Focus Area 5A: Investigating Australia’s Physical Environments
The unique characteristics of Australia’s physical environments and the responses of people to the challenges they present.
Outcomes
A student:
5.1
Identifies, gathers and evaluates geographical information
5.2
Analyses, organises and synthesises geographical information
5.3
Selects and uses appropriate written, oral and graphic forms to communicate geographical information
5.4
Selects and applies appropriate geographical tools
5.5
Demonstrates a sense of place about Australian environments
5.6
Explains the geographical processes that form and transform Australian environments
5.10
Applies geographical knowledge, understanding and skills with knowledge of civics to demonstrate informed and active citizenship.
Geographical tools in this focus area
Maps
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use various types of maps and flow charts
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locate features using degrees and minutes of latitude and longitude
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calculate the area of a feature
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measure bearings on a map
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calculate local relief
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identify the aspect of a slope
construct a cross-section
calculate the gradient of a slope
construct a transect
describe and explain relationships on a map
read and interpret synoptic charts
Photographs

interpret satellite images
Students learn about:
Students learn to:
The Australian continent
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Australia’s geographical dimensions:
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relative size and shape
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latitude and longitude
the origins of the continent:
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Aboriginal perspective
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geographical perspective
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compare Australia’s size and shape with other continents and countries
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locate and recognise Australia on a world map using latitude and longitude
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explain the origins of the continent from an Aboriginal and geographical
perspective
Physical characteristics that make Australia unique
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major landforms and drainage basins
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identify and represent Australia’s major physical features and patterns on a
variety of maps
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patterns of:
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climate
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weather
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describe Australia’s major physical features and patterns
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explain the interrelationships that exist in the physical environment of
Australia
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natural resources
vegetation
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unique flora and fauna
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explain adaptations of flora and fauna to the Australian environment
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natural hazards in Australia including:
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bushfires
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floods
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droughts
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storms
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earthquakes
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tropical cyclones
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describe the range of natural hazards in Australia and their consequences
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describe the geographical processes associated with the natural hazard
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describe the economic, environmental and social impacts of the natural
hazard in Australia
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investigate responses of individuals, community-based groups and different
levels of government to the hazard
At least ONE natural hazard from the list above:
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the nature of the natural hazard in Australia
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the geographical processes involved
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the impacts of the natural hazard:
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economic
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environmental
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social
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the responsibility and responses of individuals, groups and
various levels of government to the impact of the natural hazard
Unique characteristics of Australia’s physical environments
The map above illustrates key ranges, Lake Eyre and the Great Victorian desert. It also outlines the three
areas in which Australia is divided - the Eastern Highlands, Central Lowlands and the Western Plateau.
Australia’s relative size and shape
Compared to the United States
Compared to the Europe
Australia’s climate
Australia is split between a tropical northern climate and a temperate southern climate
The Origins of the Continent
An Aboriginal Perspective (Pre-European history)
The Indigenous peoples of Australia have the longest continuous history of any group of humans. They
have occupied the Australian continent for at least 40 000 years. It is difficult to pinpoint the exact time
when Aboriginal peoples first settled Australia, and whether they migrated from another land, as there are
no written records. The only evidence we have of when the Aboriginal peoples came to Australia is from
fossilised human remains and other archaeological findings.
Due to conflicting evidence there is a great deal of contention surrounding pre-European history of
Aboriginal peoples. Some experts, based upon radiocarbon methods on fire and coal, the excavation of
skeletons, and a sound knowledge of global sea levels, argue the continent has been inhabited for 55 000
years or more. Regardless of what sources and evidence one uses, the Aboriginal people have been a
dominant fixture on the Australian landscape for a long time.
Prior to British settlement in 1788, it has been calculated that there were 750 000 inhabitants of the
continent, living in communities scattered across the land. There were approximately 600 Aboriginal
communities, which were divided into smaller clans. These communities differed from each other in a
number of respects. Many of the communities spoke completely different languages, used different tools
and weapons, believed in different spirits and behaved in different ways. To suggest that there was one,
unified, cohesive Aboriginal group would be misleading. While the various Aboriginal communities differed
in a number of ways, they all used similar techniques for explaining their relationship to the land and its
history.
