1 The Growth of Civilization 2100 BC to AD 1500 The Growth of Civilizations 1. Classical Greece - 2100 BC – 150 BC 2. Rome and Early Christianity – 750 BC – AD 500 3. The Americas – 1000 BC – AD 1500 4. Empires of China and India – 350 BC – AD 600 Ancient Greece: 2100 BC 150 BC 1. Early Greece 2. The Classical Age 3. Greek Achievements 4. Alexander the Great Main Idea o The small, rugged peninsula in southern Europe – Greece – home of early advanced civilizations o From the Minoans and the Mycenaeans to Sparta and Athens to the empire of Alexander the Great, the Greeks left a legacy that helped shape Western Civilization The Geography of Greece? • Ancient Greece is located in southern Europe. • It is located on the Mediterranean and Aegean seas. • The land is mountainous and the civilization does not grow around a river. Archaic Greece: 1650 – 700 BC Centered around Trade Bronze Age Greece Crete: Minoan Civilization The Minoans were the earliest people in the Region. They were traders but their civilization disappeared around 1400 BC. Minoan Civilization o Excavations done at Knossos reveal clues about their life: o Private rooms o Basic Plumbing o Artwork-tied to the sea Minoan Civilization Language-Linear A- cant decipher Most Minoan images of priests are women Mycenaean Civilization The Mycenaeans arose next and were most famous for the Trojan War. They declined around 1200 BC. 2 The Trojan Wars Fought between Troy (Turkey) and Mycenae (Greece) The Trojan Horse-not sure if the battle took place Homer: The “Heroic Age” The Odyssey – the account of Greek hero – Odysseus in the Trojan War The Ilaid is the second account The Mask of Agamemnon King of Mycenae who was murdered by his wife’s mistress Hellenic (Classical) Greece: 700 to 324 BC The Rise of the Greek City States The region declined for hundreds of years after the Mycenaeans. Around 750 BC, the Greek City state, or polis, starts to develop. Cities were built on two levels, with an acropolis on the top level. Governing the City State At first, city states were ruled by one person, usually a king. This is called a monarchy. They were often called tyrants. Next, it was ruled by a small group of nobles. This is called an oligarchy. New forms of government would soon develop, especially in Athens. The Rest of the City State Below the Acropolis was the walled part of the city where everyday life took place. There were marketplaces, theaters, public buildings, and homes. The market was called the agora. It was usually in the center of the city. Sparta Sparta is a city state that develops into a warrior society. Men spend their lives dedicated to warfare and training. Some women took up household and economic responsibilities because the men were occupied with war. Spartan Military Might Helots Messenians enslaved by the Spartans. The Acropolis-The Gods of Olympus The Acropolis The acropolis of each city had temples to the Greek gods and goddesses. The Greeks shared one set of Gods. There were 12 major gods and goddesses. Mount Olympus, Home of the Gods The Gods of Olympus Athens 3 Athens: Yesterday and Today Athens is a city state that develops into a democracy. A democracy is a place where people vote. Only male citizens could vote. Athens also focused on arts and learning. Early Athenian Lawgivers $ Draco “draconian” End Unrest through harsh punishment $ Solon-took first steps toward democracy $ Cleisthenes created the first democracy! Piraeus: Athens’ Port City Persian Wars: Fought between Greece and Persia – Cause of Conflict region called Ionia Peloponnesian Wars $ Marathon (490 BCE) 26 miles from Athens Inspired the Marathon-Greek victory $ Thermopylae (480 BCE) 300 Spartans were able to hold back a much larger Persian army $ Salamis (480 BCE) Athenian navy Victory Golden “Age of Pericles”: 460 BCE – 429 BCE The most influential politician in Athens for many years following the Persian Wars Peloponnesian Wars Athens –Delian League Sparta-Pelponnesian League Tension between the two leagues; Sparta becomes the superpower Later fell to Macedonia Socrates Socrates was a famous Athenian philosopher. He taught Plato, who then taught Aristotle. He was accused of corrupting the minds of the youth and forced to commit suicide. o Know thyself! o question everything o only the pursuit of goodness brings happiness. 