities. This creates cultural
exclusion.

Economic exclusion: According to Todaro's model, there is high chance of
getting good wages in urban areas as compared to rural areas but some of
facts show that the migrants have low access in resources in place of
destination, such as in carpet industries etc, (Shrestha, 2003). They are
compelled to work in low wage. They are not allowed to participate in
economic matters. So they have to be excluded from economic
beneficiaries.

Political exclusion: The migrants are isolated from the political matters.
They have to be involved in survival strategy in city areas, so they get less
chance to participate in political functions. Likewise, they don't allow to
participate in political matters as being migrants because of dominant role of
native people.
2.3 Scope and limitation of the study
As discussed above, the nature of the proposed study is the implication of rural-tourban migration. There are 58 urban centres where the big volume of migration is
centralised. There are 58 urban centres known as municipalities in the context of
Nepal. According to the suggestion of my research mentor from the selected two
urban centers Biratnagar and Nepalgunj previously, keeping in view of the
constraints of time and cost only Biratnagar Sub-Metropolitan city has been
selected for the research study.
14
2.4. Research methodology
This study has identified the migrants' families from rural-to-urban in the selected
municipalities, which have been the places of destination of migrants from rural
areas. Overall, the following methods have been developed for the study purpose.
Study area
The study area has been only the place of destination of migrants. The
research area Biratnagar Sub-metropolitan City is the second largest urban
centre in Nepal. Biratnagar has a growing number of population since last
some decades. It is assumed that the contributing factor to increased
population is skyrocketing migration movement from rural to urban area
(Biratnagar).
Table 2: Study area
SN
Place
No. of clusters
1
Biratnagar
5
Nature of data
Both quantitative and qualitative data will be collected for the study. The
quantitative data is collected in order to figure out the age, sex and
caste/ethnicity composition of migrants. The qualitative data will explore
the overall issues of migrants from rural areas, implication of migration
including problems of social inclusion of migrants.
Research design and sampling
This study was based on exploratory research design. Overall, the following
procedures were applied. One urban place, Biratnagar will be the main study
area. In Biratnagar municipality, clusters are identified purposively
depending upon the extent and volume of migrant families' settlement. At
least five clusters from Biratnagar municipality are identified and all the
households with in that clusters are taken for the study unless they reach 25
in number. This shows that a total of 125 households will be selected in total
in the places of destination (Table 3).
15
Table 3: Selection of Households
SN Place
1
2
No. of No. of urban No.
of No. of household
district places
cluster
Biratnagar 1
1
5
125 (25 from each
cluster)
Total
1
1
5
125
Selection of Sample Clusters:For the collection of field data, by simple random sampling 5 wards were
taken out of total 22 wards. List of Toles (cluster of Household within a
ward) was made by taking secondary data from the Municipality office. In
addition we visited the major localities of the 5 wards to find out first hand
newer settlements areas. This was important for our study because newer
settlements comprises of new migrants. Hence, the five clusters were
selected on the basis of the rural migrants from Mountain, Hill and Terai
regions.
Selection of respondents
The respondents of this research were the Nepali immigrants living in urban
areas and who had migrated from rural areas after 1990, the restoration of
democracy. The respondents of the research were migrant males and
females aged 15-64 from each of the selected household in the places of
destination those who were migrants (aged 15-64) in their household and
could give information of them regarding migration so that the major
problems of social inclusion can be drawn from them. In the case of spouse,
one of them who was responsible for overall household decision was
selected as the respondent. It was assumed that 2 (male and female)
respondents fulfilling the above criteria were identified from each of the
households, which clarified that the total number of respondents.
Problems encountered during the field survey;
i.
Respondent not believing that
we were in research study and
thought that we were from NGOs to collect data just to get our daily
stipend and did not want to give time for the interview.
16
ii.
We could not meet many of the male respondents since they have
gone abroad for job or some are in government jobs who are
working in other parts of Nepal.
iii.
The respondents do not know the forms of exclusion they are facing;
it’s in their subtle mind which is very difficult to pinpoint or to jot
down the qualitative information.
iv.
Using the SRS was not correct enough to find the proper respondent
so we have to face lot of problems in selecting the respondents.
Research tools
The main research tools for this study was structured questionnaires,
household schedule and individual schedule (closed ended) and question
related to inclusion/exclusion (open ended) drafted here with. There were
two sections of questionnaires-household schedule and individual schedule.
The household schedule was used for the information on the household,
which will include their names, age, sex, literacy status, occupation, and so
on where as the individual schedule mainly deled with the issues related to
migrant respondents keeping in mind the objectives of the research.
Furthermore, five FGDs and was done for the cross-verification the data for
which checklist (drafted herewith).
Data collection procedure and analysis of data
All the quantitative data will be analyzed using simple statistical techniques
such as frequency distribution and cross-tabulation. For the purpose, data
collected in the field will be edited and coded for computer entry. The
cleaned data will be entered into SPSS/PC software and SPSS system file
will be prepared for output such as generating frequency and percentage
tables. In the case of qualitative data, data/information will be transcribed
and they will be reviewed, categorized and analyzed.
Chapter Three
17
Literature Review
3.1 Concept of Migration
Migration means movement of person from one place called origin to another place
called destination. Migration can be termed as voluntary and involuntary. Voluntary
migration is the choice issue of person family or mover which includes a specific
purpose but involuntary migration is not choice issue of a person or family. The
nature of involuntary migration is forceful. It may be permanent or temporary. So
the term is best known as forced migration. Forced migration is defined as a general
term that refers to the movement of refugees and internally displaced by natural or
environmental disasters, famine or development project. Forced migration can be
divided into three types:
-
Conflict induced migration/displacement
-
Development induced migration/displacement
-
Disasters included migration/displacement
3.2. Theoretical Perspective of Migration.
The table below reflects the summary of various theoretical approaches to
migration.
Determinants of migration
Effects
Economic
Positive
Negative
Unit of analysis
Individual
Household / family
Todaro
Stark, ‘new
Push-pull
economics’
Institutions
Marxism
Structuralism
Sociological/
anthropological
---------- Structuration theory ------------------- Gender analyses ----------
Economic approaches focus on individual behaviour, and emphasise positive
aspects of migration. Famous is Todaro’s (1969) analysis of rural-urban migration.
Push-pull models are an extension of this. These analyses assume that migrants act
individually according to a rationality of economic self interest. The decision to
move to cities would be determined by wage differences, plus expected probability
of employment at the destination. In the ‘new economics of migration’, Stark
18
(1991) extended the Todaro model, by emphasising households rather than
individuals as units of analyses, and remittances as an inter-temporal contractual
arrangement between the migrant and the family. Marxism and structuralist theories
focus on political and other institutions that determine migration, and tend to
emphasise the negative consequences. Migration is not a choice for poor people, but
the only option for survival after alienation from the land. Sociological and
anthropological approaches, including gender analyses portray more complex
pictures of migration. Recent theories have emphasised that analyses need to
incorporate both individual motives, institutions and the structural factors in which
the migrants operate, in the form of a ‘structuration theory’ (Chant and Radcliffe
1992). The analysis builds in, e.g., an awareness of cultural underpinnings,
