1. Why do we have laws and legal systems?
2. What legal system do you live in?
Ex.1 Look through the text, underline the international words and give their appropriate translation. Using a dictionary make sure you can pronounce them correctly.
Text A
Legal systems of the world

Explanatory notes: stare decisis (лат) –
«стоять на решённом», обязывающая сила прецедента
The three major legal systems of the world consist of civil law, common law and religious law. However, each country develops variations on each system or incorporates many other features into the system.
Civil law is the most widespread system of law all around the world. It is also sometimes known as Continental European law. The central source of law that is recognized as authoritative are codifications in a constitution or statute passed by legislature to amend a code. While the concept of codification dates back to the Code of Hammurabi in Babylon about 1790 BC, civil law systems mainly derive from the
Roman Empire. This was an extensive reform of the law in the Byzantine Empire bringing it together into codified documents. Civil law was also partly influenced by religious laws such as Canon law and Islamic law. Civil law today, in theory, is
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interpreted rather than developed or made by judges. Only legislative enactments
(rather than judicial precedents, as in common law) are considered legally binding.
Scholars of comparative law and economists promoting the origin of the legal theory usually subdivide civil law into four distinct groups:
French civil law (France, the Benelux countries, Italy, Romania, Spain); German civil law ( Germany, Austria, Switzerland, Greece, Portugal, Turkey, Japan, South Korea and the Republic of China);Scandinavian civil law (Denmark, Norway and
Sweden);Chinese law (a mixture of civil law and socialist law ).
Common law is a system of law whose sources are the decisions in cases by judges. Alongside , every system will have a legislature that passes new laws and statutes. The relationships between statutes and judicial decisions can be complex. In some jurisdictions such statutes may overrule judicial decisions or codify the topic covered by several contradictory or ambiguous decisions. Common law developed in England, influenced by the Norman conquest of England which introduced legal concepts from Norman law, which in turn was influenced by aspects of Islamic law.
Common law was later inherited by the Commonwealth of Nations , and almost every former colony of the British Empire has adopted it (Malta being an exception).
The doctrine of stare decisis or precedent by courts is the major difference to codified civil law systems.
Common law is currently in practice in Ireland, most of the United Kingdom
(England and Wales and Northern Ireland), Australia, India (excluding Goa),
Pakistan, South Africa, Canada (excluding Quebec), Hong Kong, the United States
(excluding Louisiana) and many other places. In addition to these countries, several others have adapted the common law system into a mixed system. For example,
Nigeria operates largely on a common law system, but incorporates religious law.
Religious law refers to the notion of a religious system or document being used as a legal source. Christian Canon law is more similar to civil law in its use of civil codes ; and Islamic Sharia law is based on legal precedent considered similar to law.
The main kinds of religious law are Sharia in Islam , Halakha in Judaism , and Canon law in some Christian groups. In some cases these are intended purely as individual moral guidance, whereas in other cases they are intended and may be used as the basis for a country's legal system. The latter was particularly common during the
Ages. The Islamic legal system of Sharia (Islamic law) is the most widely used religious law , and one of the three most common legal systems in the world alongside common law and civil law . During the Islamic Golden Age , classical
Islamic law may have had an influence on the development of common law and several civil law institutions . Sharia law governs a number of Islamic countries,
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including Saudi Arabia and Iran , though most countries use Sharia law only as a supplement to national law. It can relate to all aspects of civil law, including property rights, contracts or public law.
Ex.2 Study the words. Translate the sentences comprising them. incorporate, v включать, содержать e.g. His suggestions were incorporated in the plan. feature, n черта, особенность e.g. the main features of his programme pass, v сдать/выдержать экзамен; принимать закон e.g. The Estonian parliament has passed a resolution declaring the republic fully independent. e.g. He refrained from passing judgment. amend, v вносить поправки e.g. They voted to amend the constitution. derive from, v своё извлекать; происхождение происходить, вести e.g. to derive great pleasure from one’s studies partly, adv influence, v частично, отчасти e.g. It’s partly my fault. влиять, воздействовать e.g. My Dad influenced me to do electronics. enactment, n введение закона в силу; утверждение;закон, указ; положение, статья (закона) e.g. the enactments for the regulation of trade
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overrule, v contradictory, adj ambiguous, adj inherit, n largely, adv refer to, v binding, adj scholar, n promote, v alongside, adv, prep обязывающий e.g. Remember that this is a legally binding document. учёный e.g. a well-known scholar продвигать, повышать в чине или звании e.g. He was promoted to the rank of captain. около, рядом; наряду c e.g. We stopped and the police car drew up alongside . e.g. They were walking alongside us. e.g. Religious law is one of the most common legal system alongside common law and civil law. отклонять предложение; аннули ровать; считать недействительным e.g. In 1991 the Court of Appeal overruled this decision. противоречивый e.g. contradictory statements/decisions двусмысленный; неясный, допускаю щий двоякое толкование e.g. ambiguous words наследовать e.g. to inherit land/property в значительной степени, в большой мере e.g. The fund is largely financed through government borrowing. ссылаться (на к-либо, что-либо) e.g. In his speech, he referred to his trip to Canada.
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similar, adj intend, v похожий, подобный e.g. The accident was similar that happened in 1973.
to one предназначать; намереваться e.g. The money is intended for food and medical supplies. latter, adj последний (из двух названных) e.g. Of silk and nylon the latter is cheaper. govern, v руководить, регулировать e.g. Marine insurance is governed by strict rules and regulations. supplement, n property, n дополнение, добавление; прибавка e.g. a supplement to their basic pension собственность, имущество e.g. stolen property
Ex.3 Read the following word combinations comprising the words from the text
«Legal systems of the world»and give their Russian equivalents. Use a dictionary if necessary.
To be incorporated in a new national police force; an amended law; a constitutional amendment; to amend a Bill; an important feature of a landscape; a geographical feature, partly in writing and partly in print; the enactment of a Bill of Rights; to enact a law allowing unrestricted emigration; to overrule a claim/decision; inheritance-tax; literary supplement; a supplement to the
«Times».
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Ex.4 Look through the text again. In each paragraph of the text find a sentence which best introduces or summarizes the information.
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Ex.5 Match the pairs of words which have similar ( ) or different (x) meaning. a) -------similar – the same c) -------amend – rewrite e) -------influence – impact b)-------incorporate – include d)-------partly – wholly f)-------overrule – repeal g) -------ambiguous – clear i) -------similar – different k) -------religious – atheistic h)-------opposite – contradictory j)-------latter – former
Ex.6 Translate the following word combinations answer
Ambiguous { terms assets property { right tax sale
Statement private public movable } property real personal
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Ex. 7 Give Russian equivalents to the following:
1) codifications in a constitution or statute ________________________________
2) an extensive reform of a law _________________________________________
3) civil law is interpreted rather than developed _____________________________
4) several countries have adapted the common law system into a mixed system ______________________________________________________________
5) the doctrine of stare decisis __________________________________________
6) intended as individual moral guidance________________________________
7) several civil law institutions_________________________________________
8) Sharia law governs a number of Islamic countries __________________________
________________________________________________________________
Ex.8 Fill in the gaps with the propositions in brackets.
