AP European History Test Review Part Four
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AP European History Test Review Part Four Congress of Vienna through Imperialism THE NINETEENTH CENTURY A Time of change, the Nineteenth century saw the transformation from the Napoleonic period to the modern world. It began with the defeat of Napoleon and ended with an industrialized Europe with new political alliances & great influence in most parts of the world. The Congress of Vienna Purposes included: division of the spoils of war production of a settlement to return Europe, as closely as possible to the way it was before the French revolution promotion of conservatism & suppression of liberalism & divisive nationalism Big 4 = England (Castlereagh), Russia (Alexander I), Prussia (Fred. Will. II), & Austria (Metternich). Concerns of the Congress Balance of Power (checks & balances): Wanted to make sure no single power could dominate Europe as France had done. Legitimacy: wanted the restoration of monarchies & the return of all original lands (baseline = 1792) Indemnity: France paid 700 million Francs to support an army of occupation until 1820. Alliance Systems The Concert of Europe consisted of several alliances with the purpose of maintaining the conservative settlement designed by the COV. These included: The Holy Alliance The Quadruple Alliance (Eng, Austria, Prussia, and Russia) The Quintuple Alliance (Quadruple alliance joined by France in 1818) Results of the Congress of Vienna Concert of Europe put down revolts in Italy & Spain in the early 1820’s, but broke down by 1825 due to the fact that England was not as conservative as the rest of the members & pulled out. Enforced conservatism was challenged by the forces of liberalism, & nationalism. Conservative settlements later led to the revolutions of 1848. The Revolutions of 1830 Spain: 1814--restoration of King Ferdinand VII: revived the old regime & the inquisition. 1820: Ferdinand ordered his army to attack & recapture former Sp. Colonies in Latin Am., & the army mutinied. Ferdinand had to restore the Napoleonic constitution of 1812. 1823: Louis VIII sent troops to restore Ferd VII after another revolt. Kingdom of the Two Sicilies (Naples) 1815: Restoration of Bourbon King Ferdinand I: very corrupt & conservative. 1820: Carbonari revolted against king & forced him to accept a more liberal constitution. Austria sent an army to Italy to restore the king’s power Greece Greece revolted against Turkish control in 1821, causing a civil war. 1828, Russia, Britain, and France joined the war on the side of the Greeks. 1829: Treaty of Adrianople: Greek independence & Russia gets part of modern-day Romania. Decembrist Uprising 2 secret revolutionary groups were operating in Russia by the early 1800’s. Northern Society: wanted a constitutional monarchy Southern Society: wanted a democratic republic When Alex I died, liberals wanted his brother Constantine to rule, but he abdicated in favor of his younger brother, Nicholas. 1825: revolutionaries rioted & were crushed. Alex set up a very repressive police state. France (1830) Louis XVIII died in 1824, bringing Charles X to the throne. Charles was extremely conservative, and had been the leader of the “ultras” before he became king. Under his leadership, the Catholic church was given control of Catholic schools & a premier was appointed without legislative approval. Opposition in France In 1830, the Chamber of Deputies cast a vote of “no confidence” in the king, and the king disbanded the legislature and called for new elections. New elections brought a more liberal Chamber, and the king passed the July Ordinances (4 ordinances) in response. Revolution The July Ordinances dissolved the Chamber, censored the press, restricted voting to only a few rich nobles, and censored freedom of speech & assembly. In response, rioters filled Paris streets and revolution broke out. Louis Philippe became the new king of France & ruled until 1848. He extended the right to vote to the upper middle-class. More Revolutions Revolutions also occurred in 1830 in Belgium, Poland, parts of Italy, and parts of Germany. Belgium broke away from the Dutch Republic & set up a Constitutional monarchy. Poland lost its constitution & Polish cities were occupied by Russian troops Revolutions in Parma, Modena, and the Papal States were all put down. Several small German states got constitutions in 1830, but Austria & Prussia made no reforms The Revolutions of 1848 Revolutions occurred in almost every country on the European continent, but few were successful in gaining liberalization. Aims of most 1848 revolutions were: constitutionalism liberalism republicanism greater democracy nationalism France: The February Revolution 1846-1848: bad harvests & depression led to unemployment & high food prices which hurt the lower classes badly. With the introduction of machinery into French factories, more