4 Plato Philosophers were best suited to govern The Academy The World of Forms The Republic – philosophers should be king Aristotle Concerned with nature and the world around him The Lyceum and the Golden Mean o Everything in moderation o Logic empowers reason o Scientific method Hippocrates Hippocrates was a famous Greek doctor. Doctors today still take the Hippocratic Oath when they begin their careers in medicine. Its most important part is to do no harm. Herodotus Herodotus is famous for creating maps of the Ancient Greek world. He tried to determine what existed beyond what the Greeks themselves knew about. Sophocles Sophocles was a famous Greek dramatist. There were two main types of plays: comedies and tragedies. These plays were very popular in Greece. Phidias’ Acropolis The Acropolis Today Temples for the Gods The Parthenon Temple of the Greek Goddess Athena The Olympic Games The Agora The Classical Greek “Ideal” Greek Columns Olympia The Ancient Olympics: Athletes & Trainers The Olympic Games The ancient Greeks started the Olympic games. 5 They were held to honor the gods. There were races, discuss throwing, boxing, and a no-holds barred type of fighting called pankration. Only eye gouging and biting were prohibited. Olympia: Temple to Hera The 2004 Olympics Macedonia under Phillip II Took over Greece along with his son, Alexander the Great Hellenstic Greece: 324 100 BC Alexander the Great Took over, at age 20, after his father was assassinated Alexander the Greats Empire Alexander the Great in Persia Within a year, Alexander conquered Persia Phalanx tactic The Hellenization of Asia Greek Like Culture mixed with others throughout Asia Pergamum: A Hellenistic City The Economy of the Hellenistic World Hellenistic Philosophers $ Cynics Diogenes ignore social conventions & avoid luxuries. citizens of the world. live a humble, simple life. $ Epicurians Epicurus avoid pain & seek pleasure. all excess leads to pain! politics should be avoided. $ Stoics Zeno nature is the expansion of divine will. concept of natural law. get involved in politics, not for personal gain, but to perform virtuous acts for the good of all. true happiness is found in great achievements. Hellenism: The Arts & Sciences $ Scientists / Mathematicians: 6 Aristarchus heliocentric theory. Euclid geometry Archimedes pulley Eratosthenes- calculated the size of the world $ Hellenistic Art: More realistic; less ideal than Hellenic art. Showed individual emotions, wrinkles, and age! The Breakup of Alexander’s Empire Alexander died in Babylon in 323 BC At age 33 7 The Growth of Civilization 2100 BC to AD 1500 The Growth of Civilizations 1. Classical Greece - 2100 BC – 150 BC 2. Rome and Early Christianity – 750 BC – AD 500 3. The Americas – 1000 BC – AD 1500 4. Empires of China and India – 350 BC – AD 600 Rome • • • • • • 1. The Foundations of Rome 2. From Republic to Empire 3. Roman Society and Culture 4. The Rise of Christianity 5. The Fall of Rome Main Idea • The city of Rome was the seat of one of the greatest powers of the ancient world • 1,200 year history • Roman went through great changes in government and culture • Many changes were caused by the beginning of the spread of one of the world’s largest religions - Christianity The Geography of Rome Rome is located in Southern Europe. It is in the present day country of Italy. Italy is a peninsula, which means it has water on three sides. This allowed the Romans to trade with others in the region. The Mythical Founding of Rome: • Rome has a mythical beginning. • Twin brothers, Romulus and Remus, were sons of the war god Mars and left abandoned as babies. • A she-wolf fed them and kept them alive. • They grew up, fought over who would name the city. • Romulus killed Remus; therefore, he called the city Rome. Influence of the Etruscans Introduced the alphabet and number system, helped shape government, built Rome’s first city walls The Roman Republic • Around 500 BC, Rome became a republic. • A republic is a government where representatives are chosen by the people. • The people of Rome were represented in the Senate. How were the people of Rome divided? Twelve Tables • Romans were split into two main social classes. • The Patricians were the landholding upper class. 