VERSION ONE
2UNIT ANCIENT HISTORY- USING WRITTEN EVIDENCE
ASSESSMENT TASK 2 - PRELIMINARY COURSE;
There are two parts to the assessment:
1) on-going homework component.
2) in-class essay
THE BATTLE OF SALAMIS 480BC & THE NATURE OF XERXES
This assessment task will be completed over four weeks during which you will cover in-class
analysis/reading of the four sources. You will also do two essays as practices in this time.
The assessment questions are in italics, in boxes at the end of each section.
Part 1; Herodotus.
Question 1.(assessment) In assessing the reliability of Herodotus, what factors are
significant? 3 marks. (details needed).
Classwork: Before the battle. Greek decisions. Use Herodotus page 537 -544 to find the
answers to the following questions. Note that Herodotus is the major source of information
about what happened at Salamis in 480BC.
a) Why did the Greek fleet move from Artemesium to Salamis?
b) Who commanded the Greek fleet at Salamis - where was he from?
c) How many ships were at Salamis? Which city-state provided the largest number of ships how many?
d) Comment on the number of Greek city states which provided ships for the Greek navy at
Salamis?
e) What happened to Athens after it was evacuated?
f) In the council of war at Salamis (the island) what view did the Peloponnesian states express
and why?
g) Name the Athenian leader?
h) What initial argument did he present to Eurybiades?
i) What argument did he present to the second council of war? Where did he want to fight ?
Why? (be detailed in this answer).
j) When the Corinthians objected, Themistocles used blackmail. Explain?
Question 2; Assessment. How important was Themistocles in convincing the Greeks to fight
at Salamis? Explain fully ? Refer to Herodotus - even use quotes. 7 marks.
Classwork:Before the battle. Persian decisions. Use page 545 - 547.
a) Who was the leader of the Persian forces.?
b) At the Persian council, what was the feeling of the meeting about attacking the Greek fleet?
c) Why did Artemesia advise Xerxes not to attack? Explain clearly her three reasons.
d) What was Xerxes decision?
Question 3; Assessment. What impression of Xerxes does Herodotus give in his account of
the decision making by Xerxes? 3 marks.
Classwork: Before the battle. Greek alarm. Use page 548 - 550 to answer the questions.
a) What was the Greek army doing at this time?
b) Why were the Peloponessian sections of the Greek fleet opposed to the Athenians? What
does this indicate about Greek unity?
c) How did Themistocles ensure that the Greeks would have to fight at Salamis?
d) What did the Persians do as a result; be very specific - write each move in point form ( and
check the map to see where the places were).?
e) How did Themistocles use ARistides to convince the Greeks to fight?
f) Summary; Who appears to have been more important at Salamis - Eurybiades or
Themistocles? Explain your answer.
Question 4;Assessment. How did Themistocles contribute to Greek unity before the Battle of
Salamis? 7 marks.
Classwork; The battle. Use Herodotus page 551 -557 to answer these questions.
a) How did the Greeks react when the Persians first attacked?
b) Which Greek ship changed this reaction? Where did Herodotus get this information?
c) The top Persian ships were from Phoenecia. Which Greek contingent faced these?
d) Why did some Ionian ships hold back on the Persian side?
e) How did the Greek fleet fight? How did the Persian fleet fight?
f) Briefly explain why Xerxes was impressed with Artemesia, the Queen of Halicanassas? Why
does Herodotus include this incident in his account?
g) What happened to the men on the sinking ships? What happened to the Persian fleet overall?
h) What did Aristides do while the battle was in progress?
i) How did Xerxes react to the disaster - what was he afraid of?
j) How did he disguise his real plans?
Question 5: Assessment.
a) Why did the Greeks win the battle of Salamis? 5 marks.
b) Account for Xerxes reaction to the battle loss. 3 marks
c) Describe Themistocles’ role at the end of the battle. 2 marks.
PART 2; PLUTARCH
Question 6; Assessment. Who was Plutarch? What aspects of his Life of Themistocles are
important in considering the information supplied by this source? 3 marks.
Classwork; Before the battle.
a) What did Themistocles order his men to do as they sailed from Artemesium to Salamis?
b) What problem did the Greeks north of the isthmus face after the fall of Thermopylae?
c) How did Themistocles act to save the Athenian population? Does this fit with the information
from Herodotus?
d) In the council of war what argument did Themistocles use to make the rest of the Greek fleet
listen to him? Does this fit with the information from Herodotus?
e) How large was the Persian fleet which anchored at Phalerum?
f) What was the Greek reaction? Does this fit Herodotus' account?
g) What trick did Themistocles use? Does Herodotus report this trick?
h) How did Xerxes react? What additional information is contained in Plutarch's account?
i) How does Themistocles use Aristides to help the situation?
Question 7 Assessment; What contribution did Themistocles make to the Greek defence
before Salamis? What were his aims? 7 marks.
Classwork: the Battle of Salamis. - Plutarch
a) where was Xerxes and why?
b) How did local knowledge help Themistocles in this battle?
c) How did the difference in types of ships favour the Greeks and disadvantage the Persians?
d) Does Herodotus report these two factors?
e) What problems did the Persians have in the narrow straits of Salamis?
f) How did Themistocles persuade Xerxes to leave Athens immediately?
g) Is this trick recorded in Herodotus?
Question 8 Assessment
a) Why did the Greeks win the Battle of Salamis? 4 marks.
b) Account for Xerxes reaction and actions after losing the battle? 3 marks
c) What is the main difference between the account of Herodotus and Plutarch? Suggest a
reason for the difference. 3 marks.
Part 3: EHRENBERG.
Classwork;
a) Is Ehrenberg a modern or ancient source? A Primary or secondary source?
b) Why was Themistocles anxious for battle at Salamis according to Ehrenberg?
c) Are these reasons originally expressed in Herodotus and Plutarch?
d) Why were the Persians anxious to attack according to Ehrenberg?
e) Are these reasons originally expressed in Herodotus and Plutarch?
f) Does Ehrenberg accept the Herodotus/Plutarch figures for the size of the Greek fleet?
g) Does Ehrenberg accept the traditional number of 1200 Persian ships?
h) What does Ehrenberg believe was the most important outcome of the battle of Salamis?
Question 9; Assessment; To what extent does Ehrenberg accept the accounts of Herodotus
and Plutarch concerning the battle of Salamis? 5 marks
Homework essay. Account for the Greek victory over the Persians at the Battle of Salamis.
Part 4; Aeschylus - The Persians
Classwork;
a) what is Aeschylus’ judgement of the preparations made by Xerxes for the Battle of Salamis?
b) What factual information does Aeschylus provide about the preparations and events of the
Battle?
c) What is the impression of Xerxes which Aeschylus wants to create in the play? why?
d) In Aeschylus’ account, what condition is Xerxes in as a result of the Battle and the march
back to Susa?
Question 10. Assessment. How reliable is the play, The Persians in providing information
about Xerxes character and actions? 10 marks
Homework essay; “Xerxes was responsible for the Persian loss at the battle of Salamis”. To
what extent is this statement an accurate assessment of the cause of Persian loss and Greek
win?
