English 102 Week 11
1. HANDOUTS NEEDED
Articles, Outlines, Introductions, Conclusions, Forecasting Statements and Thesis
2. SUMMARY
With the Research Bibliographies complete, students are working on outlining essays, including
counter-arguments, and working on beginning and ending arguing essays
3. OUTLINE THE ESSAYS USING THE SAMPLE ARGUING OUTLINE FROM ESSAY 3
FOLDER ON MOODLE
Students need to create a rough outline with 3 major points to argue a thesis and 2 counterarguments. This is a “modular” formula, meaning that the components are variable. In other
words, students may have between 2 and 5 major points to help argue a thesis and between 1-3
counter-arguments and these may be arranged and presented in the actual essay in whatever
manner is the most logical to the student (the writer).
5. COUNTER-ARGUMENTS
Counter-arguments: in a sense, arguing against oneself. Purpose is merely to show an
understanding of both sides of an issue. Once a counter-argument is introduced, writer
must deal with it by:
- Acknowledgment: acknowledge reader’s point of view without conceding the
point.
- Accommodation: accept reader’s point of view but show how this can still work
with your stated position.
- Refute: reasonable counter-argue against the reader’s point of view.
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IDENTIFYING COUNTER-ARGUMENT LANGUAGE
Counter-arguments (St. Martin’s Guide to Writing, 9th ed. 306-7)
A strategy for a concession followed by a refutation
Introducing the Concession
Introducing Refutation that follows
I understand that . . .
What I think is . . .
I cannot prove . . .
But I think . . .
X claims that . . .
As it happens . . .
It is true that . . .
But my point is . . .
Another argument . . .
But . . .
It has been argued that . . .
Nevertheless, . . .
We are told that . . .
My own belief is . . .
Proponents argue that . . .
This argument, however, . . .
This argument seems plausible . . .
But experience and evidence show . . .
One common complaint is . . .
In recent years, however, . . .
am not saying . . ., nor am I
Saying . . .
But I am saying . . .
Activists insist . . .
Still, in spite of their good intentions,
A reader might ask . . .
But the real issue . . .
NOTE: AVOID USING FIRST PERSON (NO “I” IN YOUR STATEMENTS)
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6. LOGICAL FALLACIES
Review Logical Fallacies (These can also be found in WA (5:90-92)
We introduced these before the break. Let’s take another look and try to locate
logical fallacies in the articles from the research projects:
Have students try to find as many examples as they can:
Logical Fallacies: errors or flaws in reasoning (see pp. 684-85 St,. Martin’s)
Some examples:
 Begging the Question or Circular reasoning: arguing merely by repeating the claim in
different words

Confusing cause with correlation: When one event precedes another, this error assumes that
the former causes the latter, when perhaps there is another cause of both events

Either/or reasoning: Assuming there are only two sides to a question and representing
yours as the only correct one

Equivocating: Misleading or hedging with ambiguous (unclear) word choices

Failing to accept the burden of proof: Asserting a claim without presenting adequate evidence
to support it.

False analogy: Assuming one thing resembles another, conclusions drawn from one thing apply
to the other (I hear this in sermons all the time): when the example does not illustrate the main
point you are trying to argue. I would add to this: Quoting out of context.

Hasty generalization: Offering weak or limited evidence to support a conclusion

Overreliance on authority: Assuming something is true simply because one person’s states it as
true—accepting one authority’s argument or claim in spite of evidence to the contrary.

Oversimplifying: Giving easy answers to complicated questions

Personal attack: Demeaning the proponents of a claim instead of refuting their argument

Red Herring: A diversion—misdirecting the discussion by raising an unrelated point

Slanting: Providing only evidence that supports your claim while simply ignoring possible
counter-arguments that need to be addressed
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
Slippery Slope: Pretending that one thing inevitable leads to another