8 • • The Plebians were the commoners of Rome. The majority of the people were Plebians but the Patricians had most of the power. Republican Government 2 Consuls (Rulers of Rome) Senate (Representative body for patricians, land holders and the upper class) Tribal Assembly (Representative body for plebeians, the commoners of Rome) The Roman Forum • The Roman Forum was a place where people could express their ideas. • It was also a place that decrees of the Senate and later the Emperor were announced to the people. The Carthaginian Empire • The Punic Wars • Fought between Early Rome and Carthage (N. Africa) • Hannibal-perhaps one of the greatest military leaders of all time. Hannibal’s Route • The Roman, after suffering serious losses, managed to defeat Hannibal and the Carthaginian Army Rome becomes an empire Reform Leaders Tiberius and Gaius Gracchus • the poor should be given grain and small plots of free land. Soldier Farmers Military Reformer Gaius Marius • recruited an army from the poor and homeless. • professional standing army. Civil War and Dictators • Civil War brought an end to the republic. Pompey and Caesar were successful military leaders who formed the First Triumvirate The First Triumvirate Julius Caesar-conquered Gaul, modern day France Marcus Licinius Crassus, Gaius Magnus Pompey, conquered parts of Asia Minor Crossing the Rubicon Caesar took his army over the Rubicon River and marched into Rome Beware the Ides of March! 44 BCE • After rising to prominence in a variety of military campaigns, Julius Caesar brings his troops to Rome in 49 BC and makes himself a dictator. • He keeps the Senate around but keeps all real power for himself. 9 • In 44 BC, he is murdered in the Senate by people who want to bring back the old government-the Republic The Second Triumvirate Octavian Augustus, adopted son of Caesar Marc Antony,a loyal officer Marcus Lepidus, high priest The Roman Empire Octavian Augustus: Rome’s First Emperor • After Julius Caesar is assassinated, there is a civil war fighting for control. • Caesar’s nephew Octavian becomes emperor, and changes his name to Caesar Augustus. The First Roman Dynasty • The Augustan Age- ruled for 40 years and Rome experienced a peaceful era. After his death, Julio-Claudians and Flavians ruled Rome. The Good Emperors followed and the empire grew tremendously Pax Romana • After Augustus, there is a 200 year peaceful period called the Pax Romana, or Roman Peace. Roman’s Early Road System • Rome was able to expand because of its well trained and organized armies. • In addition, Rome built roads that connected the Empire that allowed troops easy movement. Imperial Roman Road System Roman Roads: The Appian Way Roman Aqueducts • The Romans built enormous aqueducts designed to bring water into the city. • They used a new architectural technique called the arch. • They had a very small slant that carried water downhill for miles and miles. The Roman Colosseum • Romans enjoyed violent entertainment. • They watched gladiators fight to the death in many arenas, most famously the Coliseum. • They watched chariot races, which often involved bloody crashes. The Colosseum Interior Circus Maxims • Ancient Roman Chariot Racing Stadium Roman Religion • Romans had similar gods to the Greeks, except they had different names. For example: Zeus becomes Jupiter, Ares becomes Mars. • They built enormous temples, like the Pantheon. 10 The Rise of Christianity Religion based on Jesus of Nazareth, and his earliest followers, the teaching of Judaism Jesus of Nazareth Knowledge comes from the first four books of the New Testament The New Testament along with the Hebrew Bible, the Old Testament, make up the Christian Bible. Jesus Christ • In time, Jesus began to preach a message of redemption and warning of the coming of God’s Judgment Day. His message alarmed authorities, and Jesus was arrested, tried, and sentenced to death. • After he was crucified, Jesus rose from the dead, spent 40 days teaching, and ascended into heaven. • Followers named him the Messiah, Jesus Christ The Spread of Christianity Apostles 12 Disciples that Jesus chose to spread Christianity throughout the world Diocletian Splits the Empire in Two: • Economic Problems- Inflation, rising prices, and higher taxes to pay for the vast empire • Diocletian –absolute ruler – himself above his subjects Constantine • Diocletian abdicated his thrown and threw Rome into civil war once again • Constantine, in 312, proclaimed new emperor • A new Capital-Constantinople –Christian capital; later renamed Istanbul Byzantine Empire • The later period of the Eastern Roman Empire became Byzantine Empire-after fall of Western Roman Empire to German tribes The Byzantine Empire During the Reign of Justinian The Byzantine Emperor Justinian The Empire in Crisis: 3c Barbarian Invasions: 4c-5c Attila the Hun • The inability of the Roman Army to stop the Huns was one reason for the demise of the empire The Legacy of Rome • Around 180 AD, problems arose in the empire and the Empire begins to decline. • In 476 AD, Rome is sacked and the Empire is officially dead. • Republic Government • Roman Law • Latin Language 11 • • • • Roman Catholic Church City Planning Romanesque Architectural Style Roman Engineering • Aqueducts • Sewage systems • Dams • Cement • Arch Why did Rome decline? • Government was corrupt. • government had huge building projects-cost lots of money. • Tribes invaded from the North. • Poverty and unemployment were very high. • Moral values declined. The Discovery of Pompeii • In 1748, one of the greatest archeological discoveries of all times occurred. • The Roman city of Pompeii had been destroyed by the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 AD, preserving the town forever. 