In class assessment essay; this will involve all or some of the following - the events of the
battle, the roleof Themistocles, the reasons for Greek victory and the role of Xerxes.
35 marks.
TOTAL HOMEWORK COMPONENT; 65 MARKS.
VALUE OF IN CLASS TEST COMPONENT; 35 MARKS.
VERSION TWO
2UNIT ANCIENT HISTORY- USING WRITTEN EVIDENCE
PRELIMINARY COURSE;
There are two parts to this work
1) on-going groupwork and notemaking component.
2) an individual in-class structured essay for test practice.
THE BATTLE OF SALAMIS 480BC & THE NATURE OF XERXES
This task will be completed over three weeks during which you will cover in-class
analysis/reading of the four sources. The judgement questions are in italics, in boxes at the end
of each section.
Part 1; Herodotus.
Question 1. - In assessing the reliability of Herodotus, what factors are significant? 3 marks.
(details needed).
Groupwork: Before the battle. Greek decisions. Use Herodotus page 537 -544 to find the
answers to the following questions. Note that Herodotus is the major source of information
about what happened at Salamis in 480BC.
a) Why did the Greek fleet move from Artemesium to Salamis?
b) Who commanded the Greek fleet at Salamis - where was he from?
c) How many ships were at Salamis? Which city-state provided the largest number of ships how many?
d) Comment on the number of Greek city states which provided ships for the Greek navy at
Salamis?
e) What happened to Athens after it was evacuated?
f) In the council of war at Salamis (the island) what view did the Peloponnesian states express
and why?
g) Name the Athenian leader?
h) What initial argument did he present to Eurybiades?
i) What argument did he present to the second council of war? Where did he want to fight ?
Why? (be detailed in this answer).
j) When the Corinthians objected, Themistocles used blackmail. Explain?
Question 2; Judgement. How important was Themistocles in convincing the Greeks to fight
at Salamis? Explain fully ? Refer to Herodotus - even use quotes. 7 marks.
Groupwork:Before the battle. Persian decisions. Use page 545 - 547.
a) Who was the leader of the Persian forces.?
b) At the Persian council, what was the feeling of the meeting about attacking the Greek fleet?
c) Why did Artemesia advise Xerxes not to attack? Explain clearly her three reasons.
d) What was Xerxes decision?
Question 3; Judgement. What impression of Xerxes does Herodotus give in his account of
the decision making by Xerxes? 3 marks.
Groupwork: Before the battle. Greek alarm. Use page 548 - 550 to answer the questions.
a) What was the Greek army doing at this time?
b) Why were the Peloponessian sections of the Greek fleet opposed to the Athenians? What
does this indicate about Greek unity?
c) How did Themistocles ensure that the Greeks would have to fight at Salamis?
d) What did the Persians do as a result; be very specific - write each move in point form ( and
check the map to see where the places were).?
e) How did Themistocles use ARistides to convince the Greeks to fight?
f) Summary; Who appears to have been more important at Salamis - Eurybiades or
Themistocles? Explain your answer.
Question 4;Judgement. How did Themistocles contribute to Greek unity before the Battle of
Salamis? 7 marks.
Groupwork; The battle. Use Herodotus page 551 -557 to answer these questions.
a) How did the Greeks react when the Persians first attacked?
b) Which Greek ship changed this reaction? Where did Herodotus get this information?
c) The top Persian ships were from Phoenecia. Which Greek contingent faced these?
d) Why did some Ionian ships hold back on the Persian side?
e) How did the Greek fleet fight? How did the Persian fleet fight?
f) Briefly explain why Xerxes was impressed with Artemesia, the Queen of Halicanassas? Why
does Herodotus include this incident in his account?
g) What happened to the men on the sinking ships? What happened to the Persian fleet overall?
h) What did Aristides do while the battle was in progress?
i) How did Xerxes react to the disaster - what was he afraid of?
j) How did he disguise his real plans?
Question 5: Judgement.
a) Why did the Greeks win the battle of Salamis? 5 marks.
b) Account for Xerxes reaction to the battle loss. 3 marks
c) Describe Themistocles’ role at the end of the battle. 2 marks.
PART 2; PLUTARCH
Question 6; Judgement. Who was Plutarch? What aspects of his Life of Themistocles are
important in considering the information supplied by this source? 3 marks.
Groupwork; Before the battle.
a) What did Themistocles order his men to do as they sailed from Artemesium to Salamis?
b) What problem did the Greeks north of the isthmus face after the fall of Thermopylae?
c) How did Themistocles act to save the Athenian population? Does this fit with the information
from Herodotus?
d) In the council of war what argument did Themistocles use to make the rest of the Greek fleet
listen to him? Does this fit with the information from Herodotus?
e) How large was the Persian fleet which anchored at Phalerum?
f) What was the Greek reaction? Does this fit Herodotus' account?
g) What trick did Themistocles use? Does Herodotus report this trick?
h) How did Xerxes react? What additional information is contained in Plutarch's account?
i) How does Themistocles use Aristides to help the situation?
Question 7 Judgement; What contribution did Themistocles make to the Greek defence
before Salamis? What were his aims? 7 marks.
Groupwork: the Battle of Salamis. - Plutarch
a) where was Xerxes and why?
b) How did local knowledge help Themistocles in this battle?
c) How did the difference in types of ships favour the Greeks and disadvantage the Persians?
d) Does Herodotus report these two factors?
e) What problems did the Persians have in the narrow straits of Salamis?
f) How did Themistocles persuade Xerxes to leave Athens immediately?
g) Is this trick recorded in Herodotus?
Question 8 Judgement
a) Why did the Greeks win the Battle of Salamis? 4 marks.
b) Account for Xerxes reaction and actions after losing the battle? 3 marks
c) What is the main difference between the account of Herodotus and Plutarch? Suggest a
reason for the difference. 3 marks.
Part 3: EHRENBERG.
Groupwork;
a) Is Ehrenberg a modern or ancient source? A Primary or secondary source?
b) Why was Themistocles anxious for battle at Salamis according to Ehrenberg?
c) Are these reasons originally expressed in Herodotus and Plutarch?
d) Why were the Persians anxious to attack according to Ehrenberg?
e) Are these reasons originally expressed in Herodotus and Plutarch?
f) Does Ehrenberg accept the Herodotus/Plutarch figures for the size of the Greek fleet?
g) Does Ehrenberg accept the traditional number of 1200 Persian ships?
h) What does Ehrenberg believe was the most important outcome of the battle of Salamis?
Question 9; Judgement; To what extent does Ehrenberg accept the accounts of Herodotus
and Plutarch concerning the battle of Salamis? 5 marks
Part 4; Aeschylus - The Persians
Groupwork;
a) what is Aeschylus’ judgement of the preparations made by Xerxes for the Battle of Salamis?
b) What factual information does Aeschylus provide about the preparations and events of the
Battle?
c) What is the impression of Xerxes which Aeschylus wants to create in the play? why?
d) In Aeschylus’ account, what condition is Xerxes in as a result of the Battle and the march
back to Susa?