1. The three legal systems of the world consist ____ civil law, common law and religious law. 2. Each country incorporates many other features ______ the system. 3. The concept of codification dates back ____ the Code of Hammurabi in
Babylon about 1790 BC. 4. Civil law systems mainly derive _____ the Roman
Empire.
5. Norman law was influenced_____ aspects of Islamic law. 6. Common law was inherited ____ the Commonwealth of Nations .
7. Islamic Sharia law is based_____ legal precedent considered similar ____ law.
Ex.9 Translate the sentences into Russian. Pay attention to the meaning of the italicized words.
1. Our legal system inherited laws from the English system.
2. She feared losing her inheritance to her stepmother.
3. If a decision is overruled , it means that it is incorrect or not valid.
4. The authorities have failed to enact a law allowing emigration.
5. Parliament gained certain rights of amendment .
6. The agreement allows the rebels to be incorporated into a new national police force.
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Ex.10
Complete the sentences according to the text «Legal systems of the world».
1. The legal systems of the world________________________________________
2. Civil law is________________________________________________________
3. Scholars and economists divide civil law into_____________________________
4. Common law was influenced by_______________________________________
5. Common law is in practice in__________________________________________
6. Religious law refers to_____________________________________________
7. The main kinds of religious law are___________________________________
Grammar Revision
Ex.11 Translate the sentences into Russian. Pay attention to the use of Passive Voice. e.g. The bill was approved by a large majority of the present. – Исковое заявление было одобрено большинством присутствующих.
1.In many civil law countries, prosecutors are trained and employed as part of the judiciary.
2. In some countries law is taught by a faculty of law.
3. In other countries, particularly the United States, law is primarily taugh t at law schools.
4. In other countries, jurists who hold law degrees are allowed to provide legal advice to individuals or to corporations.
5. In Germany, lawyers are admitted to regional bars and may appear for clients before all courts nationwide with the exception of the Federal Court of Justice of
Germany.
6. Civil law was influenced by Canon law and Islamic law.
7. In these countries the lawyers will be regulated by an independent judiciary or they will be subjected to supervision by the Ministry of Justice in the executive branch.
8. Civil law is subdivided into four groups.
9. Islamic Sharia law is based on legal precedent similar to law.
10. Race Relations Acts were passed in 1968 and 1976.
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Ex .
12 Change the Voice of the verb in bold type. Give the corresponding Passive
Construction. e.g. An article touches upon the most important aspects of legal profession. – The most important aspects of legal profession are touched upon in this article.
1. The country violated the international agreement.
2. A large majority of the present approved the bill.
3. The judge will declare Mr. Stevens innocent.
4. The government has repealed the law segregating public facilities.
5. Our conversation range over many subjects.
6. An individual person or a commercial company owns and controls private industries and services.
7. The Estonian parliament has passed a resolution declaring independence.
8. The new book deals with the troubles in Ireland.
9. Sharia law governs a number of Islamic countries, including Saudi Arabia and
Iran.
See also: Supplementary exercises (10-13).
Ex.13
Match the sentences which correspond to Text A. Correct false statements. Use the following phrases: to tell the truth; I think; that’s why; what’s more; besides; it’s not correct.
1. Civil law systems mainly derive from the Roman Empire.
2. There are two legal systems in the world.
3. Religious laws are rarely used in the world.
4. Sharia law and common law are closely connected.
Ex.14
Answer the questions on Text A.
1. What legal systems are known to you?
2. What is the most widespread system of law in the world?
3. What was civil law influenced by?
4. Name four groups of civil law.
5. What are the features of common law?
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6. The Islamic legal system of Sharia is the most widely used religious law , isn’t it?
Why?
Ex.15 Translate the following texts into Russian orally. a) Common law is a system in which legal decisions are based upon decisions in previous cases and on customs rather than on detailed written laws. It is sometimes called case law and originally developed in England. Common law is an important part of the legal systems of many countries which have been influenced by
English law, such as the USA and India. b) Continental law is a system in which legal decisions are usually made by applying detailed written laws to the case in question. Various forms of continental law are found in continental Europe and in parts of Asia, Africa and Latin
America. It is sometimes known as Roman Law because it was influenced by the laws developed in ancient Rome. It is also known as codified law because the system often requires laws to be written in the form of precise, detailed codes.
Ex .
16 Develop the idea of each sentence using the text «Legal systems of the world».
1. There are three legal systems in the world.
2. Continental European law is the most widespread system in the world.
3. Civil law is divided into four groups.
4. The main kinds of religious law are Sharia, Halakha, and Canon law.
Ex.17 Translate the sentences into English, using active vocabulary of Unit III.
1.В связи с многообразием точек зрения существует множество классификаций правовых систем.
2. В основу классификации правовых систем положены различные факторы: исторические, идеологические, культурно-правовые, религиозные и другие.
3. Сейчас в мире насчитывают около 200 правовых систем, например, национально-правовые системы России, Англии, Франции, Японии и другие.
4. Различают 5-7 правовых семей, в том числе славянскую (Slav), романогерманскую, мусульманскую (Mohammedan Law), семью общего права и другие.
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5. Внутри различных правовых систем выделяют несколько десятков групп правовых систем.
Ex.18 Write a précis of Texts B and C in Russian. It should not exceed one third of the text. Render the précis in English.
Text B
Правовая семья общего права
Англосаксонская правовая семья включает в себя две группы: группу английского права ( Англия, Северная Ирландия, Канада, Австралия, Новая
Зеландия, бывшие колонии Британской империи – 36 государств) и право
США, за исключением штатов Луизиана и Калифорния, где значительную роль играют французское и испанское право.
Основным юридическим источником в английской правовой системе является юридическая практика, опирающаяся на юридические прецеденты, то есть на ранее вынесенные судебные решения. Вместе с тем наряду с судебной практикой определённое значение придаётся статутному праву, то есть законам и подзаконным актам, принятым во исполнение законов.
В английском праве отсутствует деление на общее право и право справедливости. Англия не имеет писаной конституции в форме Основного закона и кодексов европейского типа. Нормативные акты под влиянием судебной практики содержат нормы казуистического характера.
Отрасли английского права выражены не менее чётко, чем в континентальных правовых системах, и проблеме их классификации доктрина уделяет незначительное внимание. Английская система вообще предпочитает практический результат теоретическому обоснованию.
Правовая система Англии развивалась самобытно и независимо от права континентальной Европы. История английского права уходит в далёкое прошлое. После нормандского завоевания Англии (1066г.) правосудие в основном осуществлялось королевскими судами в Лондоне. В результате их деятельности сложилось общее право – сумма решений, которыми впоследствии руководствовались все суды.