12 The Growth of Civilization 2100 BC to AD 1500 The Growth of Civilizations 1. Classical Greece - 2100 BC – 150 BC 2. Rome and Early Christianity – 750 BC – AD 500 3. The Americas – 1000 BC – AD 1500 4. Empires of China and India – 350 BC – AD 600 The Americas – 1000 BC – AD 1500 • • • 1. North America 2. Meso America 3. South America • Main Idea • As advanced civilizations developed in Rome, other civilizations developed in the Americas • Early American civilizations all found ways to adapt to the varied environments of the Americas • Some developed sophisticated governments and engineering that rivaled those of the ancient Romans Civilizations in the Americas 1000 BC to AD 1500 Early Human Migrations Possible migration for the First Americans North America Kennewick Man – 9,000 year old human skull found along the Columbia River Gives us clues to some questions about early Americans Cultures of North America Arctic and the Subarctic Far West Eastern Great Plains Desert West Woodlands Cultures of the Desert West Hohokam- 300 BC to AD 1500 –adobe-mixtures of clay and straw for homes Anasazi – 100 BC to Ad 1300 –adopted the pueblo-aboveground structure used for homes Cliff Palace at Mesa Verde Anasazi cliff dwelling The Mound Builders Hopewell – 200 BC to Ad 500 – some form of organized labor Mississippian – built some of the earliest cities in North America Other Cultures in North America Inuit – Arctic Region -no vegetation for food- fishing instead Plains Indians – treeless grasslands 13 The Iroquois – Forest Environment formed a confederacy Sculpture from the Americas Origins of the Peoples of the Americas? The “Mother Culture” of Meso – America Olmec-predated just about every other civilization in Meso- America. First to use writing system and first to use pyramids; The one to give rise to later cultures in that region. Major Pre-Columbian Civilizations Mayan, Aztec, and the Inca Mayans The Olmec Civilization was small to the Mayan civilization, which had its height in 1000 BC consisted of 10 million in over 40 cities. Lands of the Mayans The Yucatan Peninsula Mayan Cultivation of Maize Slash and Burn-farming method that involves burning vegetation to clear it for planting Chac, God of Rain Chichen-Itza – Pyramid Mayan cities such as Chichen-Itza and Tikal were some of the more spectacular cities, containing pyramids, temples, and great palaces. Chichen-Itza – Observatory Mayans made advances in astronomy. They observed the movements of the sun, moon, and planets. Calendar system – 365 days farming schedule Chichen-Itza - Ball Court Overview of Tikal (Guatemala) Temple of the Masks Tikal Jungle View at Sunset Tikal - Main Court Mayan cities functioned as city states each had its own ruler and government. Trade linked the cities. Warfare also linked other cities. Mayan cities never united. Tikal: Temple of the Masks Tikal - Wall Mask of the Rain God Quetzalcoatl: 14 The God of Wisdom & Learning Mayan Glyphs sky king house child city The Mayans developed a complex writing system, glyphs, or symbols Mayan Mathematics They also created a number system, using the concept of zero for the first time. Mayan Underground Granaries: Chultunes Mayan Drinking Cup for Chocolate Pakal: The Maya Astronaut Aztecs The Aztecs, just a small group of farmers from northwest Mexico, created the most powerful empire in Meso -America. Lands of the Aztecs What land did they conquer? Aztec View of Tenochtitlan The Capital City of the Aztecs. Covered five miles and had a population of 200,000. One of the largest cities in the world at the time. Tenochtitlan: The “Venice” of the Americas Aztec Chinampa or Floating Garden: 15ft. to 30ft. wide Tenochtitlan – Chinampas Tenochtitlan was built on swampy island in the middle of a lake. To create more farm land they build floating gardens Aztec Writing They kept written records similar to Mayans but not as advanced. Aztec Math They also used Math. Conquered People were required to pay a tribute, a tax. Aztec Sun Stone – Calendar They created a 260-religious calendar and a 365-day solar calendar. They also calculated movements of planets. 