Question 10. Judgement. How reliable is the play, The Persians in providing information
about Xerxes character and actions? 10 marks
......................................................................................................................................................
VERSION
THREE
ANCIENT HISTORY PRELIMINARY COURSE
ASSESSMENT TASK 2
TASK
Assess the contribution of the following to historical knowledge and understanding of the Battle
of Salamis (the events, the role of Themistocles and the reasons for Greek win/ Persian
loss) –
a) Herodotus
b) Plutarch
c) Aeschylus
METHOD
You will be placed in a group of 3. Each person in the group must contribute to discussion of
the groupwork questions and make notes on the information plus judgements. This is group
work and gives you the maximum opportunity to understand the written sources. In addition
groups must find 3 modern sources on this topic.
PRESENTATION.
1. Your group will be required to present a research folio of at least 3 items. Each member
should find ONE item. These items should cover MODERN sources and include an internet
site. Before submitting the folio, meet as a group to check the items. The group folio should
note the following for each source:
a) bibliographical details for the source
b) a summary of information relevant to the topic – the battle of Salamis
c) a comment on the usefulness of the source to this topic.
d) the group member who found the item and wrote up the report on it.
This folio will be given a mark of 5 per item and the marks will be attributed to the group
member who found and annotated the item.
2. Each person in the group will be responsible for presenting findings on ONE of the
individual writers. However, the individual talks must show an awareness of the work of all
three writers although the individual student will focus on ONE in particular. This individual
oral presentation must be the work of the student ALONE following the group work done in
class.
The presentation should be in LECTURE format with only one or two simple visual aides if
appropriate. The visual aids are not a specified requirement of the task. The lecture time is 4-6
minutes. You will be asked to stop at 6 minutes.
The oral presentation requires you to make a judgement about the contribution of the written
source to understanding and knowledge of the topic. Better marks will demonstrate a clear
understanding of the events, the role of Themistocles, the reasons for the Greek win and the
value of the written source. Weaker responses will simply tell the story, or contain inaccuracies
and lack judgements.
criteria
 Demonstrates detailed planning and
organisation of lecture
 Incorporates a varied selection of
source references well
 Evaluates the usefulness of the focus
souce
 Analyses and synthesises information
 Uses historical terms accurately and
appropriately
 Shows knowledge, understanding and
judgement of the issues in the topic
Marks
20-25
2UNIT ANCIENT HISTORY PRELIMINARY COURSE
Using written sources.- structured essay
There are three questions. Take notice of the marks. 5 marks is 1/2 to one page.
10 marks = 1 and a half to 2 pages. You will need to write quickly.
There may be an overlap of information.
Refer to sources in your answers.
a) Describe the battle of Salamis. In your answer include the numbers of ships, the leaders of
each side and the sequence of events from the war councils before the battle to the end of the
battle. 5 marks.
b) Evaluate the role of Themistocles, Eurybiades and Xerxes in this battle. 10 marks.
c) Explain how the type of ships, the unity of the forces and the site of the battle contributed to
the outcome of the battle. 10 marks.
HISTORICAL PERIOD ESSAYS.
1. How important was Themistocles in contributing to the Greek win at Salamis? What other
factors also contributed?
2. The Greek win at Salamis was as much a result of Persian shortcomings as it was of Greek
superiority. Do you agree?
Higher School Certificate
ANCIENT HISTORY
ASSESSMENT TASK- PERSIAN WARS AND XERXES.
This is a very long assessment task so work on it immediately.
The task consists of two parts.
a) a series of source studies. This is a lengthy section with a total mark of 100 divided into
several sections. It is worth 10% of your total assessment. DUE: TUESDAY APRIL 28
b) An in-class essay under test conditions on one of the topics listed below. Note that these are
the topics covered in the source studies above and therefore it is essential that you complete
the source studies properly. Our classwork also considers these topics. The essay is worth 10%
of your total assessment. The essay will be on one of the following topics.
a) THE CAUSES OF THE PERSIAN WARS.
b)THE REASONS FOR GREEK VICTORY IN BOTH INVASIONS.
c) THE DEGREE OF UNITY OF THE GREEKS.
DATE; TUESDAY APRIL 28..
REFERENCES
Herodotus: The Histories. Penguin Classics
Plutarch: "Themistocles" from The Rise and Fall of Athens
Refer to Year 11 resources for Salamis.
Aeschylus: The Persae Refer to Year 11 resources for Salamis.
Ehrenberg: From Solon to Socrates. The relevant chapter is
reprinted in your Persian Wars folder.
The Greek Armies - Year 12 folder.
The Persian Wars -Year 12 folder.
Lecture by Dr Spence.
PART I; THE CAUSES OF THE WARS. (25 marks total)
Athenian involvement in the Ionian revolt 10 marks
Read the following passages from Herodotus' The Histories explaining the decision of the
Athenians to aid the Ionian rebels. (page references are to the Penguin translation).
a. Herodotus V 95-6 (pp378-9). From "Hippias, on his return to Asia..." to "the beginning of
trouble not only for Greece but also for other peoples."
b. Herodotus V 99 (p380). the Eretrian reason for helping - read from "The Athenian
squadron..." to "their war with the Chalcidians".
c. Refer to Ehrenberg From Solon to Socrates. The relevant chapter is reprinted in your
Persian Wars folder.
Questions.
1. On the basis of Herodotus' account, list the factors which may have persuaded the Athenians
to support the Ionian revolt.
2 marks.
2. Which of these factors do you think was probably most influential in determining the
Athenian attitude and why?
2 marks.
3. What additional factor does Ehrenberg (p126) suggest might have influenced the Athenian
decision?
1 mark.
4. Why is this factor not mentioned by Herodotus? (consider the view of Athens's involvement
which he wishes to emphasise)?
1 mark.
5. Compare the Athenian reasons for helping Ionia with that of Eretria. Which city state would
probably have brought its contingent home first when the revolt started to fail. (refer to
Ehrenberg p 128).
2marks.
6. What does Herodotus mean by "the beginning of trouble ....for Greece"? What does he
imply in this statement is the cause of the Persian invasions of the Greek mainland.
2 marks.
Reasons for the Persian campaigns of 492, 490 and 480. 15 marks
Read the following passages from Herodotus' The Histories explaining the decisions of both
Darius and Xerxes to embark upon their campaigns against Greece.
a) Herodotus VI 43-44 (p402-3). Mardonius' expedition into Thrace in 492Bc. Read from
"These measures..." to "the hither side of Macedonia were subjects already."
b) Herodotus VI 94. (pp421-2). Datis and Araphernes expedition of 490BC. Read from
"While Athens and Aegina..." to " to bring the slaves before the King."
c) Herodotus VII 5ff (pp442-5.) Xerxes invasion of 480BC, Read from "Xerxes at first was
not at all interested..." to "shall bear the yoke of servitude."
d) Ehrenberg references are identified in the questions.
e) p 486-7. a reference to the purpose - remember the quote “conquest of the whole of
Greece”
Questions.
1. What factors does Herodotus say influenced Darius in sending expeditions against Greece in
492 and 490 BC? 2marks.
