BRITISH POLICY TOWARDS KASHMIR
British policy towards Gulab Singh:
Despite Gulab Singh’s best efforts to peace and prosperity to the people,
the British frequently complained to him that his rule was repressive. They
subjected Gulab Singh to strong pressure to follow their instructions in
running the administration of his kingdom. Many British diplomats
considered the Treaty of Amritsar of March 16,1846 by which Kashmir was
transferred to Gulab Singh as a great blunder on the part of the Blunder on
the part of the British Governor General of India.
The British Indian Government was bent upon increasing their influence on
the Kashmir Government. In June 1847, Henry Lawrence sent a note to
Gulab Singh complaining of the miserable plights of Kashmiris because of:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
High prices of Shali.
High handedness of the officials of the Maharaja.
Occurrence of four cases of Sati in the State.
Despatch of armed forces to Gilgit.
Dharamarath realizations made by the Government from the people.
The British were determined to make Gulab Singh agree to the posting of a
British Agent at his court with the powers to control his frontier posts.
However, due to the outbreak of the Second Anglo-Sikh war in 1849 A.D.,
they did not press their demands for some tune. When the British annexed
the Punjab in 1948 A.D., they again cast their longing eyes on Kashmir.
The Maharaja wrote to the british that this proposal was in violation of the
Treaty of Amritsar. He had, however, to finally agree to the appointment of
a British representative who subsequently came to be called Officer On
Special Duty at Srinagar. He could not stay there for more than six months
during every summer season.
BRITISH POLICY TOWARDS MAHARAJA RANBIR SINGH:
During the famine of 1878-79 A.D. the British Govt. criticized the measures
of Maharaja Ranbir Singh for the removal of their miseries. The British
Govt. found an opportunity to condemn the Maharaja’s administration and
tried to station their own officers in the valley and on its frontiers. The
Maharaja’s Govt. was charged of neglect and dreadful cruelty. He was
accused of having drowned starving people by boatloads in the Wular Lake
during the famine as to be saved from the expenses of feeding them. The
Mahraja boldly repudiated the false charges and when the British instituted
an inquiry, he was exonerated.
In 1873 A.D., the British Govt. of India revived its proposal to appoint a
Resident at the Kashmir Court, which Maharaja Gulab Singh had stoutly
refused to accept. The Maharaja pointed out that there was no provisions in
the Treaty of Amritsar, which gave authority to the British Govt. to appoint
British Resident in Kashmir.
BRITISH POLICY TOWARDS MAHARAJA PRATAP SINGH:
Gulab Singh and Ranbir Singh had always opposed the British proposal for
the appointment of a British Resident at Srinagar. They had, however,
allowed the British to send a seasonal “officer on Special Duty” to look after
the interests of the European visitors to Kashmir. This officer actually kept a
watch on the activities of the Maharaja and his officials.
ESTABLISHMENT OF BRITISH RESIDENCY:
To assert the British authority on internal affairs of Kashmir, the viceroy of
India sent a dispatch to the Maharaja emphasizing that it was essential in
the interest of good government that the Maharaja introduced certain
reforms in his administration and accepted a British Resident in Srinagar.
The Maharaja inimical to the encroachment of his powers by the British,
wrote in protest, “I do not hesitate to admit that the existing state of affairs
in Kashmir urgently requires the introduction of substantial reforms in the
administration of the country, but I beg to assure you that nothing shall be
spared on my part to prove beyond any possibility of doubt that it is my
ambition to make my country a well-governed state in alliance with the
Govt. of India.” However, Maharaja Pratap Singh’s vigorous protests were
of no avail as the British Govt. had already taken a decision to appoint a
Resident after Ranbir Singh’s death. In 1885 A.D., St. John was appointed
the first British Resident in Srinagar. He was succeeded by C.Ploneden in
Marsh 1888 A.D. The new Resident was an intriguing and vigorous officer
of the political Department of the Govt. of India. He at once, set about
planning the deposition of the Maharaja and even the outright annexation
of the State of Jammu & Kashmir.
ESTABLISHMENT OF BRITISH POLITICAL AGENCY IN
GILGIT:
In 1891 A.D., a British Political Agent was appointed in Gilgit. The Political
Agency constituted in 1889 A.D. was in sole charge of civil, political &
military administration of the district. The actual administration & control of
the Gilgit frontier came into the hands of the British officers.
The condition of the State troops already stationed in Gilgit was miserable.