The Dreaming
The Aboriginal people made sense of the world through the stories of the Dreamtime, which were about a
time referred to as the Dreaming. Each Aboriginal community had its own unique Dreamtime stories that
had been nurtured and faithfully passed down to succeeding generations for thousands of years. These
stories have been described as the first histories of Australia. The Dreamtime stories provide the law and
custom underlying the functioning of Aboriginal society.
They relate how the people of today are descended from ancestral beings that could be of human origin,
but might also be part of the natural environment - koalas, emus, kangaroos or magpies - or derived from
spirits such as the rainbow snake. The experiences of these beings explain the origins of the land itself.
The Dreaming legends, from all parts of the continent, indicate that almost every traditional group
believed in a Supreme Being. This Great Spirit was known by different names in different areas. In some
cases, a number of different communities adhered to the same Great Spirit. Byamee, Wandjina and
Nargacork were some of the most commonly worshipped Great Spirits. From the legends we learn that in
the beginning, the mighty Creator was responsible for creating every aspect of the Earth's environment.
The mighty Creator organised the seasons, created the sun and moon, constructed the wildlife, and finally,
made men and women. It was believed that the Great Spirit lived eternally, watching and protecting his
followers affectionately.
One legend that touches on the benevolence of the Great Spirit is told by the Wiradjuri people, who lived
traditionally in the area now known as Brewarrina, in New South Wales. The Wiradjuri people believed that
Byamee, the Great Creator, delivered them spirit helpers. These spirit helpers took the form of men and
helped the Wiradjuri people to construct fish traps in the river. Whenever an abundance of fish was caught
the Wiradjuri people performed a special corroboree to give thanks.
The Rainbow Serpent appears in many of the Aboriginal groups dreaming stories. Almost every group
throughout the land had strong ties with this great, mysterious being from the Dreaming. Many of the
groups explain the creation of the land through the Rainbow Snake. It is believed that originally the land
was very flat, and remained so, until the giant Rainbow Serpent slid across the landscape constructing
mountains, deep gorges, rivers and valleys. Some groups credit the Rainbow Serpent with the creation of
everything, stating it gave birth to men, women and animals. Even today the Rainbow Serpent is accorded
much respect. The Aboriginal people believe the Rainbow Serpent is represented by a rainbow in the sky
after a downpour.
Sacred colours
From the legends, it is clear that some colours held great significance for certain groups. For example, the
colour red was sacred to some groups in Central Australia. This belief evolved from the Dreaming legend
about Marindi, the dingo. The legend states that the Aboriginal people of Central Australia were tormented
by a giant lizard, which regularly caused death and destruction. The unfortunate people summoned
Marindi to help rid them of the giant lizard. Marindi defeated the giant lizard in a colossal struggle,
drenching the Earth in blood. In recognition of Marindi's bravery the ancestor spirits magically stained the
remaining Earth a deep red colour. This explained why there is so much red ochre in the centre of the
continent.
Scientific and Geographical Perspectives (Post-European history)
Australia is often referred to as an ancient land, the oldest of continents. Australia has not always had its
present shape or position on the globe. Even today, it is in the process of colliding with South-East Asia.
Originally, Australia was joined to a super-continent, referred to as Pangaea (meaning 'all lands' in Greek),
before it separated and drifted across the Earth's surface, experiencing a variety of different climatic
changes and geological events. In focusing on Australia's journey across the Earth, it is possible to gain a
greater insight into the evolution of Australian landforms, soils, flora and fauna.
Origins of plate tectonic theory
Plate tectonics is a geological theory used to explain the phenomenon of continental drift, which is the
tendency of landmasses to move around the Earth. This theory provides an explanation of how Pangaea
was able to break up into two separate landmasses, Gondwanaland and Laurasia, which in turn broke into
the seven continents that exist today.