2. Ehrenberg questions the accuracy of Herodotus' view in document (a). By reference to
Ehrenberg p 131, explain the point of disagreement. What evidence does Ehrenberg suggest in
favour of his view? What two mishaps forced Mardonius to turn back? 3 marks.
3. What is the significance of giving earth and water? 1 mark.
4. What reasons contribute to the view that Darius wanted to conquer more than just Athens and
Eretria? (refer to your lesson notes for next part). What reasons does Spence give in his taped
lecture, to oppose this view. 2 mark.
5. In 480 BC Xerxes invaded Greece. What arguments does Mardonius use to persuade the
Persian King to mount this invasion (document (c)). 1 mark.
6. What reasons does Xerxes give, according to Herodotus, to justify the invasion of Greece
(document c). 1 mark.
7.What specific incident does Mardonius have in mind when he says that people will "think
twice before they invade your country." 1 mark.
8. How valid is Mardonius' argument additional to that of revenge, when considered with
reference to Greece? 1 mark
9.How valid is xerxes contention that Athens did injury to Persia without provocation? 1 mark
10.Which factor(s) do you think influenced Xerxes most strongly to invade Greece. Explain
your answer clearly. 2 marks.
PART 2; THE OPPOSING FORCES - SIZE and
COMPOSITION (35 marks)
SIZE- Invasion of 490BC - Marathon.
a) Herodotus; The Histories. Book VI 96. p422 from " The new Commanders..." to " to
attack the other islands."
b) Herodotus: The Histories. VI 108-117 (426-430) from "The Athenian troops were drawn
up...." to "the loss of the Athenians was 192."
Questions. Marathon; 10 marks.
1.How many ships does Herodotus say formed the Persian fleet of the 490BC invasion? What
is Ehrenberg's estimate of the fleet (p134) and why does he discount the presence of triremes?
Name some contributors to the fleet.
3 marks.
2.How large was the Greek force and what city states contributed at Marathon according to
Herodotus?
2 marks.
3.What is Ehrenberg's estimate of the number of Persians including cavalry and foot soldiers.
How does he reach this figure?
2 marks.
4. How did the Greeks adjust their strategy to compensate for their lesser numbers?
1 mark.
5. Explain the events of the battle. 2 marks.
SIZE - INVASION OF 480BC
a)HERODOTUS VII- 20-23; (P452-453) FROM "After Xerxes had made his decision to
fight..." to "...naval craft of various kind."
b) HERODOTUS VII 59-97. (465-474) FROM " Meanwhile Xerxes at Doriscus...." to " I
have now finished what I have to say about the fleet."
c) Herodotus vii 184-186 ( p506-7) from "The Persian fleet got as far as Sepias..." to " to
wield so vast a power."
d) Herodotus VII 203-204 (pp511-512) from "The position then,was that Xerxes...." to
"Leonidas the Spartan who was in command of the whole army."
e) Herodotus Vii 207 (p513-4) from "They did send troops...." to " ...and with the bravest
men."
f) Herodotus VII 187-190 (p507-8 from "The Persian fleet..." to "beyond reckoning."
g) Herodotus Book VIII - 1. (p525). From "The following is the roll of the Greek naval
force....." to ..271 ships of war"
h) Herodotus Book VIII - 10-16, (528-30). From "When the officers and men of Xerxes'
fleet...." to " ...those of the Persians much heavier."
Questions - Thermopylae and Artemesium. 12 MARKS.
1. What is Herodotus' estimate of the size of the Persian land troops? Identify one disadvantage
associated with the composition of the total forces assembled for this second invasion. 2 marks.
2. Read Ehrenberg p 152. What estimate of the land forces does he reach and on what basis?
Why does he reject Herodotus' figure? 2 marks.
3. How many Greeks fought at Thermopylae according to Herodotus? 1 mark.
4. Read Ehrenberg p 155-6. What does he believe is the explanation for the small Spartan force
at Thermopylae. How does his view conflict with that of Herodotus. 2 marks.
5. What advantage did the Greek (Spartan) soldiers have and how is Xerxes given this
information? 1 mark.
6. What is Herodotus's estimate of the Persian naval size. How many of these were triremes?
1mk
7. What is Ehrenberg's estimate of the naval size and why does he reject Herodotus' figure?
2 marks.
8. How were the Greeks able to prevent defeat at Artemesium despite their smaller naval force?
1 mark.
SIZE OF FLEETS AT SALAMIS.
A) HERODOTUS VIII 42-48 (p538-9) FROM "There were some other Greek..." to " ....was
378".
b) HERODOTUS VIII 69 (545) " Meanwhile the Persian sailors..." to " ...the more peoples
followed him."
Questions - Salamis. 7 marks.
1. How large was the Greek fleet, what proportion was Athenian? Does the composition of the
fleet suggest unity or disunity among the Greek city states? (explain your answer) 3 marks.
2. Read Ehrenberg p162. Does he agree with Herodotus? What is his additional source of
information? Why is he using this source? 2 marks.
3. What is Herodotus' belief about the size of the Persian fleet at Salamis? How does Ehrenberg
view this (page 164). 2marks.
SIZE - PLATAEA 479BC.
A) HERODOTUS bOOK IX 30 ( 588-599). "In addition to....." to " fully armed."
B) HERODOTUS BOOK IX 33 (590). " The foreign troops..." to "formed a separate unit."
Questions - Plataea 8 marks.
1. Compare the size of the Greek and Persian forces at Plataea according to Herodotus. Why
was the Persian force less than in 480BC? Why was the Greek force greater than at
Thermopylae?
3 marks.
2. Read Ehrenberg p 169-70. What is his assessment of the size of the two forces? 2 marks.
3. What number of Greeks fought with the Persians and what was the strongest point of the
Persian forces? Does the composition of the Greek force support the idea of unity (explain your
answer)? 3 marks.
PART 3 -REASONS FOR PERSIAN DEFEAT. 24 marks
a) SUPERIOR GREEK FIGHTING PRACTICES. - 8 marks
1. Use archaeological evidence from your booklet on the Greek armies to explain the superiority
of the Greek hoplite over most of the forces of the Persians. 4 marks
2. What was Herodotus’ view of the relative strength of the opposing armies? 4 marks.
b) SUPERIOR LEADERSHIP, STRATEGIES . 10 marks
The Persians outnumbered the Greeks in infantry, cavalry and ships. Using the evidence in the
passages below,
1. name the leaders at each battle on each side. 2 marks
2. Explain in general the factors of leadership and strategies responsible for reducing the size
advantage of the Persians. In your answer you can refer to specific battles for evidence.
8marks.
a) Marathon 426-430
b) Herodotus VII 175-7. (pp503-4) The decision to hold Thermopylae; from " The Greeks on
their return to the Isthmus...." to "...others by sea to Artemesium."
c)Herodotus VII 187. (p506-7) Supplying the Persian Army. " So much for the actual
army..." to "....to wield so vast a power."
d) Herodotus VII 211 (p 515 ) The fighting at Thermopylae. "On the Spartan side...." to ..." he
leapt to his feet."
e) Herodotus VIII 16 (p530). The fighting at Artemesium.