including about ‘destiny’, ‘myths of origin’, and ‘honour’. Gender analysis has
made a crucial contribution to understanding the institutions that structure migration
processes. Gender is seen as “an essential tool for unpicking the migration process”
(Wright 1995, Sinclair 1998). There is now more emphasis on differential migration
responses by men and women (themselves context dependent), gender
discrimination in returns to migrant labour, and the gendered nature for motives of
remitting, as determined by gender-differentiated inheritance rules.
3.3. Social Exclusion as a Concept:
Migration is usually taken as forced or voluntary. In case of voluntary migration
people migrate with the hope of better life. Since migration process especially in the
selection of destination begins with information about destination. Socio-economic
and political consequences are literally discussed in several literatures but migration
has social exclusion process and consequences are less discussed. Several aspects of
exclusion has been illustrated viz. caste discrimination, linguistic discrimination,
unemployment, citizenship problem, economic activities bar, poor representation in
politics.
3.4. Historical and Cultural Context of Exclusion in Nepal.
3.5. IDPs and Exclusion
19
During the past decades, awareness of the situation of persons who have been
forced to live their places of usual residence for a Varity of reasons has been rising.
Due to the lack of single definition of internally displaced persons, estimates of
their number vary as to the causes of their migration. However, it is generally
accepted that these causes range from environmental degradation to natural disaster
and internal conflicts that destroy human settlements and forced people in particular
area in many cases subjected to displacement given the forced nature of their
movement. The working definition of IDP is recent, considering that the issue of
Internally Displaced Persons was linked before to that of Refugees.
The most widely used definition is “Persons who have been forced to flee their
homes suddenly or unexpectedly in large numbers, as a result of armed conflict,
internal strife, systematic violations of human rights or natural or made-man
disasters; and who are the territory of their own country" By defining an internally
displaced person as one who is forced from his home, the 1992 definition
needlessly complicated the search for acceptable--not ideal--solutions. The IDP
definition, unlike the refugee definition, did not mention a government's willingness
or ability to protect displaced persons. By making location the essence of the IDP
definition, and not the right to be protected, it did not offer the restoration of one's
rights in another location as a durable solution for internally displaced people
(General Secretary on IDPs, 1992).
The New Guiding Principles include a definition that addresses many of these
flaws. It defines internally displaced persons as: “persons or groups of persons who
have been forced or obliged to leave their homes or places of habitual residence, in
particular as a result of or in order to avoid the effects of armed conflict, situations
of generalized violence, violations of human rights or natural or human-made
disasters, and who have not crossed an internationally recognized state border”. The
1998 definition, although not formally endorsed at this writing, vastly improves the
1992 definition, particularly because it drops problematic language such as
"suddenly or unexpectedly in large numbers," and adds language, such as "places of
habitual residence," so that the focus is broader than the home per se. It’s more
nuanced and realistic description of the causes of displacement includes as IDPs not
20
only persons directly forced to flee but also persons obliged to leave to avoid
generalized violence and human rights abuses The definition retains persons
displaced by natural or human made disasters. In part, this is because the definition
is descriptive of the term "internally displaced person" itself. Unlike the term
"refugee", which denotes a legal status delineating a particular subset of externally
displaced persons, persons forced to leave their homes because of earthquakes or
dam projects are, indeed, descriptively "internally displaced persons" whether or
not their reasons for flight are similar to those of refugees.
Lance Clark suggested the definition of "internally displaced person" must
encompass people displaced within their own country for reasons that have nothing
to do with armed conflict or human rights violations. So the task shifts from
defining the internally displaced to establishing criteria to determine who among
them are of particular concern to the international community (NRC, 2005).
To conclude the above definition for the case of Nepal, IDPs are the persons or
group of persons or the whole family members who have forced to leave the place
of origin due to the threats, extortion, operation and other inhuman treatment by
conflicting parties. These people are settling either in their respective district
headquarters or major cities of the country (Khatiwada, 2004).
Internal displacement is one of the great tragedies in the world today, with millions
of people every year being forced to flee within their own country from war and
violence (Raymond Johansen, Secretary General of the NRC, 2001).
Internal displacement especially the conflict induced internal displacement is
emerging worldwide as burning problems. Study on forced migration is, therefore,
becoming more meaningful community up to 21st century when incidences of war,
human trafficking and human smuggling and so on are taking place. Estimates on
number of IDPs are said to be controversial due to debate over definitions. IDPs are
rarely counted accurately, however, due in part to disagreements over how to define
who is internally displaced. This is tied to a lack of awareness of their needs as a
population, and a shortage of resources devoted to establishing an accurate
21
statistical base of knowledge. Hence, the estimate of 20-25 million IDPs frequently
cited by commentators may well fall short of the actual total. In contrast, the United
Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) estimates that the number of
refugees globally is some 12.1 million(UNHCR, 2002).
The number of IDPs around the world is estimated to have risen from 1.2 million
in 1982 to 14 million in 1986. At the end of 2001 there were estimated to be 22
millions IDPs worldwide (NRC, 2003).
In world, Some 25 million people are now internally displaced due to conflicts that
have spread since the Cold War More than half of the world's displaced people are
in Africa. Most of them concentrated in Sudan, Angola and Congo. Afghanistan,
Indonesia, Turkey and Colombia have over a million each. Iraq, Azerbaijan, Sri
Lanka, Burma and India have over half-a-million each. In Burundi and Lebanon,
IDPs make about 10 percent of the population. Though smaller in number, IDPs in
Liberia, Sierra Leone, Guinea and Chechnya have faced widespread human rights
abuses (NRC, 2003).
Some 25 million internally displaced people, most of them victims of civil wars, are
unable to return to their homes and remain exposed to serious human rights abuses.
The victims of internal displacement often cannot count on their governments for
Protection. Even more worryingly, in several cases the governments themselves are
responsible for the forced displacement of their citizens (NRC, 2004).
The global crisis of internal displacement, which affects 52 countries across all
continents, has unfolded largely unnoticed by the public. The number of refugees
crossing international borders is only half that of internally displaced people. More
than 3 million people were uprooted in 2003 alone; most of them in Africa which
accounts for half of the worlds internally displaced. The countries with the largest
displaced populations included Sudan with 4 million people, the DRC and
Colombia with some 3 million, and Uganda, Iraq and Burma with one million or
more. The world's ten worst displacement situations in 2003 could be found in
22
Burma, Burundi, Colombia, Côte d'Ivoire, the DRC, Indonesia (Aceh), Liberia,
Chechnya, Somalia and Sudan (NRC, 2004).
Table 2.1: Numbers of IDPs (estimates as end of 2003)
IDPs (in million)
Region
Countries
12.7
Africa
20
3.6
Asia-Pacific
11
3.3
America
4
3.0
Europe
12
2.0
Middle East
5
24.6
Global
52
Sources: Norwegian Refugee Council, 2004.
3.6. Conflict induced migration in Nepal
The conflict has created yet another serious problem in Nepal- the people have been
forced to leave their place and thereby to live a difficult life.
In the absence of any registration of these migrants and of any systematic
monitoring of population movements by national authorities or by international
organizations, it is difficult to provide any accurate estimates on the total number of
people displaced since the conflict started in 1996, or for that matter of people
currently displaced. This problem is further compounded by the hidden nature of