After Pangaea split into two landmasses, Australia was located on the southern super-continent of
Gondwanaland. Other present-day continents which formed part of Gondwanaland are Africa, Antarctica,
South America and some southern parts of the Asian continent.
The existence of Gondwanaland was first discovered during the late 19th century by an Austrian geologist
named Eduard Suess.
Suess named the ancient landmass after a province in Central India called Gondwana. This was after he
discovered that a plant species found in Gondwana matched the fossilised remains of plants found on
other continents in the southern hemisphere. Suess' findings helped to form the theory of plate tectonics.
What are plate tectonics?
The Earth is made up of many layers. From the outside in, they are the crust, the mantle, the outer core
and the inner core. Central to the theory of tectonic plates is the idea that the outermost part of the Earth,
the crust, is composed of two layers: the lithosphere and the asthenosphere. The lithosphere is composed
of the crust and the solidified uppermost part of the mantle. The asthenosphere lies underneath the
lithosphere, and is made up of the inner viscous part of the mantle. The lithosphere is a more fixed, rigid,
cooler substance than the hotter, mechanically weaker asthenosphere.
The plate tectonic theory hinges upon the principle that the lithosphere exists as separate, distinct tectonic
plates, which float on the fluid-like asthenosphere. Volcanic activity, earthquakes, mountain building and
oceanic trench formation occur at the plate boundaries, which are the areas separating the plates. The
tectonic plates can be categorised as continental plates or oceanic plates.
The Australian continent is located on the Indo-Australian Plate, which includes the surrounding Indian
Ocean and the Indian subcontinent. The Indo-Australian Plate is subdivided into two plates along a low
active boundary: the Australian Plate and the Indian Plate. The Indo-Australian plate was originally
connected to Gondwanaland, and later Antarctica, before it began to drift north some 96 million years ago.
As the continent moved northwards, the climate became drier. As the Australian continent drifted north it
developed unique flora and fauna.
The Australian Plate is drifting 35 degrees east of north at a speed of 67 millimetres a year. The easterly
side of the Indo-Australian Plate is a convergent boundary with the subducting Pacific Plate. From the
fusing of these two plates, whereby the Pacific Plate slides underneath the Australian Plate, the Kermedac
Trench is formed. New Zealand is located at the south-eastern boundary of the plate and was part of
Australia before detaching around 85 million years ago.
An old, flat continent
Australia has been described as old and flat. This is because the Australian continent has experienced a
long period of geological stability, which means there has not been much volcanic or tectonic activity in
the recent past. As a result, Australia has been open to the forces of weathering and erosion, which are
processes that break apart and move rocks and soil around. In the distant past, however, there were
volcanic eruptions and earthquakes that helped shape the face of Australia.
The shaping of the Australian Continent
The image below illustrates where continents are moving.
The shaping of the Australian Continent
The image below illustrates ocean movement around the world. Hot water moves to colder areas over the
top of cold water, which is moving into warmer areas
Geographical Tools: Maps
Use various types of maps and flow charts
Physical
Physical maps often include much of the same data found on a political map, but their
primary purpose is to show landforms like deserts, mountains and plains. Their topography
style (or relief) presents an overall better picture of the local terrain.
Political
Political maps are designed to show governmental boundaries of countries, states and
counties. They can also indicate the location of major cities, and they usually include
significant bodies of water.
Topographic
Traditional definitions require a topographic map to show both natural and man-made
features. Topographic maps show contour lines, relief and a range of man-made structures
like roads and buildings.
Thematic
A thematic map reflects a particular theme, for example political, cultural or agricultural
features of an area. Symbols, pictures and colours are used to represent whatever is being
mapped.
Locate features using degrees and minutes of latitude and longitude
Latitude and Longitude coordinates are used to locate places on the Earth’s surface.
However to pinpoint the location more precisely the degrees need to be further subdivided.
To locate a place one the globe we use latitude and longitude represented as degree. There
are 60 minutes in a degree. The symbol for degree is ° and the symbol for minute is ‘. To be
more accurate we use minutes.