The Political Agent at Gilgit wrote to the Resident their salaries were in
arrears for years; their uniforms were in a tattered condition. The training &
equipment of the State army had engaged the attention of the Resident
immediately on his assumption of the office.Prompt & energetic measures
were taken to reorganize the troops on sound lines, & after the reduction of
“large masses of this armed rabble”, small compact bodies of “well trained,
disciplined & regular paid troops” came into existence. These regiments
were called the Imperial Service troops. Trained by British officers- in all
two thousand men were mainly the Gorkhas & the Dogras. A contingent
from these troops was stationed in Gilgit. By 1894 A.D., these Imperial
Service troops had become well-trained& efficient force & “Dogra officers
were very keen & loyal. They were well-fed, disciplined & active.”
1931 EVENT:
PNK Bamzai remarks that 13th July is considered as a landmark in the
history of modern Kashmir. It was on that day for the first time open
demonstrations against the despotic rule of the Maharaja took place.
On 21st June, 1931 at a meeting at Khanqa-i-Mulla, Abdul Qadir, a religious
fanatic from Peshawar, made a speech, which the Govt. considered highly
seditious & communal in nature. He was arrested & charged for trial before
the Court. His trial in the court of the sessions Judge greatly excited the
Mohammedan public & huge crowds gathered outside the court on the
days of hearing. Consequently, it was decided to hold trial within the
premises of the central jail. While the court was in session, a crowd of
about 5000 people collected outside the jail & raised slogans demanding
the withdrawal of the case against Abdul Qadir, & made an outcry at the
gate of the jail. The police attempted to check them from entering the jail.
The enraged crowd pelted the police with stones. Meanwhile, the prisoners
in the jail became restive. Telephone wires were cut off. The District
Magistrate thereupon ordered the armed police to open fire on the unruly
crowd. 21 persons were killed & many more were wounded. The State
officials failed to control the situation & became nervous. The crowd carried
the dead bodies on the cots, & raising banners soaked with blood, paraded
the main streets of the city. There was a widespread resentment among the
Mohammedans at the killings outside the Central Jail & having been fed for
months together with vicious communal propaganda, their wrath turned
against the Hindus whom they associated with the Maharaja’s Govt. Shops
belonging to the Hindus were looted & burnt & because of the communal
outbursts, which followed, three Hindus lost their lives.
The Maharaja took prompt action. He immediately sent a company of his
bodyguard cavalry to the scene of disturbance. The soldiers arrested
hundreds of agitators & put them behind the bars. In the evening,
thousands of Muslims collected in the Jamma Masjid in Srinagar where the
dead bodies of the victims of police firing were lying to be carried to the
burial ground the next day.
FORMATION OF MUSLIM CONFERENCE AND NATIONAL
CONFERENCE:
The Muslim Press in Lahore & other cities of the Punjab let loose a bitter
campaign of hatred & opposition against Maharaja Hari Singh’s rule in
Jammu & Kashmir. Tales of the deliberate suppression & persecution of
the Muslims in the State were published by the press, which instigated the
Muslims to rise against the Maharaja, who it was alleged to be heavily
under the influence of his Hindu officers & his favorites. The Anglo-Indian
press also wrote in support of the agitators & denunciated the Maharaja &
his Government.
Meanwhile, several Muslim young men, fresh from the universities in India,
particularly Aligarh, where they had met Muslim leaders and propagators of
Pan-Islamism, organized themselves into a group, holding frequent
meetings at the Muslim Reading Room in Srinagar. Frustrated at their
failure to enter State Service direct on responsible & remunerative posts,
they concluded that unless they had the backing of the masses, they had
no future in the land of their birth. By & by, they organized large meetings &
carried on a whispering but ineffective campaign against what they termed
a Hindus State. Their political activities were thus based on purely
communal lines, which later on assumed a painful aspect.
They had the tacit support of the British Indian Govt. as well as the British
minister. The Maharaja, ignorant of the feelings & aspirations of the people,
did not take any initiative in winning back their lead to the formation of
Muslim Conference.
The most zealous & conspicuous among the young agitators was Sheikh
Muhammad Abdullah. After obtaining a Master’s degree from Aligarh
University, he had returned to Kashmir. Although he had received
advanced education, he could secure only the post of a teacher in a Govt.
School. Being frustrated, Sheikh raised the voice of protest against the
Maharaja’s policy of denying high jobs in the State Service to the Muslims
& resigned from his job in protest.