displacement in Nepal, where people are forced from their homes either to merge
into social networks of friends and families or to mingle with urban migrants en
route for district headquarters or the capital.
Since the conflict started in the mid-1990s, hundreds of thousands of people have
been uprooted across the country. Landowners, teachers, and other government
employees have been specifically targeted by the rebels and have fled their homes.
Poorer sections of the population have also been affected and have fled forced
recruitment into Maoist forces, retaliation by security forces or the more general
effects of war. Most of them have flocked to the main urban centers, in particular to
the capital, Katmandu. Many more have swollen the migration flows to India. No
reliable figures exist on the current number of people internally displaced due to the
conflict, but the most realistic estimates put it at between 100,000 and 200,000.
23
Some estimates of the total number of displaced, including refugees in India, since
the fighting began in 1996 go as high as two million, though these are impossible to
verify (NRC, 2005).
An IDP study conducted in early 2003 by a group of NGOs and UN agencies
concluded that a reasonable working figure on the total number of people displaced,
directly or indirectly, by the conflict was between 100,000 and 150,000 (GTZ et al.,
2003).
Since then, the intensification of the conflict has thrown many more into
displacement. INSEC, Nepalese human rights NGO, recorded the displacement of
some 50,000 people between 2002 and 2004 (INSEC, 2005).
However, anecdotal evidence and other studies suggest the figures could be much
higher. Between 2003 and 2004, estimates from various sources put the number of
displaced at between 200,000 in urban areas only (One World, 2003 and Nepal
News, 2003) and 400,000 (CSWC, 2004).
Many uprooted by conflict and human rights abuses Tens of thousand of people
have been displaced in Nepal due to the military activity of both the Maoist rebels
and the government forces, and the more general effects of war. Particularly after
November 2001, when security deteriorated markedly in rural areas, many people
started fleeing to urban district centers, large cities like Kathmandu, Biratnagar,
Pokhara and Nepalgunj, and across the border to India. All 75 districts of Nepal are
now to varying degrees affected by the fighting, with the rebels more or less
controlling the rural areas and the government’s presence mainly restricted to
district headquarters and urban centers. (ICG, 2004).
When considering the scope of displacement in Nepal, one has to keep in mind that
all figures are highly speculative estimates which are impossible to verify. In
addition, the problem is to accurately estimate how many have fled as a
consequence of the conflict and how many are “regular” urban or economic
migrants. Based on available data, it is estimated that between 100,000 and 200,000
people are currently internally displaced directly or indirectly by the conflict. This
24
figure does not include those who have fled abroad. (ICG, 2003 and WFP, Personal
communication, 2003).
The Asian Development Bank (ADB) suggested that between 300,000 and 400,000
rural families, or between 1.8 and 2.3 million people had been displaced by the
conflict since 1996 (ADB, 2004).
An IDP study conducted in the beginning of 2003 by a group of interested NGOs
and UN agencies concluded that a reasonable working figure on the total number of
people displaced, directly or indirectly, by the conflict was between 100,000 and
150,000(The Kathmandu Post, 2003).
A UNDP's RUPP census conducted in 2003 suggests that between 2001 and 2003,
some 80,000 people could have migrated to urban areas due to the conflict. This
figure does not include displacement to other rural areas (NRC, 2005).
According to the Nepalese NGO 'Community Study and Welfare Center' (CSWC),
between 350,000 and 400,000 people are internally displaced in Nepal. This
estimate is based on a study conducted at the end of 2003, which identified 160,000
IDPs in 5 districts in the Mid-western region. Based on this figure, CSWC contends
that if the ratio total population/IDPs be extrapolated to the rest of the country, the
total figure could reach 400,000 people (CSWC, 2004).
According to the government's Task Force on IDPs, more than 100,000 people have
been displaced since 1996(The Rising Nepal, 2004).
According to the Nepal Maoists Victims’ Association (NMVA), some 60,000
people displaced by Maoists' actions have sought refuge in Katmandu (NMVA,
2004). INSEC, the largest Human Right NGO in the country, is the only
organization keeping track of population movements across the country. According
to their records, a total of 50,000 people have fled their homes between 2001 and
2004. They acknowledge that their figures only show the 'tip of the iceberg', as the
majority of displacement movements go unreported (INSEC, 2005).
25
The Minister of Finance, while addressing a donor conference, stated that the
numbers of IDPs were estimated to stand between 300,000 and 600,000 (MoF,
2005). According to a study by the International Labour Organization (ILO) and
Child Workers in Nepal Concern (CWIN), released in June 2005, some 40,000
children have been displaced by violence in the nine years of the armed insurgency
(NCR, 2005).
Pattern of displacement
It appears that most of the people from the districts of the East, North east and
South Central/East of Nepal have moved to Kathmandu while the Western, North
and Southern West have moved to Surkhet district headquarters at Birendranagar.
However, we also found that some people from Far Western districts like Rukum,
Salyan, Baitadi, Kailali and Darchula had moved to Kathmandu, over a period of
time. This information is further corroborated through our findings from informal
discussions and focus group discussions with groups of people in Kathmandu and
Surkhet. Most of the people came directly to the district headquarters. However,
even within that area many have moved house several times. Some people have
gone to district headquarters and then come to the capital city. A majority of people
seem to have moved mainly to urban areas, primarily with the expectation of
finding some kind of succor and a greater abundance of opportunity for finding
some kind of work" (Rai, 2005)
.Nature of displacement
Figure 2.2: Nature of displacement
26
Source: INSEC, 2004.
Some people have resided in nearby villages with their relatives to instantly seek
refugee from increasing dangers, the others for long term security have sought
refugee in district headquarters and the other district headquarters where they have
some one of their acquaintance. But there are many people who have directly
migrated to the capital city or such other larger towns where they have access
(INSEC, 2004).
Main causes of IDPs
After the conflict started in the mid 1990s between government and Maoists, then
the major causes of internal displacement of people in Nepal is the armed conflict.
NRC, 2004, included three types of reasons for displacement.
a. Fear of being trapped in the crossfire
b. Fear of being targeted by Maoists. And
c. Fear of police persecution, as they are seen by police as being closer
to Maoists (Sapkota, 2005).
In March 2005, the UN, international donors and aid agencies in Nepal publicly
called on both parties to respect human rights and warned that the conflict, and in
particular restrictions imposed on the movements of supplies and vehicles, was
leaving many civilians without access to humanitarian and medical assistance. The
statement concluded that the actions of both the security forces and the Maoists
were “pushing Nepal towards the abyss of a humanitarian crisis” (BBC, 2005).
27
Living conditions are difficult for many IDPs in urban areas. According to a study
on urban poverty, displacement due to the conflict is increasing the concentration of
poor in urban settlements, with many of the displaced turning into urban poor
(Kathmandu Post, 2005).The government has to a large extent ignored its obligation
to protect and assist IDPs. Its response can be described as inadequate,
discriminatory and largely insufficient. The UN Secretary-General’s Representative
on the Human Rights of IDPs, Walter Kälin, who described the IDPs in Nepal as
“largely overlooked and neglected”, the government promised to develop a new
IDP policy (UN, 2005).
In May 2005, the Minister of Finance publicly acknowledged the gravity of the
displacement crisis and urged donors to help the government provide assistance to
the IDPs, described as “the first and foremost victims of terrorism” (The Rising
Nepal, 2005).
28
Chapter Four
Background Characteristics and Analysis
This chapter deals about general characteristics of respondents and analyses the
available information.
4.1 Household Characteristics
A total of 125 households were selected from five clusters. Every cluster is
represented by 25 households. Name of the cluster and number of households has
been displayed in the form of frequency distribution below in table 4.1.
Table 4.1: Distribution of households by cluster