Latitude
Read first
Longitude
Read Second
How to reference an area in the North
West of the Globe
How to reference an area in the South
West of the Globe
How to reference an area in the North
East of the Globe
How to reference an area in the South
East of the Globe
Read from this point
out and across
D
C
E
F
G
H
I
B
J
A
Use the World Map above to answer the following.
1. Give the longitude and latitude of each of the following locations:
a. ___________________
f. ___________________
b. ___________________
g. ___________________
c. ___________________
h. ___________________
d. ___________________
i. ___________________
e. ___________________
j. ___________________
Use the Map above to answer the following.
1. Give the Latitude and Longitude (degrees and minutes) for each of the following
a) Hobart
___________________
b) Swansea
___________________
c) Stanley
___________________
d) Launceston
___________________
e) Port Arthur
___________________
Calculate the area of a feature
Calculating the area of a feature means that you are to measure and guess the
area of something within a map. The example below is a pond dotted to
highlight full squares, ¾ squares, ½ squares and ¼ squares. From the division we
use a scale to measure around the feature and calculate the total area
2. Calculate the area of the Lake
1 Square
¾ Squares
½ Squares
¼ Squares
Number of
Squares
40
9
8
11
Multiplier
x 1.00
x 0.75
x 0.50
x 0.25
Calculation
Direction and Bearings on a map
H
A
B
G
C
F
D
E
1. Find the bearing of X to;
A. _______________
D. _______________
G.
_______________
B. _______________
E. _______________
H.
_______________
C. _______________
F. _______________
Calculate local relief
Identify the aspect of a slope
Aspect is the direction a slope is facing. This is important because it dictates the amount of sunlight an area
of land receives. This has a big impact on its microclimate, whether it is warmer or cooler, moister or drier
than surrounding areas. This is important when investigating vegetation communities or buying a block of
land. In Australia, land with a northerly aspect will generally be warmer than land with a southerly aspect
Construct a cross-section
To create a cross section we need to know and understand contour lines. Contour lines connect points that
are of the same elevation. They show the exact elevation, the shape of the land the steepness of the land.
Contour lines never touch or cross each other.
Step 1
Step 2
Step 3
Step 4
Essentially, the whole process looks like this…
Calculate the gradient of a slope
Gradient in geography is different to gradient in maths.
It is always expressed as 1:x, ie 1:4, or 1:1.
The second number in the expression is run/rise, so the way to calculate is:
Run / Rise
(where the run and the rise are measured in the same units).
Tricks and traps
1. Not expressing the gradient in the form 1:x
2. using rise over run as in maths
With a contour map, the contours are likely to be expressed in metres (for the rise) whereas the run is likely
to be measured in km. So, make sure the rise is also in km (ie 700m = 0.7km) before applying the formula. 1:
run/rise
Step 1:
Step 2:
Step 3:
Measure the rise (difference in height between 2 points)
Measure the run (the distance between 2 points).
Make sure that you convert the scale into metres
Types of Slopes
If a slope is not Convex (A) and Concave (B), it is then Linear (C)
Contour lines and slopes
The picture below shows you what an area would look like in real life and as contour lines on a map. Notice
the closer the lines are together, the steeper the ground is.
Construct a transect
A transect is a line following a route along which a survey or observations are made.
The transect is an important geographic tool for studying changes in human and/or physical characteristics
from one place to another.
An urban transect, usually following a street or several streets, may show changes in land use, the nature of
buildings such as houses and shops, or features such as schools, churches, community centres, and parks.
A rural transect might follow a road, section line, or stream, and show the kinds of crops in adjoining fields,
farm buildings, vegetation, or changing features along a riverbank.
Transects may show features that are along the actual line selected (line transect) or, more commonly, may
show what is on either side of the line (belt transect). Depending on the kinds of features being observed,
transects can be a single straight line, straight line segments, or curved lines.
Next is a sample transect. It is a strip of land used to monitor plant distribution, animal populations, etc,
within a given area.
Transects are just long, narrow, quadrats. They show changes in vegetation communities such as down a
slope or across a valley.