(В.В.Алимов)
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Text C
Романо-германская правовая семья.
Романо-германская правовая семья состоит из двух групп правовых систем: романской и германской. Группа романской правовой системы включает в себя право государств континентальной Европы (Франция,
Бельгия, Италия, Испания, Португалия, Румыния) и право латиноамериканских государств. Группа германской правовой системы включает в себя право Германии, Австрии, Венгрии, скандинавских стран.
Основным источником континентальной правовой семьи является позитивное право, то есть юридические нормы, сформулированные в законодательных актах: конституциях, кодексах, текущих законах.
Во всех странах романо-германской семьи существует деление на частное и публичное право. К публичному праву относятся те отрасли, которые определяют компетенцию, порядок деятельности органов государств и отношение государства к индивиду. К частному праву относятся отрасли и правовые институты, регулирующие отношения частных лиц между собой.
Исторически романо-германская правовая система первоначально возникла в континентальной Европе на основе древнеримского права.
(В.В.Алимов)
Ex. 19 Get ready to discuss: 1) Legal systems of the world.
2)Countries with mixed system of different laws.
Use the phrases from previous units.
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Ex.1.
Read the international words and guess their meaning.
System adapt administer organization method tradition precedent politics expert professional practitioner client advocacy practice federal agency corporation advocate career financial culture dispute incorporate dominant jurisdiction centralise structure hierarchical characteristic tradition
Ex.2.
Translate the sentences comprising the words in Ex.1.
1.
The Court of Appeal has a pivotal role in the English legal system .
2.
An exper t is a person who is very skilled at doing something or who knows a lot about a particular subject.
3.
Professional people have jobs that require advanced education or training.
4.
The company requires clients to pay substantial fees in advance.
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5.
Advocacy is the way in which lawyers deal with cases in court.
6.
Lawyers are sometimes referred to as practitioners .
7.
Some firms have reached agreements to cut workers’ pay below the level set in their contract, a practice that is illegal in Germany.
8.
My law practice isn’t the most important thing in my life.
9.
In the USA foreign policy is decided by the federal government, and federal laws are made by Congress.
10.
In the USA about 15% of government lawyers work for the various federal, state or local agencies .
11.
In some large British cities, the corporation is the local authority that is responsible for providing public services.
12.
An advocate is a lawyer who speaks in favour of someone or defends him or her in a court of law.
13.
Dennis has recently begun a successful political career .
14.
A United States delegation is in Japan solving financial difficulties for a major scientific project.
15.
I was brought up in a culture that said you must put back into the society what you have taken out.
16.
Negotiators failed to resolve the bitter dispute between the European Community and the United States over cutting subsides to farmers.
17.
The world will be different, and we will have to be prepared to adapt to the change.
18.
The courts administer the law.
19.
An army without organization would be useless.
20.
There’s not much method in the way they do their accounts.
21.
It is a tradition that women get married in long white dresses.
22.
There are plenty of precedents in Hollywood for letting people out of contracts.
23.
Tom is studying polities at university.
24.
They incorporated his new ideas into their plans.
25.
The castle was built in a dominant position on a hill.
26.
The British police have no jurisdiction over foreign bank accounts.
27.
Multinational firms tended to centralise their operations.
28.
The chemical structur e of this particular molecule is very unusual.
29.
A hierarchical system or organization is one in which people have different ranks, depending on how important they are.
30.
Genes determine the characteristics of every living thing.
31.It’s a tradition that women get married in long white dresses.
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Ex.3.
Read the words and give their Russian equivalents. procedure function contrast local statute classification criminal regulate individual person relevant version special finance ordinary act subject politics control constitutional adequate national appellate impeachment magistrate qualification determination stipendiary
Ex.4
Translate the sentences comprising the words in Ex.3.
1.
1.Writing a check is quite a simple procedure .
2.
2.The main function of the merchant banks is to raise capital for industry.
3.
Conversation programs cannot function without local support.
4.
This artist uses contrast (between light and dark) skillfully.
5.
A statute is a permanent rule made by a body or institution for the government of its internal affairs.
6.
The aim is to improve services at both the local and national level.
7.
It’s criminal to waste money like that.
8.
The judge sent the criminal to prison.
9.
It’s a treatment that can carry risks, and in Britain it’s strictly regulated .
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10.
The rights of the individual are the most important in a free society.
11.
Hotels within this classification offer only basic facilities.
12.
She is the type of person who always offers to wash up after a party.
13.
Once we have all the relevant information, we can make a decision.
14.
The software comes in several versions for different types of computers.
15.
Special care must be taken in handling very old books.
16.
The scheme is being financed by the Arts Council.
17.
He lives in an ordinary house in suburban Melbourne.
18.
We strongly condemn any act of violence against innocent people.
19.
The new law applies to Britain and all its subject territories.
20.
She accused the Prime Minister of playing politics with people’s jobs.
21.
Democrats are hoping to gain control of the House of Representatives at the next elections.
22.
Most of the news media were controlled by the central government.
23.
Whatever procedure we follow, it must be constitutional .
24.
Existing levels of funding are not adequate to deal with this problem.
25.
House prices in London are 5% higher than the national average.
26.
A racially mixed jury in Miami convicted Lozano of manslaughter, but an appellate court overturned the convictions.
27.
If the President’s action proves to be unconstitutional, that would be grounds for impeachment .
28.
A magistrate is an official who acts as a judge in law courts which deal with minor crimes or disputes.
29.
Lucy Thomson 16 wants to study theatre but needs more qualification .
30.
There was an expression of fierce determination on her face.
31.
A stipendiary magistrate receives a stipend.
Ex.5.
Find the international words in the following sentences. Translate the sentences into Russian.
1.
The best way of finding a solicitor in through personal recommendation.
2.
A contract is a legal agreement, usually between two companies or between an employer and employee, which involves doing work for a stated sum of money.
3.
The cost of administration is around £ 500.
4.
The children have to sit a very difficult selection test.
5.
Reform consists of changes and improvements to a law, social system, or institution.
6.
The original plan was better than the plan we followed.
7.
It is legally possible to nominate someone to act for Mayor.
8.
The public will be able to nominate candidates for awards such as the MBE.
9.
The Senate is expected to pass the bill shortly.
10.
The new bill would remove student representation from the university Senate.
11.
The Court ordered Dr. Williams to pay 300 euro compensation and 100 euro costs after admitting assault.
12.
The tables were organised into six different categories.
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13.
The Cuban Government has asked for emergency aid from the international community.
14.
He was granted a pension.
15.
We cannot guarantee the punctual arrival of trains in foggy weather.
16.
We don’t own our house, we rent it from Mr. Gay.
17.
Is there more democracy in Australia than in Great Britain.
18.
Telegraphic communication between Amman and Boghdad has been restored.
19.
The BBC is a public corporation.
20.
Brazil says its constitution forbids the private ownership of energy assets.
21.
Whether the project will be a commercial success is still uncertain.