Cluster
Frequency
Madhmara
25
Pokharia, Namuna
25
Marg
Puspalal chowk
25
Buddha Bihar tole
25
Pichara , Rampur
25
Total
125
Percent
20.0
20.0
20.0
20.0
20.0
100.0
Source: Field Survey, 2007
Similarly, the respondents characteristics by caste /ethnicity and sex has been
mentioned in table 4.2. Majority of the respondents(62.4%) were Brahman and
Chhetry categories. A significant number of Rai(12.8%) were also found as
respondents.
Table 4.2: Distribution of households by caste/ethnicity and sex
Male
Female
Total
Caste/ethnicity
No.
%
No.
%
No.
%
Brahman
26
40.6
20 32.8
46
36.8
Chhetry/Thakur
15
23.4
17 27.9
32
25.6
i
Newar
3
4.9
3
2.4
Tamang
2
3.1
1
1.6
3
2.4
Sherpa
1
1.6
1
.8
Gurung
1
1.6
1
.8
Rai
6
9.4
10 16.4
16
12.8
Magar
1
1.6
1
.8
Limbu
1
1.6
4
6.6
5
4.0
Tajpuria/Rai
1
1.6
1
.8
Kami/Sunar
2
3.3
2
1.6
Sanyasi
4
6.3
4
3.2
Chaudhary
5
7.8
2
3.3
7
5.6
Podar
1
1.6
1
.8
Danuwar
2
3.3
2
1.6
100.
Total
64 100.0
61
125
100.0
0
Source: Field Survey, 2007
29
Among these households, respondents were both male and female. Almost equal
number of males and females were the respondents from the selected households.
The number of households representing different caste/ethnicity reflects diverse in
nature however the proportion of some caste and ethnic groups found to be very
low in number which could be because of small sample size and nature of
migration.
Similarly, the characteristics of respondents have been observed by religious
groups. Almost 80 percent of them were Hindu and 16.8 percent reported as Kirat
while none of them reported as Muslim.
Table 4.3: Distribution of households by religious status
Religion
Hindu
Buddhist
Kirant
Total
No.
%
98
6
21
125
78.4
4.8
16.8
100.0
Source: Field Survey,2007
Household characteristics were also seen by the size of family. A family with single
member to a large joint family of eleven member were found. In an average of 4.9
member of family size was found in the survey which is almost similar to average
family size of Nepal.
Table 4.4: Distribution of households by family size
Family size
Number
Percentage
1.00
1
.8
2.00
2
1.6
3.00
20
16.0
4.00
34
27.2
5.00
32
25.6
6.00
14
11.2
7.00
11
8.8
8.00
5
4.0
9.00
5
4.0
11.00
1
.8
Total
125
100.0
Source: Field Survey, 2007
30
Besides, these features of households and respondents age sex structure of the
members of those respondents have been calculated and presented in frequency
distribution. Majority of the sampled population falls under economically active age
group. The detail picture of age sex composition of sampled population has been
displayed in table 4.5.
Table 4.5: Age-sex structure
Male
Age
group
No.
%
0-4
21
6.6
5-9
33
10.3
10-14
40
12.5
15-19
34
10.7
20-24
29
9.1
25-29
23
7.2
30-34
23
7.2
35-39
28
8.8
40-44
28
8.8
45-49
18
5.6
50-54
12
3.8
55-59
8
2.5
60-64
8
2.5
65-69
14
4.4
Total
319
100.0
Female
No.
16
24
29
40
36
22
29
33
22
15
8
4
7
12
297
Total
%
5.4
8.1
9.8
13.5
12.1
7.4
9.8
11.1
7.4
5.1
2.7
1.3
2.4
4.0
100.0
No.
37
57
69
74
65
45
52
61
50
33
20
12
15
26
616
%
6.0
9.3
11.2
12.0
10.6
7.3
8.4
9.9
8.1
5.4
3.2
1.9
2.4
4.2
100.0
Source: Field Survey, 2007
4.2. Impact of Migration on Rural and Urban Economy
Migration has an integral and inseparable relation with economy from the history.
In the early days, out migration used to consider as a byproduct of economic failure
of a family. But, rural to urban migration however indicates improvement in
economic status. When asked to these migrants particularly displaced responded
that they did not get what they have expected. Occupations of these respondents
have changed. The occupational status of the study population has been displayed
in the table4.6. The table reveals that among the study population, the large share
24 percent reported as household work whereas 22.9 percent reported were
involved in service and the same percent 22.9 reported as student. But only 7.6
percent reported agriculture as their main occupation which was equal to the share
31
of those who reported as business as main occupation. Similarly, 5.4 percent
reported as jobless. Some of them have joined hand in micro credit finance namely
Balgopal Sahakari Santha.
Table 4.6: Occupations of the respondents
Occupations
Agriculture
Cottage Industry
Service
Business
Daily wage (Agriculture)
Daily Wages (NonAgriculture)
Physically unable to
work
Student
Currently not working
Household work
Others
Not Stated
Total
Source: Field survey 2007
Percent
7.6
1.3
22.9
7.9
.9
2.2
2.9
22.9
5.4
24.0
1.3
.4
100.0
4.3. Response of Ethnic people on Social Exclusion
When the respondents were asked about the attitude of the locals (non-migrants or
who were migrants many years back) towards them they said that they were not
discriminated much. When discussed with them they expressed their unhappiness
towards local who looked down them because they do not have their home. It
indicates that economic factor is one major factor that shows exclusion. If a person
does not get social respect what he deserves obviously s/he feels however when
they were asked to about social exclusion many of them did not tell that they were
excluded. Similarly, they did not have their name in voting list. When asked the
reason for not to be included in voting list, all of them answered in the similar way
"we were not asked to registered our name and we also gave less priority to it".
Many scholars have traced the relationship between Maoist movement and ethnic
diversity. Similar result has been found among migrants who were migrated
because of Maoist movement. Participants of the focus group discussion were
agreed that directly or indirectly conflict was responsible for their migration. The
32
migrants were benefited by the education and other infrastructures of development
however they did not feel comfortable which might be the result of high aspiration
of these migrants.
Table4.6: Occupations of ethnic respondents
Sex
Occupation
Male
Agriculture
Service
Business
Daily wage
(Agriculture)
Daily Wages (NonAgriculture)
Currently not working
Household work
Others
Not Stated
Total
Total
0
10
3
Female
1
13
1
1
23
4
0
1
1
1
1
2
3
1
0
1
19
2
2
1
0
22
5
3
1
1
41
Source: Field Survey, 2007
Majority of the ethnic responds reported that they were involved in non-agriculture
sector. This indicates the change in occupation.
4.4. Response of Dalits on Social Exclusion
Dalits have a bit bitter experience about discrimination. When the respondents were
asked about the attitude of the locals (non-migrants or who were living there for
along time) towards them they said that they were discriminated. When discussed
with them they expressed their unhappiness towards local who looked down them.
It indicates that dalits as identity is exclusionary. If a person does not get social
respect what he deserves obviously s/he feels however when they were asked to
about social exclusion many of them did not tell that they were excluded. Similarly,
they did not have their name in voting list. When asked the reason for not to be
included in voting list, all of them answered in the similar way "we were not asked
to registered our name and we also gave less priority to it". Many scholars have
traced the relationship between Maoist movement and ethnic diversity. Similar
result has been found among migrants who were migrated because of Maoist
movement. Participants of the focus group discussion were agreed that directly or
33
indirectly conflict was responsible for their migration. The migrants were benefited
by the education and other infrastructures of development however they did not feel
comfortable which might be the result of high aspiration of these migrants. The
availability of telephone, television, drinking water however shows their good
position economically. Some dalits did not have their citizenship. In the lack of
citizenship an individual can not exercise civil and political rights which can be
considered as root of exclusion.
4.5. Response of Higher caste (Bahun/ Chhettri) on Social Exclusion.
Insecurity have risen because of Madhesi movement. Madhesi people in market
place(Hatbazar) use filthy words. The burnt of shop of one hill caste and increasing
rate of rubbery have increased insecurity. Some migrants even got threaten from
Madhesi. Verbal rape was common by Madhesi male on the road or even Hatbazar.
Most of the Bahun/Chhetri has their own house whereas very few are living in
rented house. This migration has made life easier for females as many women said
during focus group discussion. Some respondents said they had adjustment problem
in the society. Neighbors were less communicative. They have not participated in
political activities. Political leaders were inaccessible to them. Many of them
reported that they have some kinds of health problems but the access of health
facilities have made them easier. Safe drinking water was not problem to them.
Many of them had their own water source. The respondents and participants of
FGD were happy with the education facility available however insecurity of
children was problem. They have not heard about the policies formulated in relation
to migrants.
34
Chapter Five
Summary, conclusion and recommendation
Summary