"Xerxes fleet now moved forward...." to " at his own personal expense."
f) Herodotus VIII 58-63 (p542-4). The decision to fight at Salamis. "Themistocles highly
approved of this suggestion..." to "...fight it out at Salamis."
g) Herodotus VIII 68. (p 545-6). ARtemesia's advice to Xerxes. " All these troops...." to "
fighting in defence of Athens."
h) Herodotus VIII 75-83. (p 548-51). Themistocle's trick before Salamis. " The Greeks at the
Isthmus..." to "the sons of Aeacus rejoined the fleet."
i) Herodotus VIII. 80. (p 551-2). The battle of Salamis. "These two officers...." to "...the
King's eye was on him".
j) Herodotus IX. 63. p602. The battle of Plataea. " First there was a ....." to "....the entire force
of the Messenians."
c) SITES OF BATTLES
"The Greeks chose the sites of battles to suit themselves." Using the evidence from the
Herodotus account, illustrate this statement and assess its importance as a factor in the Greek
victory. 6 MARKS
PART 4; GREEK UNITY. 16 marks
One of the factors which Mardonius believed would weight heavily in Persia's favour, was the
inability of the Greeks to cooperate with one another. The passages indicated below from
Herodotus and Plutarch take up this theme. Read these and answer the questions below.
a) HERODOTUS VII -145. (p490). The conference of the Greek States in 481BC. "At a conference of
the GReek states..." to "anyone else of GReek nationality."
b) HERODOTUS VII- 148ff (p491-3). The attitude of ARgos. "The Greeks who had united...." to
"...to be treated as enemies."
c) HERODOTUS VIIi - 2 (p525-6). The question of leadership before Artemesium. "These then were
the Greek states..." to "....depriving the Lacedaemonians of the command."
d) Plutarch. Reread Themistocle's actions at ARtemesium. pp 83-4.
e) HERODOTUS. VIII 27ff. (533-4). Relations between Thessaly and Phocis. " Meanwhile,
immediately after...." to "...to act as guides to the Persian army."
f) HERODOTUS VIII -40 (p537). Between Artemesium and Salamis. "The Greek fleet...." to "...to put
in at Salamis."
g) HERODOTUS IX -26-8. (p586-8) Preparations for Plataea. "The Greeks now determined...."
to"....at the Tegeans' expense."
h) HERODOTUS IX 103-4. (p617) At the battle of Mycale. "Now the Athenians..." to "...through the
breach in the barricade."
i)HERODOTUS IX 114. (p621-2). After Mycale. "The Greeks who sailed..." to "...in the sanctuary."
Questions. 16 marks.
1. What evidence do the passages give to support Mardonius' view that the Greeks were
quarrelsome before the Persian invasions? 2 marks.
2. What evidence for disagreements during the Persian wars is provided by Herodotus? Were
these disagreements crucial (could they have undermined the Greek war effort)? How were
they resolved? 5 marks.
3. What evidence of cooperation between states is provided by Herodotus. (include the battle of
Marathon in your answer). 5marks.
4. Putting together your answers to 2 and 3, and adding knowledge from the section on the
composition of Greek and Persian forces, how united were the Greek states during Xerxes
invasion . 4 marks.
PERSIAN WARS QUIZ WORK
1. Fill in the blanks; Events before 490BC. 10 marks
The ....................Revolt which began in 499BC was the most immediate cause of King
....................of Persia's attack on Greece. This revolt lasted ........years and resulted in failure for
the .............of Asia Minor. The two cities of Greece which helped the Ionians were ............. and
............... both of which had sent ships.
In 492BC the Persian King .............sent his general ......................to reassert Persian power in
Thrace and Macedonia in order to prepare for an expedition into .........
Thrace and Macedonia are located .................of Greece. However this expedition was forced to
turn back because the Persian fleet was wrecked near ..................and because the Persian
General was injured in battles against the .................... so the expedition into Greece did not
occur at this time.
2. Multiple Choice questions; The Battle of Marathon 490BC.
12 marks.
a) Darius, King of Persia, wanted vengeance against Athens and Eritria because of their
connection with the burning of
i) Hippias ii) Sardis iii) Sparta iv) Persepilus
b) The expedition (600 galleys strong) which conquered and burnt Eretria was led by
i) Datis ii) Artaphernes iii) Hippias and Datis
iv) Datis and Artaphernes.
c) The leader of the Greek forces was
i) Hippias ii) Callimarchus iii) Miltiades iv) Herodotus
d) The strategos of Athens was
i) Hippias ii) Aristides iii) Callimachus iv) Miltiades
e)As the Athenians prepared for battle, runners were despatched. They sought and received help
from
i) the Lacedaemonians ii) the Plataeans
ii) both these city states iv) no-one.
f) On the map the Persians landed at
i) W ii) X iii) Y iv) Z
g) The Athenians were based at
i) A ii) B iii) C iv) D
h) The Persians outnumbered the Greeks by
i) 2:1 ii) 4:1 iii) 20:1
iv) Did not outnumber them.
i) The Athenians broke persian resistance because of
i)their superior numbers ii) effective strategy
iii) luck iv) Persian cowardice.
j) In the battle the right wing of the Athenians was commanded by i) Harmodius ii) Miltiades
iii) Callimachus iv) Darius
k) Having lost the battle the Persians
i) set sail for home ii) regrouped to storm overland to Athens iii) set sail around Sunium to
Athens
iv) freed their Eretrian prisoners.
l) Miltiades greatest contribution to the Athenian success was i) his fearless fighting ii) his
position as Polemarch
iii) his advice to Callimachus iv) his money
3. Sentence Answers; 490BC to 480BC (use your own paper)
15 marks
a) Explain the strategy of the Athenians at Marathon.
b) Were the Greeks united in their battle against the Persians in 490BC? Explain.
c) Why were there so few Greek casualties at Marathon? How many Greek and Persian
casualties have been estimated?
d) What preparations did Xerxes make before 480BC?
e) In 481 BC the Congress of the Isthmus was convened. Why? Were the Greeks united at this
time? Explain.
f) What differences in policy between Athens and Sparta were brought out at this time.
g) During this period between the wars Athens underwent some constitutional and military
changes. Using the questions below write a paragraph about these changes.
i. what office took over the powers of the polemarch?
ii., what system of selection was involved in this?
iii. What decision did Athens make regarding her
defence forces and the defence of the city?
iv. Who instigated these changes and when?
v) What was his official position?
vi) How was this change financed?
4. For each of the battles listed on the Chart below, fill in the details as best you can.
PERSIAN WARS LECTURE
SPENCE
(1 hour lecture).
1.Background to the wars.
a) The size of the Persian empire. shows maps of the Aegean world and of the Persian Empire.
The empire covers the whole Middle east -v ast size and resources. Acquired between 549525BC by Cyrus the great. By 500BC Darius had expanded it so it stretched from Ionia to
India.
b) Efficient internal organisation under an absolute monarch. The nobles had an advisory role.