If you were mapping vegetation communities from the vertical aerial photograph below, an experienced veg.
mapper may pick different communities at A,B,C and D. To check your accuracy you need to do a field survey
to 'ground truth' your work.
You have chosen to do 3 transects going across the hill in the vicinity of A to C. You need to do a number of
transects, by doing only one you may miss important plant species.
Once you have selected areas which represent your different plant communities, you need to randomly
select a number of transects so you do not have a biased survey.
To do this go to the map at the bottom of this page, click on the transect line and drag it to the vicinity of the
transect area of A, B and C then drop the transect line without looking at the map. Record your results.
Suggestions for Students:
Planning: Select the transect route carefully and identify the start and end points. It is important to be
familiar with the transect route to ensure that it passes through a variety of zones so that the completed
transect will provide meaningful information.
Mapping: Once the route has been selected, it should be drawn carefully on an appropriate map of the area
of interest. Then, follow the route and, on the field copy of the map, note the features that you see as you
progress along the selected line. This will be the first draft of your transect. It’s a good idea to write brief
notes on what you see along the way to ensure that you have all the information you will need to complete
the transect.
Creating: Now it’s time to prepare the final presentation of the transect. Once back in the classroom, copy
the route onto a new map and, using appropriate symbols and shading, show the features and changes
along the route. Brief notes can be written in appropriate spaces on either side of the features and symbols
along your transect route. Make sure that the transect presentation has a title and legend.
Analyzing: The completed transect can be used to analyze the changes and the possible relationships
between physical and human features along the route. If another student has selected the same route or
segment of a route, the two transects can be analyzed in terms of the similarities and differences and the
varying perceptions that different people may have of the same area
Describe and explain relationships on a map
What are relationships?
Relationships are interactions between the natural environment and the physical environment.
You will be expected to identify the differences within that natural environment namely: relief
(mountains/hills, slopes, valleys, plains), natural vegetation cover, soils aspect, climate and drainage.
You will also be expected to identify the impact that natural and physical
For example
Identifying the various physical characteristics such as economic and human aspects that are not natural
(human landscape namely: agriculture, forestry, fishing, mining/quarrying, settlement, transport and
communication.)
 Identify the different human factors.
 See how the physical factors influence human activities.
Examples: drainage (lake) or fishing.
It should be noted that Man’s activities are largely determined by the environment.
Our relationship is a strong physical to human connection.
Human activities modify the landscape through construction, settlement, transport and communication i.e.
man and land use.
This relationship is human-to-human connection.
IMPORTANT:
However the relationship could be either positive or negative.
Basically there are three types of relationships to be identified.
1. Physical factors influencing physical features.
2. Physical factors influencing human activities.
3. Human factors influencing human activities
Read and interpret synoptic charts
Synoptic charts are simply weather maps. Synoptic charts show the atmospheric conditions of a location on
a particular day including rainfall, air pressure (atmospheric pressure), wind speed and wind direction
Firstly, air pressure means the weight of the air.
• Air pressure is measured in hectoPascals (hPa) and indicated by isobars which are lines joining places of
equal pressure.
• High air pressure (> 1013 hPa) means the air is heavy/sinking; associated with calm conditions and fine
weather; winds move in an anti-clockwise direction in the southern hemisphere.
• Low air pressure (< 1013 hPa) means the air is light/rising; associated with unstable conditions and rainy
weather; winds move in a clockwise direction in the southern hemisphere.
A front is the boundary between two air masses.
A cold front is when a mass of cold air moves towards a mass of warm air pushing it upwards and is
indicated by a line with spikes (think of freezing cold icicles); generally brings north or north west wind and a
drop in pressure leading to falling temperatures, wind and rain but this depends on the actual temperature
and water content of the air masses, which depend on the region over which the air masses originate.
A warm front is when a mass of warm air moves towards a mass of cold air pushing it downwards and is
indicated by a line with bumps (think of melting icicles); moves at half the speed of a cold front; warm fronts
generally occur in high latitudes and are not common in Australia
A trough is an elongated area of low pressure extending out from the centre of the pressure system.