The primary concern of this research is to establish the relationship of rural
to urban migration with social exclusion. Migration usually considered as
individual phenomena whereas it has been found as family phenomena in
context of Nepal.

Internal displacement has emerged as a serious problem in Nepal especially
since the outbreak of Maoists people’s war on 13 February 1996. Due to the
armed conflict between security forces and Maoists force most of the
adolescent and youth have to leave their place of origin. Those internally
displaced people have facing serious humanitarian, economic- social,
political and security problems.

The overall goal of the proposed study was to assess the social, economic
and demographic situation of the migrants including factors contributing for
the migration. It has explored types and nature of problems experienced by
the selected migrants at destination including their risk behaviours. It has
tried to identify the present situation of the migrants, particularly in terms of
employment, education, living conditions; and has studied on the social
inclusion problems and behaviour of the migrants by caste ethnicity
variation

This study was conducted in different parts of Biratnagar sub metropolitan
city. This study has selected 125 households from five clusters by using
purposive sampling with size of 25 from each cluster.

Out of the total household population, the number of male and female were
319 and 297 respectively.

Among total selected households 36.8 percents were Brahmin with highest
share followed by Chhetri with 25.6 percent, Rai 12.8 percent and
Chaudhari 5.6 percent. There was the diverse representation in the study by
caste and ethnicity.

Out of the total households population above age 14, majority reported as
service as occupation however a significant number reported as student as
35
occupation. Similarly, a very small proportion 7.6 percent reported
agriculture as their occupation which is a very small share. Household work
has also be reported by large number as occupation.

Major problems created by conflict were insecurity, economic hardships,
shortage of food, lack of health facilities, obstacles in movement and
disruption of education.

The major causes of migration were violence and insecurity, social,
economic, health related and political causes.

Among total respondents, 64 percent were living on rent, 15 percent were
living in camp, 14 percent were living in their own house and 7 percent
were living on relatives and friends house respectively after displacement.

Majority of the respondents were feeling insecure and telling Madhesi
Andolan as source of insecurity in their destination.

Majority of the respondents did not feel excluded in the society however
dalits expressed social discrimination.

Most of the respondents have not participated in socio-political activities.
Health facilities, education facilities and drinking water facilities are not
problem to the migrants.

Proportion of the respondents involved in agriculture and study decreases
after displacement. Similarly, the proportion of respondents involved in
labour and not job was increases after displacement.