GALANCY COMMISION:
On the request of the maharaja, the British Govt. of India loaned him the
services of Sir B.J.Galancy of the Foreign & Political Department of Govt.
of India to preside over a Commission to go into the grievances of the
people of Jammu & Kashmir State.
Besides its Chairperson Sir B.J.Galancy, the Commission had four
members, one Hindu & one Muslim from Jammu Province and one Hindu &
one Muslim from Kashmir Province.
REPORT OF THE COMMISION:
The Commission made the following important recommendations:
 Minimum qualifications for appointment to Govt. post should not be
pitched unnecessarily high.
 Effective measures should be taken to prevent the due interest of any
community from being neglected.
 Proprietary rights should be granted in respect of all land, of which
the ownership is restrained by the State & the right of occupancy is
enjoyed by private persons.
 Abolition of several vexation taxes.
 Measures for the removal of unemployment by promoting industries
in the State.
CONVERSION
OF
MUSLIM
CONFERENCE
INTO
NATIONAL CONFERENCE:
The various political & social causes, which led to the conversion of Muslim
Conference into National Conference are as follows:
1. The leaders of the various communal parties in the State who had
received support from the British Resident in Kashmir were told to
protect their interests themselves. The Kashmiri Muslim leaders had
exactly lost the support & good-will of the Punjabi Muslims, who had
so ardently championed their cause and helped them by all means in
1931. The All India Kashmir Committee of Lahore & Shimla, which
had been supported by the Anglo-Indian Officers & the press, & had
directed the Muslim agitation against the Maharaja in 1931, had lost
its existence by June1933. Sir Muhammad Iqbal resigned from the
membership of the Committee protesting that it was a coterie of
Ahmedias who were interested only in propagating their own religious
beliefs among the Muslims of Kashmir & not in helping them in the
struggle for their political rights. In July 1933, the Committee was
reconstituted & Muhammad Iqbal was elected its President. However,
by that time the Hindus & Muslims had joined hands & started
directing the freedom struggle in the State. Muhammad Iqbal’s
attempt to keep the communal passion alive in the State thus proved
futile. In the meantime, Colonel Colvin & the Resident had succeeded
in persuading the Maharaja to give the Gilgit wazarat on lease for 60
years to the British Indian Government & hand over the
administration & control of the leased territory to them.
2. Sheikh Abdullah 7 his Muslim Conference who were till now banking
upon the communal aspect of their agitation tinder the patronage of
the British, were caught in their own net. They could neither arouse
the communal passions of Kashmiri Muslims nor could they turn to
the Hindu & Sikh communities for help. For till then each & every
speech of Shikh delivered mostly in mosques was targeted against
the Dogras & Hindus in general& the Maharaja in particular.
PremNathBazaz, a member of the erstwhile Galancy Commission,
who had built up a rapport with Jawaharlal Nehru, helped Sheikh
Abdullah out of his difficult situation. Bazaz introduced Sheikh
Abdullah to Nehru who was given the impression that he was the sole
leader of the people of Jammu & Kashmir State, whereas his
leadership was confined only to the Muslims of the Valley.
3. The Muslim Conference Party observed a Responsible Govt. Day
throughout the State on 8th May, 1936. Its President had made an
appeal to the Hindus & Sikhs to participate in the functions held in
this connection. The response was most encouraging & Hindu, Sikh
addressed a number of meetings & Muslim leaders exhorting the
people for forge a common platform.
ROLE OF NATIONAL CONFERENCE:
New Kashmir Plan:However, the National Conference did not remain
politically inactive. In 1944, it adopted a program of socialistic pattern of as
its goal. It laid down a plan for an all-sided advance along all avenues of
human activity regulated in a democratic manner on a country-wide scale.
The plan covered agriculture, industry, transport, distribution, utility service,
currency & finance. The new ideology gave meaning to the common
person’s struggle for freedom & assured his unstinted loyalty to the
Conference & its leaders. However, before a campaign could be launched
for its realization, Mr. Jinnah & the Muslim League appeared on the scene.
The Muslim League led by Jinnah was working for the partition of the
country based on religion.