22.
A Romanian judge has asked for a Constitutional Court ruling on the law.
23.
A contract is a legal agreement, usually between two companies or between an employer and employee, which involes doing work for a stated sum of money.
24.
Try to keep any conflict between you and your ex-partner to a minimum.
25.
This college has a good academic reputation.
Ex.6.
Translate the sentences into Russian.
1.
Continental systems are sometimes known as codified legal systems.
2.
The lawmakers of new nations sometimes wanted to show that the legal rights of their citizens originated in the state, not in local customs, and thus it was the state that was to make law, not the courts.
3.
Versions of Roman law had long influenced many parts of Europe, including the case law traditions of Scotland, but had little impact on English law.
4.
Common law is an important part of the legal systems of many countries which have been influenced by English law, such as the USA and India.
5.
Various forms of continental law are found in continental Europe and in parts of
Asia, Africa and Latin America.
6.
Public international law regulates dealings between different states and it is largely made up of treaties, conventions and international agreements.
7.
Most countries have a formal written Constitution describing how laws are to be made and enforced.
8.
A constitution is the political and ideological structure within which a system of laws operates.
9.
Civil law concerns disputes among citizens within a country.
10.
Public law concerns disputes between citizens and the state or between one state and another.
11.
The most important categories of crime in England and the USA are felony and misdemeanor.
12.
Political changes in Europe and elsewhere have resulted in extensive migrations and mixing of peoples, which favour international crime.
13.
The combating of international crime is divided into three distinct activities: the exchange of police information, the identification of wanted individuals, and the arrest of those who are wanted on a warrant issued by the judicial authorities.
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14.
People go to civil courts to seek remedies – things they are asking the courts to give them.
15.
Courts at different times play different roles in bringing about changes to our society.
16.
In most countries once a lawyer is fully qualified he receives a certificate proving his right to sell his services.
17.
In England, the body regulating the conduct of solicitor is the law Society.
Ex.7 Translate the sentences into Russian. Mind the construction «there is/are».
1.
In all legal systems there are institutions for creating, modifying, abolishing and applying the law.
2.
There are two main reasons for having a variety of courts.
3.
In the Middle Ages, there was a commercial transactions throughout Europe.
4.
There are cybercrimes that may affect you personally.
5.
There are four countries and three distinct jurisdictions in the UK: England and
Wales, Scotland, and Northern Ireland.
6.
There are important differences between the law of tort and the law of contract.
7.
There are two main kinds of international law: private and public.
Ex.8
Open the brackets. Choose the correct form of the verb ‘to be’.
1.
There (to be) ____ a US attorney in each federal judicial district.
2.
There (to be) ____ over 450,000 lawyers in the US and almost 325,000 attorneys in active practice.
3.
There (to be) ____ two distinct kinds of lawyers in Britain: barristers and solicitors.
4.
There (to be) _____ some peculiarities of the legal profession in England.
5.
There (to be) _____ a difference between law and morality?
6.
There (to be) _____ four EU institutions involved in European Law.
Ex.9 Translate the sentences. Comment on the use of Simple Tenses.
1.
Private law deals with the rights and obligations people have in their relations with one another.
2.
Private law determines a person’s legal rights and obligations in many kinds of activities that involve other people.
3.
Contract and commercial law deal with the rights and obligations of people who make contracts.
4.
A business firm makes contracts both with other firms and with private persons.
5.
The country violated the international agreement in 1955.
6.
The system of law in Great Britain appeared in the medieval centuries.
7.
How long will they be in prison if they are found responsible? ( зд . виновный)
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8.
Inheritance law concerns the transfer of property upon the death of the owner.
9.
In some countries, such as Australia and the United States, each state, as well as the federal government, has its own set of criminal laws.
10.
By common consent this election will constitute a historic step on the road to democracy.
11.
The jury listened the evidence and decided whether the defendant was guilty or innocent.
Ex.10 Translate the following sentences. Mind the Passive Voice.
1.
The vast majority of judges in Great Britain, who are unpaid , are called «
Magistrates», or «Justice of the Peace».
2.
In the USA the appointive system is used in federal courts.
3.
Law is administered through a system of courts, in which judges hear disputes between parties.
4.
Various forms of continental law are found in continental Europe and in parts of
Asia, Africa, and Latin America.
5.
The law of the US was originally derived from the common law of the UK.
6.
In Spain the rules and organization of the profession of lawyers are stated at the
«Estatuto General de la Abodaga Espacola».
7.
The law in Scotland was influenced by Roman law and is different from the law of England, Wales and Northern Ireland.
Ex.11 Use the verbs in brackets in the Passive Voice. Choose the correct tense form.
1.
Germany’s legal system has been shaped by constitutional law but also _____ by the law of the European Union and by the international law (to influence).
2.
A uniform system of private law ______ for the entire German Reich for the first time in the 19 th century (to create).
3.
The Court of Appeal in England _______ into a Civil Division and a Criminal
Division (to divide).
4.
Laws to regulate international relations ___________ over the centuries by customs and treaties (to develop).
5.
Generally, the defendant ________ and the punishment ______ by the judge in a few days (to accuse, to pass).
6.
Historically, lawyers in most ancient European countries _______ with the title of
Doctor (to address).
7.
In India, the term «lawyer» often colloquially_______ , but the official term is
«advocate», as prescribed under the Advocates Act, 1961 (to use).
8.
The legal profession ______ in Prussia in 1780 and in France in 1789, though both countries realized that their judicial systems could not function efficiently without lawyers (to abolish).
9.
Like their Greek contemporaries, early Roman advocates ________ in rhetoric, not law (to train).
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Ex .
12 Translate the following sentences. Pay attention to the Modal Verbs.
1.
In other countries, like Venezuela, no one may appear before a judge unless represented by a lawyer.
2.
In some countries, like Japan, a clerk may fill out court forms and draft simple papers for lay persons who cannot afford or do not need attorneys, and advise them on how to manage and argue their own cases.
3.
Even conveyancers and corporate in-house counsel must first get a license to practice, though they may actually spend very little of their careers in court.
4.
In virtually all countries, patents, trademarks, industrial designs and other forms of intellectual property must be formally registered with a government agency in order to receive maximum protection under the law.
5.
In some countries, jurists or notaries may negotiate or draft contracts.
6.
In most common law countries, the use of a lawyer is optional and banks, title companies, or realtors may be used instead.
7.
In both Italy and Belgium, trade unions and political parties provide what can be characterized as legal aid services.
Ex.13
Translate the following sentences. Pay attention to the words which are often used in jurisprudence.
1.
In the U.S., an attorney or attorney at law is a lawyer.
2.
A will is a document in which you declare what you want to happen to your money or property when you die.
3.
The country violated the international agreement.
4.
Four people were killed in the explosion but the police have not yet named the victims .
5.
A treaty is a formal agreement between countries.
6.
Treason is the crime of betraying your country, for example by helping its enemies or by trying to remove its government using insolence.