Celebration of festival was not problem to the respondents however they
could not as they expected.
7.2 Conclusion
Migration is an ongoing problem in Nepal. The process of rural to urban migration
has been increased enormously after the Maoists insurgency. Due to the internal
armed conflict between the state and Maoists have forced many families to migrate
as a result they were facing economic hardships, shortage of food, lack of health
facilities, obstacles of movement and lack of education. However this study could
not reveal such hardship in economic aspect but the problem in political
36
participation has been noticed. Availability of health, drinking water and education
facilities made them happy. The concern of most of the respondents and
participants of focus group discussion was social security of the place where they
are living.
Occupational change and unemployment ware the major problem of the migrants.
Some female responds were happy because of the reduction of work load in the
urban area.
7.3 Recommendation
Management of migration is an important issue which has given less or almost in
any priority. At the same time the problem of internal displacement is getting bigger
and has been attracting concerns of various authorities in recent days. If the entire
concerned stakeholder came together to find out the solution, it would not have a
problem. This is a less identified national problem and, therefore, the entire
stakeholder should be joining hands to resolve it.
This study was conducted on rural to urban migration on inclusion perspective. It
came with some suggestions
1. State policy to secure migrants right is essential. Due to poor registration
system migration are unable to exercise their civil and political rights so state
should develop mechanism to ensure migrants rights.
2. Political violence and ethnic violence should be checked properly so that
migrants will not survive in insecurity.
3. Conduct income-oriented training for migrants so that they cope up with new
environment and enjoy the facilities available which is also their right.
4. Adopt national legislation to assure adequate protection of human rights of all
kinds of migration including internally displaced persons.
37
REFERANCES CITED
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2005-2009 (http://www.adb.org).
BBC News, 2005, “Nepal near humanitarian abyss”, 18 March (http://www.news.bbc.co.uk).
Community Study and Welfare Centre (CSWC), 2004, Plight of Internally Displaced
Persons (IDPs) in Nepal, A Call for an Urgent Intervention by the HMG/Nepal,
United Nations, and International Community (http://www.idpproject.org).
Dawn, 2005, "Conflict pushes more kids to work in Nepal"(http://www.dawn.com).
General Secretary on IDPs, 1992, “Definition of the Analytical Report of the SecretaryGeneral on Internally Displaced Persons” (http://www.idpproject.org).
GTZ, INF, SNV, UNDP/RUPP, NHRC & the Global IDP Project, 2003, Nepal IDP
Research Initiative Findings (http://www.idpproject.org).
Gnyawali, Prakash, 2005, Causes of Conflict-induced Internal Displacement and Its
Consequences in Nepal: With Special Reference to the ‘Maoists Peoples War’, an
Unpublished Dissertation Submitted to the Department of Sociology, Patan
Multiple campus, Lalitpur.
Gustausson, Lors, 2003 “Humanitarian Logistics: Context and Challenges”, In Marion
Coulorey, et al. (eds0, Forced Migration Review, 18.UK: Refugee Studies Center,
pp.6-8.
International Crisis Group (ICG), 2005, “Nepal: Dealing with a human rights crisis”
(http://www.crisisgroup.org).
INSEC, 2005, Human Rights Yearbook, 2005 (Kathmandu: Informal Sector Service Center)
(http://www.inseconline.org).
, 2004, “Armed Conflict and Internal Displacement in Nepal” Human Rights
Yearbook 2004, chapter 5 (http://www.inseconline.org).
, 2005, “Special Issues on Internally Displaced Persons”, INFORMAL (Kathmandu:
Informal Sector Service Center) (http://www.inseconline.org).
, 2005, Human Rights Year Book, 2005(Kathmandu: Informal Sector Service Center)
(http://www.inseconline.org).
Integrated Regional Information Networks (IRIN), 2005, Displacement contributing to child
labour problem (http://www.irinnews.org).
Kantipur Publication, 2002, The Kathmandu Post, 18 December 2002, "Govt. setting up
camps for displaced, ex-Maoists"(www.nepalnews.com.np).
38
, The Kathmandu Post 8 October 2004, "Families of Baglung fleeing en-masse",
(http://www.kantipuronline.com).
, The Kathmandu Post 20April, 2005, "Experts warn of rising urban poverty"
(http://www.kantipuronline.com).
, The Kathmandu Post13 March, 2006, “Hefty rewards to induce Maoists Surrenders”
(http://www.kantipuronline.com).
, The Kathmandu Post 13 August, 2004, “Relief Program for Internally Displaced
People Due to Conflict” (http://www.kantipuronline.com).
, Kantipur Online, 9 October 2004, "MVA doubts government relief package"
(http://www.kantipuronline.com).
Khatiwada, Padma, 2004, “Migration Polices in Connection with the Internal Armed Conflict
in Nepal”, Population Magazine, vol. II (Kathmandu: Population Students society
of Nepal) pp. 15-22.
, 2004, “Internally Displaced Persons in Nepal: Problem and Challenges”, in Lok Raj
Baral et al (eds.) Nepal Journal of Contemporary Studies vol. IV No.2 (Kathmandu:
Nepal Center for Contemporary studies).pp.45-63.
, 2005, “Forced Migration: Nature, Types and Impact with Special Reference to
Nepal”, Population Magazine, vol. III (Kathmandu: Population Students society of
Nepal) pp. 35-43.
Martinez, Esperanza, 2002, Conflict-Related Displacement in Nepal
(http://www.idpproject.org).
Ministry of Finance (MoF), 2004, Public Statement on Income and Expenditure of the
Fiscal Year 2004/2005, (http://www.mof.gov.np).
Nepal news, 2003, "Pressure on Cities", in Spotlight, vol. 23, No 12, 12 -18 September 2003
(http://www.nepalnews.com.np).
Norwegian Refugee Council (NRC), 2003, “Nepal: Displaced and Ignored”, available on the
Norwegian Refugee Council website (http://www.idpproject.org).
, 2004, Profile of Internal Displacement: Nepal. Compilation of the Information,
available on the Norwegian Refugee Council website (http://www.idpproject.org).
, 2005, “25 million internally displaced people world- wide exposed to rights abuse”,
GENEVA (http://www.idpproject.org).
, 2005, Profile of Internal Displacement: Nepal. Compilation of the information
available in the Global IDP Database of the Norwegian Refugee Council 2005
(http://www.idpproject.org).
39
One World South Asia, 2003, Village influx threatens Nepal cities,
(http://southasia.oneworld.net).
Pyakurel, Sushil, 2003, “Nature of Human Rights Violation in Nepal: Notes for Further
Consideration”. In Bipin Adhikari (ed.) Conflict, Human Rights and Peace,
Challenges before Nepal, Kathmandu: National Human Rights Commission, pp.7081.
Rai, Deep Ranjani, 2005, A Pilot Survey on Internally Displaced Persons: in Kathmandu and
Birendranagar (Lalitpur: South Asian Forum for Human Rights).
Sapkota, Mohan, 2005, “Nature of Internal Displacement in Nepal”, Population Magazine,
vol. III (Kathmandu: Population Students society of Nepal) pp. 135-137.
, 2005, Conflict Induced Internal-displacement, an Unpublished Dissertation
Submitted to the Centeral Department of Population Studies, T.U, Kirtipur,
Kathmandu.
South Asia Forum for Human Rights (SAFHR), 2003, urgency&Displacement.
(http://www.idpproject.org).
, 2005, A Pilot Survey on “Internally Displaced Persons in Kathmandu and
Birendranagar”.
The Rising Nepal, 2005, "Rana appeals for support", 6 May (htt://www.gorkhapatra.org.np).
Todaro, M.P., 1969, ‘A Model of Labor Migration and Urban Unemployment in Less
Developed Countries’, The American Economic Review, 59, pp.138-149.
United Nations, 2005, Internally displaced in Nepal overlooked, neglected, UN Expert says
after mission (http://www.reliefweb.int).
United Nation High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), 2001, “Global Refugee Trends
Analysis of the 2000 Provisional UNHCR Population Statistics”
(http://www.unhcr.ch).
40
G. Annexes:A. Household Schedule
Implication of Rural to Urban Migration (A Social Inclusion Perspective)
Questionnaire
Namaskar.I am …………………………, this time I am representing Mr. Janga Bir Rana Magar,
Research Apprentice Awardee, SIRF/SNV 2007. I am pleased to say that we have identified you
as one of our qualified respondents of this research.The valuable information you provide us on
these issues will be used for the purpose of the research only and I would like to assure you that
no information provided by you will be disclosed without your pre-approval. The questions to be
asked here may concern your privacy as well. It's your choice to respond if you think you don't
like to in some cases. It may take one hour time to talk to you with this questionnaire. If you
think that you don't have time right now, I would like to make an appointment and see you later
on. Would you like to participate in this research right now? … .
Section A: General information
01. District
02. Village/Town (1: Village; 2: Town)
03. VDC/Municipality__________________________________________
04. Ward No.
Cluster No.
05. Name of locality (Tole) ____________________________________
06. Household serial No.
07. Name of household head____________________________________
08. Name of respondent _______________________________________
09. Caste/Ethnicity of the household head _________________________