The em,pire was divided into about 20 sartrapies and covered a wide range of nationalities e.g.
Ionians, Indians. Control was aided by good roads and couriers (Herodotus). the Persians and
Medes dominated and filled all major administrative roles including military leadeship. The
empire could raise a very large army.
c) At the time that Cyrus expanded this empire, Pisistratus was in control in Athens. By the
time Darius was in Thrace, Cleomenes was helping oust Hippias the tyrant who went to the
Persian empire for help. In the following years Athens was at war with Aegina 506BC. The
Greek city states were independent of eachother and often in conflict.
d) How did the empire and the city states of Greece come into conflict. Greece was small, a
minor frontier state and no direct threat to the Persian empire. the conflict occurred because of
Ionia. (see map of Ionian coast). The Ionians were Greek in origin and culture and came under
Persian control in 546BC. Ionian freedomes were more restricted. In 499BC the Ionian revolt
began with Miletus as the main polis involved (ref. to Herodotus for information on
Aristogoras). The Ionians appealed for help; Athens sent 20 ships and Eretria sent 5.
e) By 493BC the revolt was over. In Athens Themisocles was archon and evidently aware of
the Persian danger. He introduced the rebuilding of the harbour at Piraeous. Meanwhile Darius,
having suppressed the revolt, decided to exact revent.
In 492BC a Persian force under Mardonius (land and sea force) moved into Thrace en route to
attack Greece. (note dispute over intention). The fleet was destroyed at Mrathos and the
expedition aborted. In 491 Darius implemented a different strategy. The Thracian coastline
was reconquered and Darius sent demands for earth and water to Greek states. Athens and
Sparta refused; other states submitted e.g. Aegina. In 490 the second expedition to Greece sailed
across the Aegean with 25,000 troops. The first target was Eretria which was sacked.
Question: was this a revenge expedition or a wider expansionary expedition? Spence believes
its aim was specific - revenge against Athens and Eretria; the acquisition of other city states
would be a bonus. He bases his belief on the fact that the Persian force headed for specific
targets (Eretria first and then Athens) and that the size of the force was too small to conquer all
of Greece. He does acknowledge the main support for the alternative view; the demands for
earth and water from all major Greek states indicates a greater aim.
2) The Campaign of Marathon.
a)The Persian force landed at Eretria which fell after a 6 day seige, due to traitors within the
city. The Persians then landed at Marathon - Spence gives 3 reasons for choosing this site.
i) itr was an easy sea voyage across the straits of Euboea - easier than sailing around Cape
Sunium.
ii) the Persian army relied on its cavalry and so needed a plain. Marathon is one of the few
plains in Attica.
iii) Hippias advised them to land here.
The Athenians decided to move to the hills near the plains rather than wait for the Persians to
reach Athens. 9000 Athenians plus 1000 Plataeans = 10,000 Greeks. The Spartans were held up
by a religious festival (Spence accepts this as a plausible reason).
b) The battle - refer to a map. The Persians landed in the north of the bay near the dog’s leg, the
Athenians stayed in the hills commanding both roads to Athens for eight days. There was no
action - the Persians expected the Greeks to move into the plain for battle but the Greeks
recognised the cavalry advantage of the Persians and did not move. The Persians probably
(Spence’s opinion) reembarked the horses, cavalry on ships while the land army decided to
move along the road to Athens. At this point the Athenians attacked - a one mile charge and a
surprise attack.
c) The Greeks won. 6400 Persians were killed and 192 Athenians. Spence accepts these figures
from Herodotus.
d) Question. Why did the Greeks win?
i)the main reasons (Spence’s opinion) was the equipment. The Persians were lightly armed and
relied on cavalry and archers. The Greeks were heavily armed.
ii) sound generalship. The Polemarch and 10 generals. Especially advice from Miltiades. The
Persians did not expect intelligent Greek leadership. Refer to Herodotus’ account of Mardonius
- disdain for Greek warfare. Mrathon disproved this opinion.
Hoplites: A very heavily armed infantryman.
Vase paintings show hoplites equipped with helmet, breastplate, protective covering for groin,
greaves, large shield, 6 foot stabbing spear and sword. A closer look at each item shows its
value as protection; the helmet protects the face well, the breastplates consist of metal over
leather covering or stiffened leather and linen; the greaves protect the legs exposed beneath the
shield. The hoplon shield is the most important item of equipment. Vase paintings show how it
is held by one arm/hand firmly. It is the key to protecting not only the individual but the whole
formation of hoplites - the phalanx. The chigi vase shows this formation.
Persians. In contrast the persians shown on vase paintings wore padded turban like helmets and
trousers. See Herodotus for other descriptions.
Spence; the Greek equipment was superior. Therefore the casualty figures given by Herodotus
for Marathon are probably accurate. Marathon was an Athenian hoplite triumph.
3. Between the wars
a) There was a 10 year break until the next invasion. Darius dealt with revolts and died in 486
before preparations could be accomplished. Xerxes prepared well for invasion. Herodotus
writes of a total force of 5 million people. Spence questions this figure but not the extensive
prepartions - roads, supply dumps. He estimates the size of force at 500,000 people.
b) Greek preparations were slower to get under way. In Athens Themistocles was aware of the
Persian danger and convinced the Athenians to built a fleet because of the wars with Aegina. It
was not until 481BC that the Greeks faced the threat.
481BC; first Congress of the Isthmus. The decision was made to allow Spartan command by
land and sea. Spence notes the Athenian compromise here. Although they had the largest navy,
they accepted Spartan leadership in the interests of unity. The Greeks also agreed to terminate
all feuds and again Spence notes that the Athenians ended their feud with Aegina. The 31 states
present pledged to resist the Persian invasion and also sent spies to the Empire.
480BC; the second Congress of the Isthmus met to decide the strategy for the war and
confirmed Spartan command. The 31 states also agreed to punish Medizers ie. states which
went over to the Persian side. Spence points out that as only 31 states were present it is not a
united Greece e.g. Argos refused to participate.
As a result of this meeting, a combined Greek force went to Tempe in Thessaly tomeet
the Persians. Once here they discoveredthat the persians could use 2 other passes so they
withrew again to the Isthmus at Corinth. At this point the northern Greek states were
unprotected and so Thessaly was forced to submit to Persia. Due to the danger to northern
Greece e.g. Athens, Plataea, Thebes, Thespia - the Greeks then decided to try another site
further north and sent a land force of about 5,500 to Thermopylae. Spence believes this was
likely to be an advance force and not the entire force intened for the defence. The fleet was also
sent to Artemesium - it was full strength. The strategy had to be a combined land-sea operation
to stop the Persians who had a large fleet capable of transport troops around Greek land
defences. Therefore ...Thermopylae and Artemesium simultaneously.
Thermopylae and Artemesium. Refer to a map for location and details of battles. The Greeks
chose a narrow pass and held off the Persians for several days until betrayed by a Greek
shepherd (Ephialtes). Leonidas had placed the Phocians as guards on the mountain pass but
they retreated in fear. Leonidas then sent almost the whole force away except the Spartans,
Thebans and Thespians. In the course of the battle the Thebans surrendered. The rest were
killed. Therefore the Greek fleet left the Euboean straits and moved to Salamis. The Persians
moved into Boeotia. Everything north of Athens had either medized for been overrun by the
Persians.