7.
A tort is something that you do or fail to do which harms someone else and for which you can be sued for damages.
8.
It was discovered that one group got preferential treatment .
9.
The minister says that the newspaper story about him is completely untrue, and that he intends to sue (the person who wrote it).
10.
He stated positively that he had never seen the accused man.
11.
In Britain, a solicitor is a lawyer who gives legal advice, prepares legal documents and cases, and represents clients in the lower courts of law.
12.
In the United States, a solicitor is the chief lawyer in a government or city department.
13.
Graham’s achievements helped secure him the job.
14.
How long will they be in prison if they are found responsible .
15.
We find a way to resolve these problems before it’s too late.
16.
The Minister of Education has resigned.
17.
The government has just repealed the law segregating public facilities.
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18.
The officer involved was relieved of his duties because he had violated strict guidelines.
19.
He called for the immediate release of all political prisoners.
20.
Private industries and services are owned or controlled by an individual person or a commercial company, rather than by the state or an official organization.
21.
Probation is a period of time during which a person who has committed a crime has to obey the law and be supervised by a probation officer, rather than being sent to prison.
22.
The Council has brought proceedings to stop the store from trading on
Sundays.
23.
He was promoted to rank of sergeant.
24.
The organization has been proscribed by law.
25.
I have no doubt that the man is guilty and that he deserves punishment .
26.
The process of political change in South Africa has reached the stage where it is irreversible.
27.
The reduced consumer demand is also affecting company profits.
28.
The maximum penalty in up to 7 years imprisonment or an unlimited fine.
29.
Each nation can have its own peculiarities when it comes to doing business.
30.
The Estonian parliament has passed a resolution declaring independence.
31.
One of the people involved in a legal agreement or dispute can be referred to as a particular party .
32.
His nine-month sentence was overturned by Appeal Court judge Lord Justice
Watkins.
33.
He refused to comment on the outcome of the election.
34.
An ordinance is an official rule or order.
35.
An offender is a person who has committed a crime.
36.
The consumer Protection Act makes it a criminal offence to sell goods that are unsafe.
37.
There is no obligation to buy in this shop.
38.
A notary or a notary public is a person, usually a lawyer, who has legal authority to witness the signing of documents in order to make them legally valid.
39.
She was found guilty of murder .
40.
In the United States and other countries where the legal system distinguishes between very serious crimes and less serious ones, a misdemeanour is a less serious crime. The committee is mandated to carry out prison checks.
41.
Sixteen years ago Quebec mandated that all immigrants send their children to
French schools. The union already has a mandate from its conference to ballot for a strike.
42.
How much longer does the independent prosecutor have a mandate to pursue this investigation?
43.
A magistrate is an official who acts as a judge in law courts which deal with minor crimes or disputes.
44.
The government will not seek to disrupt the legitimate business activities of the defendant.
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45.
The proposals before the legislature include the creation.
46.
The President must account for his government’s reforms.
47.
The judge ordered their acquittal .
48.
The new law gives authorities a responsibility to provide aid to the disabled.
49.
If you amend something that has been written such as a law, or something that is said, you change it in order to improve it or make it more accurate.
50.
The trial judge had applied an incorrect principle of law.
51.
The judge had no authority to order a second trial.
52.
In England and Wales, a barrister is a lawyer who represents clients in the higher courts of law.
53.
A legislative body is a group of persons who make laws.
54.
Bribery is the act of offering someone money or something valuable on order to persuade them to do something for you.
55.
The bill was approved by a large majority of the present.
56.
This is the toughest crime bill that Congress has passed in a decade.
57.
A case is a crime or mystery that the police are investigating.
58.
His claim to own the house is invalid.
59.
Malaysia wants to send back refugees classed as economic migrants.
60.
A code is a set of rules about how people should behave or about how something must be done.
61.
The police have evidence that the killer was a woman.
62.
If you codify a set of rules, you define them or present them in a clear and ordered way.
63.
The latest draft of the agreement codifies the panel’s decision.
64.
By common consent this election constituted a historic step on the road to democracy.
65.
The man was known to the police because of previous convictions .
66.
A county is a region of Britain, Ireland, or the USA which has its own local government.
67.
His lawyers are confident that the judges will declare Mr. Stevens innocent.
68.
A defendant is a person who has been accused of breaking the law and is being tried in court.
69.
Mr. Black drafted a standard letter to the editors.
70.
The authorities have failed to enact a law allowing unrestricted emigration.
71.
The enactment of a law is the process in a parliament or other law-making body by which the law is agreed upon and made official.
72.
The police said they found the three engaged in criminal practice.
73.
The government, the executive and the judiciary are supposed to be separate.
Everyone has a right to a fair trial.
74.
The trial is concerned only with the determination of guilt according to criminal law.
75.
They will consider whether or not he has been guilty of serious professional misconduct.
76.
Judges need to be impartial .
77.
She was sentenced to seven years imprisonment .
22

78.
The government’s indictment against the three men alleged unlawful trading.
79.
An inheritance is money or property which you receive from someone who has died. He was sure that the man was innocent of any crime.
80.
A judge is a person in a court of law who decides how the law should be applied, for example how criminals should be punished.
81.
Judicial means relating to the legal system and to judgments made in a court of law.
82.
The last judicial hanging in Britain was in 1964.
83.
The jury convicted Mr. Hampson of all offences.
84.
A lawyer is part of the machinery of justice .
85.
Under international law , diplomats living in foreign countries are exempt from criminal law.
86.
The law was passed on a second vote.
87.
Legislation consists of a law or laws passed by a government.
88.
Amnesty International is trying to establish whether the police acted lawfully in shooting him.
89.
Solicitors undertake legal business for lay clients and represent them in lower courts.
90.
If you lease property or something such as a car from someone or if they lease it to you, they allow you to use it in return for regular payments of money.
Bibliography
1. Cremona Morise. Contract Law. – London: Macmillan Press Ltd., 1994.
2 .
Cremona Morise. Criminal Law. – London: Macmillan Press Ltd., 1989.
3. Major W.T. Basic English Law. – London: Macmillan Press Ltd., 1990.
4. Macmillan English Dictionary for Advanced Learners. Macmillan Publishers
Limited, 2002.
5. Collin’s Cobuild. English for Advanced Learners HarperCollins Publishers, 2001.
6. Collin’s Cobuild. New Student’s Dictionary HarperCollins Publishers, 2002.
7. The Oxford Dictionary of Synonyms and Antonyms Oxford University Press,
2007.
8. Oxford Russian Dictionary Oxford University Press, 2000.
9. Большой англо-русский словарь. Под редакцией доктора филологических наук, профессора И.Р.Гальперина. М.: -Русский язык, 1979.
10.Андрианов С.Н., Берсон Ф.С., Никифоров А.С. Англо-русский юридический словарь. – М.:Русс.яз. Изд РЕЯ, 1993.