10. Sex (1: Male; 2: Female)
11. Religion of the household head…(1: Hindu; 2: Buddhist; 3: Kirant
4: Islam; 5: Christian) 6. Other (specify)______________________
No. of times interview attempted (In case of incomplete interview, please make a
follow up for three times)
Particulars
Time 1
Time 2
Time 3
Date
Results (see Result Index Code below)
Date for next visit
Result Index
Code
Total family size
1. Completed
1
2. Respondent not at home
2
3. Nobody at home
3
4. Partly completed
4
5. Refused to respond
5
6. Domain not found
6
7. Other (specify)…
7
Questionnaire edited by:
supervisor
office
Data entry personnel
Name
Signature
Date
41
Section B. Household Schedule
SN
01
Name
Relationship
(please mention all the
names who usually stay in
this household)
to the household
head
Usually staying means
persons living in the house
from the past at least six
months including servants,
cooks or any relatives or
friends (let's start from
household head)
(see code)
Is this
person
male or
female?
(1:
Male; 2:
Female)
How old
is this
person?
(complet
ed year)
Is this
person
present
now?
(1: Yes; 2:
No)
Literac
y status
(1: Lit;
2: Illit
Class
passe
d (see
code)
02
03
04
05
06
07
08
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
Please add sheet if needed.
Sex
Age
Presence
Education
(To be asked aged
six years & above)
Marital
status(To
Main
occupation
Migration
Reasons
for
migration
be asked
aged 10
years &
above)
What is the
marital status
of this
person?
(see code
below)
(To be asked
aged six years
& above
What is the
person's
current
occupation?
(see code
below)
Current status of
the person
1: Staying in this
place since birth
2: In-migrant
See code
09
10
11
12
Codes
03: Relationship
Head…01
Husband/wife…02
Son/daughter...03
Daughter/ son in law...04
Grand child...05
Parent…06
Parent in law…07
Brother/sister…08
Other (specify)…………..
Not a relative…11
Don't know…98
Not stated … 99
12. Reasons for Migration
Education…01
Agriculture…02
Employment…03
Other (specify)…………………………..
Don't know…98
Not stated…99
08: Class passed
Below grade 1 …00
Grade 1 completed…01
Grade 2 completed...02
Grade 9 completed…09
Class 10 completed…10
SLC…11
Intermediate…12
Bachelor …13
Masters and above … 14
Don't know … 98
Not stated… 99
09: Marital status
Unmarried…1
Married…2
widow…3
Divorced…4
Separated…5
Don't know … 98
Not stated…99
10: Main occupation
Agriculture…1
Cottage industries…2
Service…3
Business…4
Daily wages (agriculture)…5
Daily wages (non-agriculture)...6
Physically unable to work...7
Student...8
Currently not working…9
Household work…10
Other (specify)…………..
Don't know…98
Not stated… 99
Section C: Socio Economic Status of the Household
01. District
02. Village/Town (1: Village; 2: Town)
03. VDC/Municipality__________________________________________
04. Ward No.
Cluster No.
05. Household Serial No.:
[Interviewer: Obtain information of socio-economic status of the household from the head of the household or a knowledgeable adult
member (aged 18 and above) of the household.]
43
S.N.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
Questions
What is the highest level of education
ever received by a member of the
family?
How much land (including those
cultivated by the household and/or
rented out to others) is owned by the
household? unit code
Acre…1
Ropani/Aana, Paisa…2
Bigaha, Kattha, Dhur…3
Mano Muri…4
Other (specify)………
Is there any land other than
mentioned in Q. 14 which is used for
other purpose?
If yes how much? (use the unit code
of Q.14)
For what purpose it is used?
Does this household own the
following livestock?
Yes …1
No … 2
(If yes mention the number of each
type of livestock owned)
What is the main source of drinking
water?
Coding classification
If 2, Go
to Q.No.
Mention completed class grade……
(use codes for question 08)
Type of land
Unit
1. Household land
2. Ciltivable land
a.Own cultivated
by ownself
b. Own cultivated
by others
c. Other's
cultivated
by ownself
Yes…1
No…2
Amount unit
Specify……………………….
Cow/Buffalo/Yak number…
Goat/Lamb number…
Donkey/Horse number...
Pig number…
Chicken/duck number…
Other (specify)……………….
Piped water…1
Tube water…2
Open well…3
Waterfall…4
River/canal…5
Lake/pond…6
other (specify)……………
44
Amount
18
20.
21.
22.
Is there a fixed latrine for the
exclusive use of this household?
If yes, mention the main type of latrine
used?
Have you owned or installed the
following facilities in this dwelling?
23.
Do you own or rent this dwelling?
24.
How many rooms are there in this
dwelling? (Exclude kitchen &
bathroom)
What is the main type of materials used
in the walls of this building?
25.
26.
What is the main type of materials
used in the roof of this building?
Yes…1
No…2
22
Flush system…1
Water flow…2
Closed pit…3
Open pit system…4
Other (specify)…………..
Yes
1
1
1
1
1
Electricity
Bio-gas plant
Telephone
Radio
Television
Own…1
Rent…2
Other (specify)…3
Total No. of rooms…
Cement, stone, bricks…1
Tin…2
Wood (including plywood)…3
Bamboo…4
Straw…5
Mud/slate/bricks (unbaked)…6
Mud/slate/brick (baked)…7
other (specify)……..
Concerte, stone, bricks (slab)…1
Tin…2
Wood (including plywood)…3
Bamboo…4
Straw…5
Mud/slate/stone…6
Tile…7
Other (specify)…8
45
No
2
2
2
2
2
B. Individual Schedule (for in-migrants)
01. District
02. Village/Town (1: Village; 2: Town)
03. VDC/Municipality__________________________________________
04. Ward No.
Cluster No.
05. Household Serial No.:
06. Migrated from:
District ____________________ (See code)
VDC/Municipality____________________
Name of the tole____________________ Ward No. ___________________
Q.N.
Questions
Coding Specifications
401. Can you read and write a simple letter in any language?
Yes…1
No.... 2
402. Have you ever been to school?
Yes...1
No…2
Completed years of schooling (class/grade)
403. How many school years (class/grade) you have completed? (see
code of Q.8)
404. What language do you speak at home?
Mother tougue …………………….
405. What is your caste/ethnic group?
Caste/ethinc group ………………
406. In which year did you first move out from your place of origin?
407. In which year did you move to your place of residence?
Year…
Year...
408. What was your age when you first moved out from your place of
origin?
409. What was your level of education (highest grade passed) when
you first moved out from place of origin?
Age in completed years…
Level of education (class...
46
If 2,
go to
Q. No
404
410. What was your marital status when you first moved you from
your place of origin ?
411. What was your main occupation i.e. the activities in which you
have spent most of your time in a year) when you first move out
from your place of origin into another place Nepal?
412. What was the main reason for moving out from your place of
origin?
413. What was your monthly income from all source when you first
moved out from your place of origin?
414. Did you own any land (in your/spouse's name) at the place of
origin when you first moved out from your place of origin?
415. If yes how much land did you own?
Unit code:
Acre……………………………………………
1
Ropani, Aana, Paisa…………………………..
2
Bigha, Kattha, Dhur…………………………..
3
Mato, Muri……………………………………
4
Other (specify)……………………………….
5
Never married...1
Married (Husband & wife living together)…2
Widowed…3
Divorced…4
Seperated…5
Married (but husband & wife not living together)…6
Principal occupation…
(write the type of occupation & enter appropriate
occupation code from Q. 10 in Household schedule)
4. Education
5. Agriculture
6. Employment
7. Other (specify)……………………………
Monthly income from all sources (in Nepali Rs.)
Yes…1
No…2
Type of land
1. Household land
2. Cultiviable land
416
a. Own cultivated by ownself
b. Own cultivated by others
c. Other's cultivated by this
household
416. Did you own any house (s) at the place of origin when you first
moved out from your place of origin ?
Yes…1
No…2
47
418
417.
If yes how many houses did you have?
Number of house(s) …
418.
Did your parents own any land at your place of origin when
you first move out from your place of origin?
Yes…1
No…2
419.
If yes how much land did they own?
420.
Unit code:
Acre…1
Ropani, Aana, Paisa…2
Bigha, Kattha, Dhur…3
Mato, Muri…4
Other (specify)…5
Who was mainly responsible from making the decision for
you when you first moved out from your place of origin ?
(Interviewer: Don't read the options given)
421.
When you first moved out from your place of origin, who was
with you? (Interviewer: Don't read the options given)
422.
After this first move, who followed you from your place of
origin? (Interviewer: Don't read options given)
423.
Did you help anyone to move out from your place of origin?
424.
If yes, specify whom did you help & how many did you
help to move out?
48
Type of land
Amount
1. Household land
2. Cultiviable land
a. Own cultivated by ownself
b. Own cultivated by others
c. Other's cultivated by
this household
Himself/herself…1
Spouse of children…2
Near relatives…3
Friends…4
Parents …5
Other (specify)………………….
No one…1
Whole family … 2
Spouse or children…3
Near relatives…4
Friends…5
Other (specify)………………………
No one…1
Whole family … 2
Spouse or children…3
Near relatives…4
Friends…5
Other (specify)……………………
Yes…1
No…2
………………………………………………………….
420
425
Questions Related to Current Place of Residence
425. Why did you choose to come at this place? i.e. your current
place of residence instead of going to some where else?
(Interviewer: Don't read the options given, circle option