15 The Aztecs Were Fierce Warriors Achievements in the Arts and Sciences. Artisans made bright feathers into headdresses, shields, and wartime costumes. Metalworkers fashioned gold and silver. Aztec Gold Aztec Sun Motifs Aztecs Sacrifice Neighboring Tribes to the Sun God-needed human blood Heart Sacrifice on an Aztec Temple Pyramid Wall of Skulls, Tenochtitlan Sacrificial Statue, Tenochtitlan Ruins of the City Center, Tenochtitlan Aztec Codex Lasted a short period of time, 200 years. Contact with the Europeans brought an end to the empire. The Codex Mendoza: The Founding of Tenochtitlan-twenty years after the Spanish Conquest it contains the history of the city Incas Many years after earlier civilizations such as the Chavin, Moche, and Nazca, the Inca Civilization brought the entire Andes Mountain region into one empire. Lands of the Incas They began as a small tribe in the Andes, but by the early 1500’s their empire extended almost the entire Pacific coast throughout the Andes. Cuzco: Ancient Capital of the Inca (11,000 ft. above sea level) Machu Picchu Pachacuti –leader of the Inca used political alliances and military force to gain control. The emperor had most of the power. Incan Suspension Bridges The first known bridges spanned cannons, and rivers. Woven out of fibers and vines. Incan Terrace Farming Terraces increased the amount of land available for agriculture. Incan Digging Sticks The Quipu: An Incan Database Keep track of moving goods they used set of colored and knotted cords. 16 Over 100 Different Types of Potatoes Cultivated by the Incans Produce from a Typical Incan Market Incan Ceramic Jars Maize in Incan Pottery Inca Gold & Silver Artisans made intricate ornaments out of gold and silver. Incan Mummies The Incas lasted only about 100 years. The arrival of the Spanish in Peru in 1532 marked the end. 17 The Growth of Civilization 2100 BC to AD 1500 The Growth of Civilizations 1. Classical Greece - 2100 BC – 150 BC 2. Rome and Early Christianity – 750 BC – AD 500 3. The Americas – 1000 BC – AD 1500 4. Empires of China and India – 350 BC – AD 600 Empires of China and India - 350 BC to AD 600 • 1. The Growth of China • 2. Chinese Society and Culture • 3. Indian Dynasties • 4. Indian Society and Culture • Main Idea • 300 – 200 BC, strong empires unified much of China and India • Under these empires, China and India became prosperous • Led to classical periods in their histories, during which China and India developed many of the characteristics that would define their modern times Imperial China: the Qin and the Han Dynasties The Qin Dynasty 300’s BC, the Warring States Period - era in which the Qin state began to dominate the other states of China Qin [Ch’in] Dynasty, 221-206 B.C.E. Established China’s first empire Shi Huangdi (First Emperor) Legalist rule A powerful and efficient government was key to maintaining order Bureaucratic administration Centralized control Military expansion Book burnings targeted Confucians Buried protestors alive! Built large section of the Great Wall Shi Huangdi’s Terra Cotta Army Discovered in 1974 - the immense army of the dead A Paranoid Emperor in hope of gaining immortality had artisans create a life-size army with chariots, horses, and more than 7,000 soldiers to guard him in the afterlife Shi Huangdi’s Terra Cotta Army Army placed in pits around the emperor’s tomb 18 Shi Huangdi’s Terra Cotta Soldiers & Cavalrymen Although harsh, Qin policies under Huangdi unified and strengthened China. He undertook massive building projects, including an improved irrigation system, an expanded network of roads and canals, and a defensive wall. Cavalry Despite improvements in trade and transportation, peasants had to pay heavy taxes and some were forced to work on them The Eastern terminus of the Great Wall, Shanhai Pass To strengthen security and protect his empire from outside threats, Shanhai had workers join the separate defensive walls creating the Great Wall of China The Great Wall with Towers Hundreds of thousands of peasants were forced to work on the wall and many people died from the harsh labor. The Han Dynasty When Shi Huangdi died in 210 BC, the Qin Dynasty crumbled in rebellion. Liu Bang, a peasant leader, founded the Han dynasty, one of the greatest dynasties in Chinese history Han Dynasty, 206 B.C.E.-220 C.E. “People of the Han” original Chinese Paper invented [105 B.C.E.] Silk Road trade develops; improves life for many Buddhism introduced into China Expanded into Central Asia Liu Bang Tomb (d. 113 BCE) His jade suit has 2498 pieces! He ruled with the mandate of heaven (approval of the gods) He re-instituted Confucianism and at the same time kept some Legalist policies to maintain firm control over his empire Emperor Wudi, 141-87 B.C.E.