11. Решетников ФМ Правовые системы стран мира. – М.: Юридическая литература, 1993.
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Text 1
The legal system in the United Kingdom
Notes: to reserve punishment to prosecute offender injunction substantive law откладывать наказание преследовать преступника судебный запрет материальное право
The study of law distinguishes between public law and private law, but in legal practice in the UK the distinction between civil law and criminal law is more important to practising lawyers. Public law relates to the state. It is concerned with laws which govern processes in local and national government and conflicts between the individual and the state in areas such as immigration and social security. Private law is concerned with the relationships between legal persons, that is, individuals and corporations, and includes family law, contract law and property law. Criminal law deals with certain forms of conduct for which the state reserves punishment , for example murder and theft. The state prosecutes the offender.
Civil law concerns relationships between private persons, their rights, and their duties. It is also concerned with conduct which may give rise to a claim by a legal person for compensation or an injunction - an order made by the court. However, each field of law tends to overlap with others. For example, a road accident case may lead to a criminal prosecution as well as a civil action for compensation.
Substantive law creates, defines or regulates rights, liabilities, and duties in all areas of law and is contrasted with procedural law, which defines the procedure by which a law is to be enforced.
1.
Comment on the following statements: 1) The distinction between public law and private law is very important to practicing lawyers in the UK. 2) Civil law deals with the forms of conduct for which the state reserves punishment.
2.
Make a summary of the text «The legal system in the United Kingdom».
24

Text 2
Jurisdiction
There are four countries and three distinct jurisdictions in the United
Kingdom: England and Wales, Scotland, and Northern Ireland. All share a legislature in the Westminster Parliament for the making of new laws and have a common law tradition, but each has its own hierarchy of courts, legal rules and legal profession. Wales and Northern Ireland each have their own Assembly and since
1999 Scottish Members of Parliament (SMPs) have sat in their own Parliament.
Under an Act of the Westminster Parliament, the Scottish Parliament has power to legislate on any subject not specifically reserved to the Westminster Parliament such as defence or foreign policy. The UK's accession to the European Communities in
1973, authorised by the European Communities Act 1972, has meant the addition of a further legislative authority in the legal system. The UK is also a signatory of the
European Convention of Human Rights and this has been incorporated into UK law.
1. Comment on the following statement: 1) The UK is a signatory of the European
Convention of Human Rights.
2. Make a summary of the text «Jurisdiction».
Text 3
How are laws made in the UK?
Notes: BrE : an Act; AmE : a Bill draft законопроект by-law (bye-law: BrE ) распоряжение, постановление legislate издавать законы
The predominant sources of law in the United Kingdom are:
• primary legislation, known as Acts of Parliament or statutes, which begin life as drafts called Bills;
• secondary or delegated legislation, such as statutory instruments, bye-laws , and professional regulations.
A new Act is passed in order to:
• update or amend existing legislation;
25

• legislate for new circumstances and enforce government policies;
• ensure UK compliance with International or European Union (EU) Law;
• consolidate laws by bringing together into one statute all the existing statutes on one topic;
• codify rules by bringing together all the case law and statutes on a particular subject where the principles are established.
Parliament can enact any law it chooses or repeal obsolete laws which are no longer relevant, and the courts must enforce it. The exception to this is EU law.
1. Answer the questions:
1) What are the predominant sources of law in the UK?
2) Why are obsolete laws which are no longer relevant repealed?
3.
Make a summary of the text «How are laws made in the UK?»
Text 4
Common law in the UK
Notes: override pertinent persuasive отвергать уместный, относящийся к делу убедительный
The legal system in many countries, including Australia, Canada (except
Quebec), Ghana, Hong Kong, India, Jamaica, Malaysia, New Zealand, Pakistan,
Tanzania, the USA (except Louisiana), the Bahamas, and Zambia, is based on common law. The common law consists of the substantive law and procedural rules that are created by the judicial decisions made in the courts. Although legislation may override such decisions, the legislation itself is subject to interpretation and refinement in the courts.
Essential to the common law is the hierarchy of the courts in all of the UK jurisdictions and the principle of binding precedent. In practice, this means that the decision of a higher court is binding on a lower court, that is, the decision must be followed, and in the course of a trial the judges must refer to existing precedents.
They also consider decisions made in a lower court, although they're not bound to follow them. However, a rule set by a court of greater or equal status must be applied
26

if it's to the point - relevant or pertinent .
During a trial, counsel will cite cases and either attempt to distinguish the case at trial from those referred to or, alternatively, argue that the rule at law reasoned and established in a previous case is applicable and should be followed. Hence the term case law. A case will inevitably involve many facts and issues of evidence. The eventual decision itself doesn't actually set the precedent. The precedent is the rule of law which the first instance judge relied on in determining the case's outcome.
Judges in a case may make other statements of law. Whilst not constituting binding precedents, these may be considered in subsequent cases and may be cited as persuasive authority, if appropriate. Since the Human Rights Act of 1988, all courts in the United Kingdom must now refer to the ultimate authority of the European
Court of Human Rights, including all previous decisions made by that court.
1. Comment on the following statements: 1) The legal system in many countries is based on criminal law. 2) The hierarchy of the courts in the UK is essential to the common law.
2. Make a summary of the text «Common law in the UK».
Text 5
Civil courts
Notes: stipendiary lay magistrate circuit recorder claimant plaintiff uphold a decision платный магистрат мировой судья, судья (низшей инстанции) судебный круг рекордер (a part-time judge with ten years standing as a barrister or solicitor) претендент (на что-либо) истец поддерживать, отстаивать
Both criminal and civil courts in England and Wales primarily hear evidence and aim to determine what exactly happened in a case. Broadly speaking, the lower courts decide matters of fact and the upper courts normally deal with points of law. In
England, simple civil actions, for example family matters such as undefended divorce, are normally heard in either the Magistrates' Courts or the County Courts.
27

Judges have different titles depending on their experience, training, and level.
A single stipendiary magistrate or three lay magistrates sit in the Magistrates'
Court. There's no jury in a Magistrates' Court. Family cases may go on appeal from the Magistrates' Court to the County Courts. The County Court also hears complex first instance civil cases, such as contract disputes, compensation claims, consumer complaints about faulty goods or services, and bankruptcy cases. Claimants , previously referred to as plaintiffs , may seek a legal remedy for some harm or injury they have suffered. There are circuit judges and recorders who sit in the County
Courts, usually without a jury. Juries are now rare in civil actions, so normally the judge considers both law and fact.
More complex civil cases, such as the administration of estates and actions for the recovery of land, are heard in the High Court of Justice, which is divided into three divisions: Family, Chancery and Queen's Bench. The court has both original, that is, first instance, and appellate jurisdiction. From the High Court cases may go on appeal to the civil division of the Court of Appeal, which can reverse or uphold a decision of the lower courts. Its decisions bind all the lower civil courts. Civil cases may leapfrog from the High Court to the House of Lords, bypassing the Court of
Appeal, when points of law of general public importance are involved. Appellants must, however, apply for leave to appeal. Decisions of the House of Lords are binding on all other courts but not necessarily on itself. The court of the House of
Lords consists of twelve life peers appointed from judges and barristers. The quorum, or minimum number, of law lords for an appeal hearing is normally three, but generally there is a sitting of five judges.