During the period from 1932-38, the political scenario in the State had
undergone a great change. Communal forces in the politics had receded to
the background & healthy National Movement was gaining ground. In June
1938, the working Committee of the Muslim Conference in its meeting at
Srinagar passed after a long discussion, lasting 52 hours, a resolution
recommending the General Council to allow all people to become the
members of the party irrespective of their caste, creed or religion. In August
1938, 12 representatives of various communities moved a resolution, the
famous National Demand. According to it, the ultimate goal of the people
was to bring about complete change in their social 7 political outlook 7 to
achieve responsible govt. under the aegis of Maharaja. Eminent leaders
like Sheikh Muhammad Abdullah, Bakshi Gulam Muhammad, G.M.Sadiq,
Shyam Lal Saraf, Sardar Budh Singh and Jai Lal Kilam signed the Demand
Paper. In 1939, the General Council accepted the recommendation of the
working committee of the Muslim Conference & thus, the National
Conference came into existence. Thenceforth, the National Conference
was the most influential political party in the State.
QUIT KASHMIR MOVEMENT:
It was exactly after one hundred years that the people of Kashmir
challenged the Amritsar Treaty of March 1846, when the National
Conference President, Sheikh Muhammad Abdullah, openly demanded
abrogation of the Treaty at various public meetings. The first public meeting
was addressed by Sheikh Abdullah at Maisuma Bazar Chowk, where it
used to be a Tonga stand and in a forceful voice he gave the slogan of
“Kashmir Chod Do, Bainama Amritsar Toad Do”.
FOUNDATION OF MUSLIM LEAGUE
In October 1906, a group of Muslim elites called the Shimla Deputation, led
by Agha Khan, met Lord Minto and demanded separate electorates for the
Muslims and representation in excess of their numerical strength in view of
the value of the contribution. “Muslims were making to the defense of the
Empire.” The same group quickly took over the Muslim League, initially
floated by Nawab Salimullah of Dacca along with Nawabs Mohsin-ul-Mulk
and Waqar-ul-Mulk in Dec 1906. The Muslim League intended to preach
loyalty to the Empire and to keep Muslim intelligentsia away from the
Congress. A concrete shape & setting to the formation of Muslim League
was given in 1906 when the All India Muslim League was set-up under the
leadership of Agha Khan, Nawab Salimullah of Dacca & Nawab Mohsin-ulMulk.
The League supported the partition of Bengal and demanded special
safeguards & separate electorates. The British were waiting for just such
an opportunity. They made full use of it & announced that they would
protect the special interests of the Muslims. In 1909, the Muslim League
welcomed the separate electorates, which were awarded under Morley
Minto Reforms.
For about a decade after 1913, the Muslim League came under the
influence of progressive Muslim leaders like Maulana Muhammad Ali,
MaulanaMazhar-ul-Haq, SayedWazirHussain, Hussain Imam and
M.A.Jinnah(then a Nationalist). In 1916, the Congress accepted the Muslim
League’s demand of separate electorate. Congress & League presented
the joint demand to the Government. But the Congress & League came
together as separate political entities & the Congress gave political
legitimacy to the existence of the Muslim League. From 1920-23, the
activities of the Muslim League remained suspended.
In 1928, Jinnah criticized the Nehru Report on constitutional reforms.
Jinnah proposed 14 points demanding separate electorate and reservation
for the Muslims in Govt. service & self-government service and selfgoverning bodies.
JINNAH’S FOURTEEN POINTS:
1. Federal constitution with residual powers to provinces.
2. Provincial autonomy.
3. No constitutional amendment by the Center without the concurrence
of the States constituting the Indian federation.
4. All legislatures & elected bodies to have adequate representation of
the Muslims in every province without reducing a majority of Muslims
in a province to a minority or equality.
5. Adequate representation to Muslims in the services & in selfgoverning bodies.
6. One-third Muslim representation in the Central Legislature.
7. In any cabinet at the Centre or in the provinces, one-third to be
Muslims.
8. Separate electorates.
9. No bill or resolution in any legislature to be passed if three-fourths of
a minority community considers such a bill or resolution to be against
their interests.
10. Any territorial redistribution not to affect the Muslim majority in
Punjab, Bengal & NWFP.
11. Separation of Sindh from Bombay.
12. Constitutional reforms in the NWFP & Baluchistan.
13. Full religious freedom to all communities.
GANDHI JINNAH MEETING:
In 1944, Gandhi in a series of talks with Jinnah, insisted on a treaty before
partition to ensure that India & Pakistan would stay together in a kind of
Confederation. Jinnah agreed on the condition that the Treaty was
concluded after partition as only truly, autonomous partners could conclude
a treaty on equal terms.