- the greatest Han emperor Started public schools. Colonized Manchuria, Korea, & Vietnam. Civil service system-pass an exam in the Confucian classics bureaucrats Confucian scholar-gentry Revival of Chinese landscape painting. Emperor Wudi and Expansion Martial Emperor - expand his empire through warfare Xiongnu-nomads who lived in the grasslands of n. China The Han Decline In 184, a Daoist sect called the Yellow Turbans rebelled and through the empire into chaos Period of Disunion - 350 years of warfare 19 Trade Routes of the Ancient World The Silk Road network of trade routes that stretched from China 4,000 miles across the heart of Asia to the Mediterranean Sea Ruins of Jiao he, Turphan depression. Han dynasty outpost in Central Asia Han Artifacts The Han period was a Classical age in China history. During this age, art flourished and science and technology improved life. Ceramics, Later Han Period The Spread of Buddhism to China, led to an increase in Buddhist art and statues Acupuncture Inserting fine needles into the skin at specific points to cure disease and relieve pain Imperial India: Maurya and the Gupta Empire (350 BC to AD 600) Chandragupta: 321 BCE-298 BCE Unified northern India. Defeated the Persian general Seleucus. Divided his empire into provinces, then districts for tax assessments and law enforcement. He feared assassination [like Saddam Hussein] food tasters, slept in different rooms, etc. 301 BCE gave up his throne & became a Jain. The Maurya Empire 321 BCE – 185 BCE The first Indian Empire The seizing of the throne of the kingdom of Magadha Kautilya Chandragupta’s advisor. Brahmin caste. Wrote The Treatise on Material Gain or the Arthashastra.-statescraft A guide for the king and his ministers: Supports royal power. The great evil in society is anarchy. Therefore, a single authority is needed to employ force when necessary! Ashoka (304 – 232 BCE) Religious conversion after the gruesome battle of Kalinga in 262 BCE. Dedicated his life to Buddhism. Built extensive roads. Conflict how to balance Kautilya’s methods of keeping power and Buddha’s demands to become a selfless person? Considered to be one of India’s greatest rulers 20 Asoka’s law code Edicts scattered in more than 30 places in India, Nepal, Pakistan, & Afghanistan. Written mostly in Sanskrit, but one was in Greek and Aramaic. 10 rock edicts. Each pillar [stupa] is 40’-50’ high. Buddhist principles dominate his laws. Turmoil & a power Vacuum: 220 BCE – 320 CE The Maurya Empire is divided into many kingdoms. Kushan – invaders from Central Asia Tamils-far south; carried active sea trade with Southeast Asia Gupta Empire: 320 CE – 647 CE India remained divided into small kingdoms for about 400 years. Then around Ad 320, the Gupta took over northern India. Gupta Rulers Chandra Gupta I r. 320 – 335 CE “Great King of Kings” founder Chandra Gupta II r. 375 - 415 CE Profitable trade with the Mediterranean world! Hindu revival. White Huns invade – 450 CE Fa-Hsien: Life in Gupta India Chinese Buddhist monk traveled along the Silk Road and visited India in the 5c. He was following the path of the Buddha. He reported the people to be happy, relatively free of government oppression, and inclined towards courtesy and charity. Other references in the journal, however, indicate that the caste system was rapidly assuming its basic features, including "untouchability," the social isolation of a lowest class that is doomed to menial labor. Chandra Gupta 11 Where was he located? International Trade Routes during the Guptas What continents did they trade with? Extensive Trade: Name three products they traded. Kalidasa The greatest of Indian poets. His most famous play was Shakuntala. During the reign of Chandra Gupta II. Gupta Art Greatly influenced Southeast Asian art & architecture 21 Gupta Achievements The Decline of the Guptas Invasion of the White Huns in the 4c signaled the end of the Gupta Golden Age, even though at first, the Guptas defeated them. After the decline of the Gupta empire, north India broke into a number of separate Hindu kingdoms and was not really unified again until the coming of the Muslims in the 7c. Bhartrhari 5c India court poet and philosopher. Knowledge is man's crowning mark, A treasure secretly buried, The source of luxury, fame, and bliss, A guru most venerable, A friend on foreign journeys, The pinnacle of divinity. Knowledge is valued by kings beyond wealth--When he lacks it, a man is a brute.