1. Comment on the following statement: 1) Both simple and complex civil cases are heard in the High Court of Justice.
2. Make a summary of the text «Civil courts».
Text 6
Criminal courts
Notes: petty crime fine мелкое правонарушение штраф
28

imprisonment indictable offence тюремное заключение правонарушение, обвинительному акту нападение подозреваемый совершить преступление обвинять преследуемое по assault alleged commit a crime charge with
About 95% of all criminal cases in England and Wales are tried in the
Magistrates' Courts, which deal with petty crimes , that is, less serious ones. In certain circumstances, the court may commit an accused person to the Crown Court for more severe punishment, either by way of a fine or imprisonment . Except in cases of homicide, children under 14 and young persons - that is, minors between 14 and 17 years of age - must always be tried summarily, meaning without a jury, by a
Youth Court. A Youth Court is a branch of the Magistrates' Court. Indictable offences , that is, more serious ones such as theft, assault , drug dealing, and murder, are reserved for trial in the Crown Court. In almost all criminal cases, the State, in the name of the Crown, prosecutes a person alleged to have committed a crime . In
England and Wales, a jury of twelve people decides whether the defendant is guilty of the crime she or he is charged with . The Crown Court may hear cases in circuit areas. From the Crown Court, appeal against conviction or sentence lies to the
Criminal Division of the Court of Appeal. If leave to appeal is granted by that court, cases may go on appeal to the House of Lords.
1. Comment on the following statement: 1) In Wales and England a judge decides whether the defendant is guilty or not.
2. Make a summary of the text «Criminal courts».
Text 7
Tribunals in the UK
Notes: tribunal judicial review трибунал; суд пересмотр судебного решения
The system of courts in the United Kingdom is supplemented by a substantial number of tribunals , set up by Acts of Parliament. They are described in the
29

guidance given to government departments as:
"those bodies whose functions, like those of courts of law, are essentially judicial.
Independently of the Executive, they decide the rights and obligations of private citizens towards each other and towards a government department or public authority." Report of Council on Tribunals
The growth in the number and importance of tribunals is closely related to the development of an increasingly active welfare state with legislation covering areas previously considered private. Some examples are:
• Social Security Appeal Tribunal
• Employment Tribunal
• Mental Health Review Tribunal
• Immigration Appeal Tribunal
• Lands Tribunal
Some tribunals have a significant effect in the areas of law involved. However, they are nonetheless inferior to the courts and their decisions are subject to judicial review - examination by a higher court of the decision-making process in a lower court.
1. Comment on the following statement: «The function of tribunals are essentially judicial».
2. Make a summary of the text «Tribunals in the UK».
Text 8
Composition of tribunals and procedure
Notes: lodge a claim broker предъявлять претензию быть посредником
A tribunal consists of three members. The chairperson is normally the only legally qualified member. The other two are lay representatives who usually have special expertise in the area governed by the tribunal, gained from practical experience. The tribunal will also have all the usual administrative support enjoyed by a court: hearing clerks, who are responsible for administering procedures, clerical
30

staff, and hearing accommodation.
The intention of tribunals are to provide a less formal proceeding in which claimants can lodge claims and respondents defend claims, and ultimately resolve their disputes without the need for legal representation. However, procedures have become more complicated and cases brought before tribunals are often presented by solicitors and barristers. For example, a case of unfair dismissal - where an employer appears to not be acting in a reasonable way in removing an employee - could be brought to an Employment Tribunal. Procedure at that Tribunal may include a stage where a government agency tries to broker a settlement so that a claim may be withdrawn. The costs of the hearing are borne by the public purse, which is, paid from tax revenue, but legal representation is at the cost of each party. Witness statements are normally exchanged before the hearing and at the hearing both parties may question witnesses and address the Tribunal. The Tribunal can refer to decisions of higher courts before making its decision in a specific case.
1. Make a summary of the text «Composition of tribunals and procedure».
Text 9
What is the EU?
The European Union (EU) was created in 1992 by the Treaty on
European Union (the TEU), generally called the Maastricht Treaty. The EU consists of three different Communities: the ECSC (European Coal and Steel Community), the European Community (the EC, formerly known as the European Economic
Community Treaty, or the EEC treaty - also known as the Treaty of Rome), and
EURATOM (European Atomic Energy Community Treaty). The EU has what are referred to as 'the three pillars':
The European Union
Common Foreign and Security Policy
ECSC
EC
EURATOM
Justice and Home Affairs Policy
Put simply, the original aim of the Community was economic integration: to create a common market, later defined as a Single Internal Market, in which there
31

could be free movement of goods, persons, services and capital. This was to be achieved by the creation of a free trade area, where Member States agreed to remove all customs duties (import taxes) and quotas (restrictions on the amount of goods imported across Member States' frontiers, or borders) between themselves, and a customs union, in which all members agreed to impose on goods coming into the area from non-member states a common level of duty (the Common Customs Tariff, or
CCT).
The three sources of EU law are the Treaties (EC, TEU, etc.), secondary legislation enacted by the EC (such as regulations and directives), and general principles, including fundamental human rights, subsidiarity, and citizenship of the
EU for every national of a Member State.
1. Answer the questions:
1) When was the EU created?
2) What was the original aim of the Community?
3) What are the three sources of EU law?
2. Make a summary of the text «What is the EU».
Text 10
Legal practitioners
Solicitors
Notes: convey передавать (права, имущество)
Lawyers in the United Kingdom jurisdictions generally practise as solicitors in private firms, as legal advisers in corporations, government departments, and advice agencies, or as barristers. They can each do advocacy, draft legal documents and give written advice, but solicitors, unlike barristers, cannot appear in every court.
Traditionally, solicitors undertake work such as conveyancing , and drawing up contracts and wills. Barristers spend more time in court and have a right of audience in the higher courts. Unlike solicitors, barristers cannot usually be employed directly
32

by clients but are instructed by solicitors. Solicitors normally form partnerships with other solicitors and work in offices with support staff. The qualification and practice of solicitors are regulated by the Law Society.
1.Make a summary of the text «Solicitors».
Text 11
Barristers
Notes:
BrE : chamber/set; ScotE : stable
BrE : barrister; ScotE : advocate ; AmE : trial lawyer / appellate attorney
There are currently around 9,000 barristers in practice in England and Wales.