appropriate answer)
426. How did you know about this place? i.e. current place of
residence? (Interviewer: Don't read the options given)
This place was known to me previously…1
Close/ adjacent to my place of origin…2
Close relatives live here…3
This place is more secure…4
Other (specify)…………………….
Visited previously…1
Through friends/relatives…2
Radio/Newspapers…3
Other (specify)…………………………..
427. Do you have any relatives/friends at your current place of
residence?
428. If yes who are they? (specify your relationship with them)
Yes…1
No…2
Close relatives…1
Other relatives…2
Friends/neighbours…3
Other (specify)……………..
429. Do you like to stay here permanently, i.e. at your current place
of residence?
430. If yes, why do you like to live here permanently?
Yes…1
No…2
House destroyed at the place of origin…1
No land at the place or origin…2
Opportunities for work are better here…3
Better educational opportunities here…4
Acquired land/home here…5
No security at the palce of origin…6
Other (specify)…………………
Place of origin…1
Another village/Town with in Nepal…2
Other (specify)……………………….
Yes…1
No…2
Never visited even once since the first move…1
After 2/3 years…2
Once in a year…3
2/3 times in a year…4
Other (specify)………………………
Less than a week…1
One week to one month…2
More than one month…3
Other (specify)……………
431. If No, where do you like to go in future? (Interviewer: Don't
read the options given)
432. Do you have any relatives at your place of origin?
433. How frequently do you visit your place of origin?
(Interviewer: Don't read the options given)
434. When you visit your place of origin, how long do you stay on
average? (Interviewer: Don’t' read the options given)
49
429
431
435
435. When you first moved to your current place of residence, what
kind of work did you expect to do? Interviewer: Don’t read the
options given)
436. Are you presently doing the same kink of work, as you wished
to do when you first moved to your current place of residence?
437. Why aren't you doing the same job as you expected to do?
(Interviewer: Don't read the options given)
438. Do you remit any money to any one at your place of origin?
439. If yes how much money do you remit in a year?
440. Why do you remit money? (Interviewer: Don't read the options
given)
441. Other than money, do you send any goods/presents to any
one?
442. If yes what would be the appropriate value of these
goods/presents or an average in a year?
443. Did you acquire any movable & immovable property either at
your current residence or place of origin or elsewhere with the
help of money you have earned independently since you have
departed from your place of origin?
Business …1
Had no plan …2
Agriculture…3
Education…4
Service…5
Daily wages/labour…6
As dependent member of family…7
Mived in as housewife…8
Other (specify)…………………
yes…1
No…2
Could not find the expected job…1
It was contractual job…2
Salary was inadquate…3
The job involved lot of hard work…4
Rerired from the job…5
Removed from the job…6
No employment opportunity got…7
Other (specify)…………………………
Yes…1
No… 2
Amount in Nepalese Rs…
To meet the household expenditure…1
For the educational expenses of near relatives…2
To build/repair house…3
To buy land…4
To pay back the debt…5
To meet the agricultural expenses (including buyin seeds/fertilizers &
paying wage for labour)…6
Other (specify)…………………
Yes…1
No…2
Amount in Nepali Rs……
Yes…1
No….2
50
438
438
441
443
445
444. If yes, please
give details of
these properties
by their
location
House Shop
Kachhi/Pakki
Land amount
Agricultural land amount
1. At place of origin
2. At current residence
3. Elsewhere in Nepal
445. Do you receive money or any other goods from any one at
your place of origin?
446. If yes, how much do you receive on an average in a year?
Yes…1
No…2
Amount in Nepali Rs (if cash)………
If received goods (specify) ……….
447. Do you also receive any kind of support at your place of
destination?
448. If Yes, who support you?
Yes…1
No… 2
…………………
449. What kind of support do you get?
……………..
447
450
Questions for only married males
450.
Do your wife & children live with you here?
Yes…1
No…2
451.
If no, when do you plan to bring them over here?
(Interviewer: Don't read options given, circle option
appropriate answer)
Within one year…1
Within next 5 year…2
When opportunity arises…3
Other (specify)_________4
Questions for only married women
452.
Have you ever given any birth to live child?
453.
If yes how many children were born to you alive?
454.
Of these how many children are living with you?
455.
Of these how many children are living else where?
456.
How many children born alive but died later?
Yes…1
No…2
Total No. of sons……………..
Total No. of daughters………..
No. of sons…………
No. of daughters…………..
No. of sons…………
No. of daughters……………
No. of sons…………
No. of daughters………..
51
452
Questions related to Exclusion and Inclusion
457.
Have you got any problems with neighbours?
Yes…1
No…2
458.
If yes, what kind of problems do you face?
………………………………….
459.
Have you faced any violence?
Yes…1
No…2
460.
If yes, what kind of violence do you face?
………………………………….
461.
Have you got any problems with their neighbours?
Yes…1
No…2
462.
If yes, what kind of problems do you have?
……………………………………
463.
Have you or their family members faced any
health related problems?
Yes…1
No…2
464.
If yes, what kind of health problems?
……………………………………..
465.
Do you have any problem in continuing
education? Is there any education disruption to
your children?
If yes, what kind problems do you have in
continuing education to your children?
Yes…1
No…2
Are you employed (at least since last 6 months)
currently?
If yes, what kind of problems are you facing in
your employment?
Yes…1
No…2
Were you employed previously?
Yes…1
No…2
466.
467.
468.
469.
459
461
463
465
467
……………………………………..
469
……………………………………..
52
471
470.
If yes, how do you compare your previous job
with current job?
…………………………………
471.
What major problems are you facing especially in
the agriculture sector?
Do you feel any kind of exclusion after
displacement?
If yes, what kind of exclusion are you feeling?
………………………………….
Do you also think that you are included in social,
cultural, political and economic matters in the
society?
Have you faced any religious and cultural problems
(such as celebrating festivals, participating in
family ceremonials and rituals, etc.)?
Yes…1
No…2
476.
If yes, what are they?
……………………………………
477.
Do you think that you are easily adjusted/included
in this society?
If no, why do you think you are not easily
adjusted?
Yes…1
No…2
How do your neighbours/relatives behave with
you?
Are you participated in the social, cultural,
economic or political functions?
If no, why don't you participate?
……………………………………
Have you heard about any policies formulated to
help migrants people?
If yes, what are they?
Yes…1
No…2
What kind policies and programmes do you
expect for reducing these problems?
…………………………………..
472.
473.
474.
475
478.
479.
480.
481.
482.
483.
484.
Yes…1
No…2
474
…………………………………….
476
Yes…1
No…2
478
……………………………………
Yes…1
No…2
490
……………………………………..
……………………………………
Thank you very much for your kind cooperation!
53
492
C. Biratnagar Map
Source: Biratnagar Sub-Metropolitant Office ( Ward no:-1,4,7,11&15; highlighted in blue colour are the selected 5 clusters)
54
D. List of the Participants of Focus Group Discussion :Name
Age
Caste
Sex
Ward Tole Name
No.
Remarks
Nirmala Bhattarai
Tara K.C.
Anu Koirala
Anju karki
Shanti sharma
Sita Bastola
Muna Basnet
Mamu Rai
Soni Tamang
Chandrawati Rai
Bimala Rai
Devi Rai
Tara Rai
Choodamani Timlsina
32
33
32
28
42
34
36
35
40
49
33
42
36
46
Bramin
Cheeti
Bramin
Chhetri
Bramin
Bramin
Chettro
Kirat
Tamang
Kirat
Kirat
Kirat
Kirat
Bramin
Female
Female
Female
Female
Female
Female
Female
Female
Female
Female
Female
Female
Female
Male
11
11
11
11
11
11
11
11
1
1
1
1
1
4
Cluster -1
Cluster -1
Cluster -1
Cluster -1
Cluster -1
Cluster -1
Cluster -1
Cluster-2
Cluster-2
Cluster-2
Cluster-2
Cluster-2
Cluster-2
Cluster-3
Deependra Acharya
45
Bramin
Male
4
15
16
Bhava Adhikari
68
Bramin
Male
4
17
Krishna Prashad Pokherel
35
Bramin
18
Ganesh Tamang
49
Tamang
Male
4
19.
Padam Ghimire
35
Bhramin Male
4
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
Bhupendra Dewan
Pushpa Yakkha
Amrit Rai
Dev Bdr. Rai
Bir Kumar Rai
Dilli Ram Gautam
56
48
38
34
39
71
Kirat
Kirat
Kirat
Kirat
Kirat
Bramin
Male
Male
Male
Male
Male
Male
15
15
15
15
15
7
Madhumara
Madhumara
Madhumara
Madhumara
Madhumara
Madhumara
Madhumara
Belgachi Tole
Belgachi Tole
Belgachi Tole
Belgachi Tole
Belgachi Tole
Belgachi Tole
Puspalal
Area
Puspalal
Area
Puspalal
Area
Puspalal
Area
Puspalal
Area
Puspalal
Area
Budda Bihar tole
Budda Bihar tole
Budda Bihar tole
Budda Bihar tole
Budda Bihar tole
Rampur
26.
27.
28
29
30
Netra Adikari
Tika Ram Shrestha
Wongdi Sherpa
Ram Bdr. Thapa
Mohan Prashad Limbu
31
29
40
32
66
Bramin
Newar
Sherpa
Chettri
Limbu
Male
Male
Male
Male
Male
7
7
7
7
7
Rampur
Rampur
Rampur
Rampur
Rampur
Cluster-5
Cluster-5
Cluster-5
Cluster-5
Cluster-5
SN
1
2
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
55
4
Cluster-3
Cluster-3
Cluster-3
Cluster-3
Cluster-3
Cluster - 4
Cluster - 4
Cluster - 4
Cluster -4
Cluster - 4
Cluster-5
E. Photos From the Field Visit:-
Focus Group Discussion at Budda Bihar tole "Ward no-15"
Madhumara "Ward no-11"
56
PuspaLal "Ward no-4"
Pokhariya: Rai Tole "Ward no-1"
57
RamPur "Ward no-7"
58