4. Salamis
a)The Athenians evacuated their city which was burned by the Persians. The Greek army
assembled at the Isthmus was building a wall here. After much argument the Greek fleet under
the command of Eurybiades stayed at Salamis =- mainly due to Themistocles. See map of
Salamis.
b)There was a three week wait. Spence believes the Persians were hoping for the disintegration
of Greek unity which alsot did occur. Themistocles sent his slave Sicinnus to Xerxes - trick
worked. This was a major gamble as it involved trapping the Greek fleet in the straits and
hoping they would win. The Greeks had 380 ships to the Persians 1200. The Persians were
lured into the narrow waters , caught in currents, and rammed. The Greeks fought a “land battle
on sea” - they rammed and boarded ships and their heavily armed hoplites (10 per ship) could
defeat the archers and lightly armed Persian crewmen (30) not rowers.
c) Xerxes then withdrew, first to thessaly where he experienced supply problems with the
approach of winter. He then sent the fleet back to Asia Minor and Xerxes marched a large part
of the army home. The Athenians believed this was a result of the loss at Salamis (e.g.
Aeschylus) but Spence believes this was a result of his vulnerable position after the Salamis
loss; Xerxes needed to prevent any rebellion in his empire. Xerxes left a large army under the
command of Mardonius to fight next Spring.
d) Spence stresses that Salamis was not decisive. It ended naval war but did not win the whole
war.
5.Plataea
a) in 479BC the Persians marched south and again burned Athens. The Spartans at this time
continued to build the wall however Athenian threats finally convinced the Spartans to fight
further north. Plataea was chosen in Boeotia. The forces consisted of 300,000 Persians versus
38,700 hoplites and 70,000 lightly armed soldiers i.e. 108,700 Greeks.
b) The Greeks moved out of the mountains to hills on the plain. Here they were harassed by the
Persians and so Pausinias the commanding Spartan decided to withdraw. The battle happened
almost by accident; a contingent of Spartans were reluctant to move and these stragglers were
attacked by Mardonius’ cavalry. The other Greeks turned to their aid. The result was a victory
for the Greeks (the hoplite factor again). This was a decisive victory. (In another lecture
Spence ventures an opinion that the Spartans could again have been luring the Persians into
battle as they did at Thermopylae).
d) The Greek navy then sailed to Mycale were the Persian fleet was destroyed on the beach.
Occurred about one month after Plataea.
All direct threat to Greece ended.
Why did the Greeks win.?
*methods of fighting - hoplites
* own country- local knowledge
* own country - greater motivation than Persian conscripts
*Greek unity hel[ed/
Debate; Who was primarily responsible for victory?
Herodotus expresses what he acknowledges is a minority opinion. He believes the Athenians
were essential to victory because of their sea victory. Without the sea victory at Salamis there
would have been no land victory at Plataea because the Persian forces were too large. The battle
at the Isthmus would not have succeeded; the Spartans would have been left isolated as allies
moved to their home states. Thus the Spartans would have lost the battle. Therefore the
Athenians were the saviours of Greece according to Herodotus.
Spence stresses a different opinion. He accepts the importance of Salamis but points out the
decisive battle was Plataea won by hoplites, mainly Spartan hoplites. Without this Spartan
contributions, Greece would have lost.
Therefore both the Athenians and Spartans made valuable contributions to victory.
............................................................................................................................................................
.
Reminder of Kelly lecture. Another reason for Greek win.
Human miscalculations
*Thermopylae - Xerxes continued to attack each day despite losses.
*Salamis - Xerxes tricked into Salamis - serious misjudgement even though 480BC Phoenecian
naval technology was better than that of the Greeks they did not win because of the narrow
straights and the opportunity for hoplites to board Persian ships.
* leaving mardonius to complete the conquest. Lack of appreciation of difference in equipment
- hoplite armour crucial in battle of Plataea. Mardonius underestimated Greek military skills.
* mardonius’ decision to attack. Why? The Greeks on the plain were easy to attack but not
those already in the hills. Miscalculation by Mardonius.
2000 ESSAY ASSESSMENT
The outcome of the 490 and 480-79 invasions of Greece by Persian forces was determined less
by Greek military advantages and unity, and more by Persian miscalculations.
Is this a satisfactory assessment of the reasons for Greek victory in 490 and 480-79?
2000 ESSAY ASSESSMENT
The outcome of the 490 and 480-79 invasions of Greece by Persian forces was determined less
by Greek military advantages and unity, and more by Persian miscalculations.
Is this a satisfactory assessment of the reasons for Greek victory in 490 and 480-79?
2000 ESSAY ASSESSMENT
The outcome of the 490 and 480-79 invasions of Greece by Persian forces was determined less
by Greek military advantages and unity, and more by Persian miscalculations.
Is this a satisfactory assessment of the reasons for Greek victory in 490 and 480-79?
2000 ESSAY ASSESSMENT
The outcome of the 490 and 480-79 invasions of Greece by Persian forces was determined less
by Greek military advantages and unity, and more by Persian miscalculations.
Is this a satisfactory assessment of the reasons for Greek victory in 490 and 480-79?
2000 ESSAY ASSESSMENT
The outcome of the 490 and 480-79 invasions of Greece by Persian forces was determined less
by Greek military advantages and unity, and more by Persian miscalculations.
Is this a satisfactory assessment of the reasons for Greek victory in 490 and 480-79?
ESSAY MARKING GUIDE FOR PERSIAN WARS ASSESSMENT TASK 1996, 2000-03-26
The Question: The outcome of the 490 and 480-79 invasions of Greece by Persian forces was determined less by Greek military advantages and
unity and more by Persian miscalculations.Is this a satisfactory assessment of the reasons for Greek victory in 490 and 480-79?
FEATURE
student student student student student student student student student
Intro; Line est. (note level)Clear simpleS
Clear/complexC
ImpressiveI
Body-Topic sentences direct
Logical flow
Sustained – length*just long enough, * well done
Conclusion -More than a repeat of into.Great ending
CONTENT list
Probable facts to be used; sources to be used.
 Armour/weapons description
 Vases, base reliefs Herodotus
 Leaders/strategies
 Herodotus, Plutarch, Aeschylus
 Strategies at each battle
 Marathon pincer
 Thermopylae pass
 Artemesium kyklos
 Salarmsi narrow
 Plataea hills and error
 Mycale maybe in
 Herodotus
 Plutarch
 Aeschylus
 Spense
 Ehrenberg
 Xerxes actions (errors)
 Mardonius (errors)
 Problems in P forces
 Artabazus at Pl. (errors)
 Degree of Greek unity.- big discussion on this
EARLE PAGE ESSAY COMPETITION
RYAN MELVILLE
John Paul College
PO Box 1334
Coffs Harbour 2450
Question: 5 Account for the Greek victory in the Persian invasions of
490 and 480-79BC.