Sob Story: Manipulating readers’ emotions to lead to unjustified conclusions

Straw man: Directing an argument in opposition to a claim that no one actually makes (a false
counter-argument
7. CONCLUSIONS
Strategies for Closing Paragraphs (LBH SECTION 4E):
 Recommend a course of action
 Summarize the paper
 Echo the approach of the introduction but with a clear conclusion of what you have argued and
why
 Restate your thesis and reflect on its implication
 Strike a note of hope or despair (leave the reader with something)
 Give a symbolic or powerful fact or other detail (e.g. if you’re writing about endangered species,
remind the reader of the fate of the Dodo bird)
 Give an especially compelling example
 Create an image that represents your subject
 Use a quotation Again, do this sparingly. The conclusion is not the place for evidence or
support, but if you have a profound quote that helps the reader process the information, then a
quotation is acceptable.
Closings to Avoid (LBH SECTION 4E):
 A repeat of the introduction: the conclusion should capture what the paragraphs of the main body
have added to the essay
 A new direction
 A sweeping generalization (don’t conclude more than you reasonably can from the evidence you
have provided—stick with the matter at hand)
 An apology (this will undermine the reader’s confidence and weaken the entire essay).
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As time permits:
WORKING WITH THE ARTICLES/BOOKS
READING AND ANNOTATING
Setting up Arguments/Outlines for your research article.
A) Students should review the ARTICLES (or sources) they brought to class.
B) Label each step of the argument and list the counter-arguments. Are their any to add to the list? In
other words, try to locate the thesis (argument) and all points made that help support the position. Does
the writer offer contradictory evidence that he/she has to refute (counter-arguments)?
C) Students should review each reason which supports the position. Using this terminology, state what
each type of evidence is (fact, statistic, authority, anecdotes, scenario, case, textual evidence).
D) Examine the structure of the essay: Does the organization seem logical? Are there alternative ways
to organize the essay that might strengthen the argument?
E) Write an annotation of your article; that is, write up a paragraph of 5-7 sentences summarizing the
main idea of your article, it’s usefulness to your project, and the one or two main ideas you would want
to remember from this article when writing your arguing essay.
Types of Evidence:
Facts: Statements generally accepted as true
Statistics: Numbers (percentages, etc.), use reliable sources (and original sources)
Authorities: A well-known source, expert in the field
Anecdotes: Brief stories, seem to be true to life, one particular occurrence that
actually happened
Scenarios: Narrative that describes something that might happen
Cases: Comes from a writer’s first-hand knowledge (like anecdotes), observations of
people that are generalized and typical
Textual Evidence: Quoting your source directly, such as a literary work, used for value or
interpretive claims.
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QUOTATIONS: For in-text quotations, you must provide enough information in the parenthetical
citation to link to your Works Cited List: in MLA style, this is usually the author’s last name and the
page number where the quote can be found with no comma in between.
It looks like this: “Quote” (Johnson 12).
Note: When the quote is included in your paragraph and not set as a separate block, the period comes
after the parentheses.
Longer quotations (4 or more lines of prose and 3 or more lines of poetry): these require a block
format. A block quote is still double spaced, but the left margin is set one inch (10 spaces) from the left
margin. Normally, a paragraph indent is one half inch (5 spaces).
Here is a link to the Purdue Online Writing Lab: OWL site showing how to do this:
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/747/03/
Here is a samples:
Long Quotations
For quotations that extend to more than four lines of verse or prose, place quotations in a free-standing block of text and omit
quotation marks. Start the quotation on a new line, with the entire quote indented one inch from the left margin; maintain
double-spacing. Only indent the first line of the quotation by a half inch if you are citing multiple paragraphs. Your
parenthetical citation should come after the closing punctuation mark. When quoting verse, maintain original line breaks.
(You should maintain double-spacing throughout your essay.)
For example, when citing more than four lines of prose, use the following examples:
Nelly Dean treats Heathcliff poorly and dehumanizes him throughout her narration:
They entirely refused to have it in bed with them, or even in their room, and I
had no more sense, so, I put it on the landing of the stairs, hoping it would
be gone on the morrow. By chance, or else attracted by hearing his voice, it
crept to Mr. Earnshaw's door, and there he found it on quitting his chamber.
Inquiries were made as to how it got there; I was obliged to confess, and in
recompense for my cowardice and inhumanity was sent out of the house. (Bronte
78)
Note: The quote no longer uses quotations marks since this would be overkill: the block signals to the
reader that it is a quotation. Also, now the period attaches to the sentence and the parentheses follow
the period because without quotation marks, the period has to stay with the text to signal the end of
the sentence.
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Editing Quotes:
Sometimes you have to edit a quote to make it work grammatically within the body of your
sentence; this might include changing a verb or adding a word. If you make any edits that are not
in the original text, do so in brackets (not parentheses). Here are some examples:
Adding or Omitting Words in Quotations
If you add a word or words in a quotation, you should put brackets around the words to indicate that they are
not part of the original text.
Jan Harold Brunvand, in an essay on urban legends, states: "some individuals [who retell
urban legends] make a point of learning every rumor or tale" (78).
If you omit a word or words from a quotation, you should indicate the deleted word or words by using ellipsis
marks, which are three periods ( . . . ) preceded and followed by a space. For example:
In an essay on urban legends, Jan Harold Brunvand notes that "some individuals make a point
of learning every recent rumor or tale . . . and in a short time a lively exchange of details
occurs" (78).
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