Unlike solicitors, barristers can't form partnerships but must act as sole traders with unlimited liability. Some barristers are in employed practice and may only represent their employer, for example as in-house counsel or in government departments like the Crown Prosecution Service. Many work independently in self-employed practice in groups called chambers or sets and practise at the Bar as a barrister. Chambers are traditionally located in the four Inns of Court in London - Gray's Inn, Lincoln's Inn,
Middle Temple, and Inner Temple - and are also located in the UK regions, known as circuits. The Inns are principally non-academic societies which provide collegiate and educational resources for barristers and trainees. Members of chambers, known as tenants, share common expenses and support services, which are administered by an administrative manager known as the Clerk, along with ancillary staff such as secretaries.
A barrister's main work is to provide representation in the courts, where they are referred to as counsel, to draft documents associated with court procedure, and to give opinions, that is, specialist legal advice. They are normally instructed by solicitors or other recognised professionals, such as patent agents or Legal Advice
Centres, on behalf of lay clients. As the law has become more complex, barristers increasingly specialise in particular areas, such as personal injury, crime, family or commercial law. A number of Specialist Bar Associations, also known as SBAs, support and represent members. Barristers are governed by the General Council of
33

the Bar, known as the Bar Council, and the Inns of Court.
1. Comment on the following statement: 1) A barrister’s main work is to provide representation in the courts.
2.Make a summary of the text «Barristers».
34

Vocabulary
A attorney n юрист, адвокат, прокурор acquittal n оправдание, судебное решение об
Оправдании adoption n принятие (закона) aid n помощь amend (smth) v вносить изменения, поправки в за-
Конопроект appeal n юр. апелляция appeal (to) v обращаться за помощью, подавать
апелляцию apply v применять appoint v назначать (на пост); утверждать
(в должности) appointment n назначение (на должность, пост) assault n нападение assign v передавать (права); давать, пору-
чать (задание, работу); назначать
(на должность) authority n власть, полномочие available adj имеющийся в распоряжении, до-
ступный; действительный, имею-
щий силу
35

B bankruptcy n банкротство, несостоятельность barrister n барристер (адвокат, имеющий пра-
во выступать в высших судах bill n исковое заявление, иск binding adj обязывающий body n юридическое лицо borrow v занимать, одалживать, брать на
Время bribery n взяточничество, подкуп
C case n дело civil case гражданское дело
criminal case уголовное дело claim n иск, претензия class v классифицировать, сортировать;
причислять к code n кодекс
civil code гражданский кодекс evidence n свидетельство, доказательство; пока
зание свидетеля или обвиняемого codify v кодифицировать, систематизиро -
Вать compel v заставлять, принуждать
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complaint (about/of) n жалоба; иск; возбуждение уголовно
го дела complain (about/of) v жаловаться comprise v заключать в себе, составлять confirm (with) v утвердить (приговор суда) consent n согласие convict (of) v признавать виновным; выносить
Приговор conviction n осуждение, признание подсудимого
виновным, судимость cope (with) v справиться, совладать county n графство
D deal with v иметь дело, рассматривать dealing n pl деловые отношения debt n долг, обязательство debtor n должник declare v объявлять, провозглашать, заявлять defendant n ответчик, обвиняемый, подсудимый deliberate adj преднамеренный descend (from) v происходить diminish v сокращать, уменьшать distinction n различие, разграничение
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division n деление, разделение draft v составлять (документ, проект) draw a distinction проводить разграничение drug n наркотик
E elect v выбирать, избирать employ v предоставлять работу, нанимать enact v принимать, вводить в действие
(закон); устанавливать в законода
тельном порядке enactment n принятие закона, введение закона
в силу;закон, указ, постановление encourage v поощрять, поддерживать enforce v следить за соблюдением (закона) engage v заниматься; быть занятым ensure (smth, that smb does smth) v обеспечить entitle v давать право; быть уполномочен-
Ным execution n исполнение executive n, a исполнительная власть; исполни
Тельный
F fair a честный, справедливый
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G gain n доходы guardian n попечитель, опекун guilt n вердикт о виновности guilty (of) adj виновный
H handle v справляться (с ч-либо)
I impartial adj беспристрастный imprisonment n заключение (в тюрьму) indictment (against smb.) n обвинительный акт inheritance n наследство innocent (of) a невиновный intentional adj преднамеренный investigate v расследовать; получать сведения
(о ком-то, чём-то)
J judge n судья judgment n приговор
pass judgment выносить приговор
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(sentence, the punishment judicial a судебный, судейский jury n присяжные, суд присяжных justice n правосудие juvenile n, a юноша, подросток; юношеский
L law n закон, право
case law прецедентное право civil law гражданское право criminal law уголовное право common law общее право statute law legislation n законодательство, законодатель-
ная деятельность; законы lawfully adv по закону, законно lay a непрофессиональный lease v сдавать в аренду;брать в аренду legislature n законодательная власть, законо-
дательный орган legitimate a законный lend v давать в долг liberty n свобода
M magistrate n магистрат(должностное лицо,
осуществляющее правосудие),
судья, мировой судья
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mandate n доверенность; распоряжение,
приказ суда mandate v доверять, уполномочивать matrimonial a супружеский, брачный misdemeanour n мелкое преступление, судебно
наказуемый проступок mortgage n залог, ипотека, закладная murder n убийство (умышленное);
Убийца
N notary n нотариус
O obligation n обязательство offence n правонарушение, преступление offender n правонарушитель, преступник ordinance n местное муниципальное поста -
Новление outcome n результат (выборов), исход ownership n владение, собственность
P party (to) n сторона (по делу)
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pass (the law) v принимать (закон) peculiarity n особенность, характерная черта penalty n наказание
death penalty смертная казнь perpetrator n нарушитель, преступник preside (over) v председательствовать на собрании;
осуществлять контроль, руководст
во private a частный probation n условное освобождение на поруки proceeding n иск, судебная процедура, процес-
суальное действие promote v продвигать, повышать в чине;со -
действовать, способствовать proper a правильный, надлежащий,должный punishment n наказание
R reason n причина, основание reduce v снижать, уменьшать refrain (from) v отказаться от ч-либо; воздержаться
от к-либо поступка release n освобождение (от отстветственнос-
ти, из-под стражи) relieve (of smth) v освобождать (от ответственности,
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уплаты штрафов) repeal v отменять (закон) resign v подавать в отставку, уходить с рабо
Ты resolve v принимать решение; решать проб-
Лемму responsible a виновный; разумный
S secure v гарантировать, обеспечить shareholder n держатель акций, акционер solicitor n солиситор, адвокат без права выступ
ления в высшем суде standing n положение, статус, процессуальная
Правоспособность state v сообщать, излагать, формулировать sue v предъявлять иск кому-либо
T tort n гражданское правонарушение;
гражданско правовой деликт transfer n, v перевод, переход; передавать, пере-
Водить treason n особо тяжкое преступление,(госу-
дарственная) измена treatment n обращение
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treaty n договор (международный) triable подсудный, подлежащий рассмот-
рению в судебном порядке trial n процесс, суд
V victim n жертва violate v нарушать закон
W wealth n богатство will n завещание wrong n несправедливость
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