The Greeks were victorious over Darius’ and Xerxes’ Persian forces for
several reasons. Their first victory came in 490 BC at the Battle of
Marathon and was followed by the successful repelling of the Persian
invasion in 480BC. This second bout of conflicts included significant
battles at Salamis, Plataea and Mycale where the Greeks were
victorious. Other battles included
Thermopylae where the Greek
forces were winning technically but were defeated due to treachery.
The battle of Artemesium was indecisive and proved to be more of a
hindrance to Xerxes but it presented a danger to the Greek forces
because it held the potential of wasting troops in an unnecessary
skirmish and a loss would have been demoralising for the Greek
defenders. The Greek win in the majority of these battles can be
attributed to their superior armour, weapons and infantry, as well as
their experience and expertise in phalanx formation in combat, and
superior tactics, strategies, generals. In addition the Greeks were
more determined, motivated and unified than their Persian foes.
Superior armour, weapons and infantry gave the Greeks an advantage
over the poorly equipped Persian hordes. Herodotus described in great
detail the range of Persian equipment implying the supremacy of the
Greeks in comparison to the inferior armour and unsuitable weapons of
the majority of the Persian contingents. Most of the Persian infantry
were relatively untrained except for the Persian Immortals and Medes
who constituted the elite soldiers of Xerxes’ land forces. The
Persian equipment was designed for Asian conditions and as such. was
entirely inappropriate for European close combat. Aeschylus also told
of Greek naval supremacy; however this was only because the sea
battles were fought in the narrow confined straits and bays where
smaller Greek vessels had the advantage in close manouevering whereas
Persian vessels were intended for open water combat. Vase paintings
give additional evidence supporting the idea that the Greeks were
better equipped. These show Greek hoplites as heavily armed and well
protected whereas the Persians are inadequately outfitted in quilted
garments. This superior equipment helped the Greeks win at Marathon
and again during the invasion of 480BC.
It is widely recognized that the Greek forces had better generals and
subsequently superior tactics and strategies. The Greeks were
outnumbered in all of their major battles on both land and sea and if
they wished to successfully defend Greece, then they had to take
advantage of those factors favouring their forces and deny the
Persians the benefit of their numbers. To do this they had to fight
on Greek terms and this required them to utilise experience in tactics
related to phalanx formation (shown on the Chigi vase of 750BC) and
to manipulate site choices to negate Persian numbers especially at
sea. The Greek armaments were specifically designed for close combat
which was a foreign concept to the many contingents of Xerxes’ forces
including the immortals. Asian conditions allowed for large numbers
and the initial use of cavalry and archers to disrupt the opposition
lines before close combat by infantry. But the often hilly and uneven
terrain of Greece made the potential threat of Persian cavalry and
numbers relatively obsolete. On land the Greeks intelligently avoided
taking the battle onto the plains and thus Persian terms where the
sheer numbers of the invaders would have meant defeat and the cavalry
and archers would have caused chaos even amongst the well-drilled
Greek ranks ( except for those of Sparta which held firm even at
Plataea). The Greeks were opportunistic and waited for conditions to
change until they suited them. At Marathon they waited seventeen days
until the Persian cavalry was not available. Then they applied the
phalanx formation to great effect. The Persian land forces wee overreliant on their cavalry and archers yet these were either not used
or, as at Plataea were unable to break the Greek formation. At
Marathon, Thermopylae and Plataea the Persians had no response to the
phalanx and continued to throw troops’ at the lines in vain. At
Marathon the Greeks lost only 192 Athenians where as the Persians lost
6200 troops. At Thermopylae 300 Spartans plus several other Greek
contingents managed to hold the whole Persian force numbered at
between 1.5 and 2 million by Herodotus. On the water the Greeks
dictated the conditions under which battles would be fought. This was
to overcome the Persian numerical advantage and involved the fighting
of naval battles in confined areas like the straits near Artemesium
and Salamis. These sites were chosen by the Greeks and the Persians
were lured into attack. To overcome Persian numbers further, at
Artemesium the Greeks resorted to the circular formation (Kyklos) and
half circle formation(semi-kyklos).
The Greeks had good leaders - by comparison the Persians were poor.
Miltiades at Marathon advised his fellow Athenian to stretch the line
and strengthen the flanks, which allowed the successful pincer
movement. Leonidas at Thermopylae lured small numbers of Persian
soldiers into the narrow pass and even managed to beat the Immortals
who were the supposed elite of Persian forces. Themistocles at Salamis
was the main strategist despite Eurybiades being the official leader,
who determined the conditions and tactics to gain yet another Greek
victory. Plutarch records his trickery and delay until the wind and
swell favoured the Greeks. Pausinias at Plataea planned to line up his
experienced troops opposite the appropriate contingents from the
enemy; he deployed troops tactically. It was at this battle that his
Spartan forces repelled and overcame a charge by the Persian cavalry.
All of these leaders adapted their strategies to accommodate the
conditions and sites; the Persians did not adapt and were subsequently
defeated.
The Persians were also defeated because of their own overconfidence.
Their superior numbers had won them an empire in Asian conditions.
The Persian hierarchy moreover was plagued by a number of errors and
misjudgments which prevented them from taking advantage of their
numbers, cavalry, archers and Phoenecian, Egyptian sea contingents
effectively. Xerxes made the mistake of sending his ships into
Salamis straits; Mardonius misread the enemy movements at Plataea and
fought at the wrong time; Atabanus chose to abandon the battle with
40,000 troops. It is possible that had the Persians had better leaders
they may have been successful in the Persian wars.
The Greeks were more motivated, determined and unified than the
multicultural Persian forces listed by Herodotus and also shown on the
bas reliefs at Persepolis. The Greeks were fighting for their
homeland and independence, but the majority of the Persian contingents
were fighting for someone else’s cause, that of the suppressers, and
may have felt resentful at being forces to expand the Persian empire
further. Despite Argos and Thebes, there was a significant degree of
unity amongst the Greek states as at least 31 states provided ships,
troops or other provisions. Sparta was particularly important as the
strongest military and political forces in Greece and viewed as a role
model. The Greeks also fought in a unified manner. All Greek states
fought in phalanx formation and all had some experience in warfare.
The Persians on the other hand, lacked the same degree of motivation
and unity. Herodotus records that Xerxes had to have soldiers whipped
to fore them into battle at Thermopylae and believes that Xerxes once
stated, “I have many men but few soldiers.” The Persian fleet also
lacked unity because it was comprised on different contingents with
opposing ideas in tactics and exhibiting rivalries. The Phoenicians
blamed the Ionians for the Persian loss at Salamis and the Phoenician
commanders were promptly beheaed at Xerxes’ command. Xerxes’ actions
could hardly build confidence in his followers. Artabanus who
abandoned the field at Plataea after the death of Mardonius, is anther
example of lack of unity. The Greeks remained unified and the serpent
column is a tribute to this.
The Greeks won the Persian wars in 490 and 480/79BC because they had
superior armour, weapons and infantry, they had better generals and
tactics, and they were more determined, motivated and unified than
the invasion forces.