jobs were lost, and industrial profits began to fall. As a result, the working class and the middle class were unhappy with Louis Philippe. Utopian Socialism Utopian socialists called attention to the plight of the poor in France and the necessity of government action to bring relief. Louis Blanc planned to end unemployment by creating “National workshops” (social workshops). Opposition from many sources supported an end to the monarchy. Revolution Opposition groups all agreed that they wanted the resignation of Louis’ chief advisor, Guizot. Feb. 21st, a revolutionary banquet was held without approval, and when the government tried to stop it, the rioters took to the streets and Guizot was forced to flee. The king then abdicated. France in Chaos Disputes over who would rule France came to a head, with the middle class wanting protection of property, the workers wanting economic relief, and the nobility wanting a monarchy. The workshops created by Louis Blanc were a failure, and unemployment continued to rise. After riots in June, General Cavaignac made France a temporary dictatorship. Constitution of the 2nd Republic Nov. 1848: The new constitution did the following: Universal manhood suffrage Bill of Rights (speech, press, religion, assembly, property) rejected socialism Unicameral legislature with three-year terms Presidency with a four year term. Louis Napoleon was elected President of France in Dec. 1848, and became emperor in 1851 (Napoleon III). Germany in 1848 Intellectuals and professionals in many German states revolted in 1848 in an attempt to gain the liberal concessions that were previously promised by Prussian King Frederick William IV. Prior to 1848, he had created the Zollverein (German Customs Union) to remove internal tariffs and tolls and to stimulate German commerce. The Zollverein united many German states, economically. Revolution in Berlin German liberals revolted and forced Fred Will to accept their demands. The king called a constitutional assembly, the Frankfurt Assembly, to strengthen the German confederation. They couldn’t agree on which German states to include or whether to have a republic or a monarchy. Austria opposed any sort of constitution for the confederacy. The Frankfurt Assembly The assembly finally wrote a constitution which called for a liberal constitutional monarchy. When they offered the crown of Germany to Frederick, he refused to take it, saying he “wouldn’t accept the imperial crown from the gutter.” This ended the assembly and any hopes of liberal reform. Only lasting result: more states joined the Zollverein. Italy in 1848 Italy was divided into several small states, most of whom were occupied by foreign powers. Italian nationalists wanted unification and formed secret societies such as the carbonari and Mazzini’s Young Italy. The “risorgimento” (revival of nationalist pride ) drove the revolution of 1848. Italy in 1848 Spring 1848: revolts broke out in the Papal states, Tuscany, Naples, and Sardinia, and these rulers granted liberal constitutions. Lombardy-Venetia revolted against Austria and Naples, Sardinia, and the Pope sent troops to help them. In the process, Sardinia annexed L-V, Parma, and Modena. Other Italian states then withdrew their support of LV and Austria regained control. The Roman Republic When it appeared that Austria was going to defeat any chance at Italian unification and independence, radical revolution broke out in Rome & Sardinia. Garibaldi & Mazzini ousted the Pope & proclaimed a democratic republic in Rome. In Sardinia, the king was forced to continue fighting the Austrians. The Austrians defeated Sardinia, and Napoleon III sent troops to reinstate the Pope. Austria in 1848 The Austrian empire included a large number of ethnic minorities within its borders. Their individual nationality was suppressed by the empire. In the “March Days,” revolts occurred in Italy, Hungary, Bohemia, & Austria itself. Austria in 1848 The revolutions were led by a minority of intellectuals, students, and labor leaders and were not widely supported by the majority of the people. The only lasting result was the abdication of Metternich. Hungary In Hungary, Louis Kossuth led a revolt in the Hungarian Diet which made Hungary autonomous while accepting the emperor as the king of Hungary. He outlawed serfdom, forced the nobility to pay taxes, and required public officials to speak Hungarian. Since Kossuth continued to oppress Slavic minorities in Hungary, Russia helped Austria put down the Hungarian revolt. THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION The industrial revolution began in England in the mid 18th century, but many of its effects were not felt on the continent until the 19th century. It was the widespread use of machinery that characterized the industrial revolution, because the output of products accelerated so enormously by the substitution of machines for human labor in manufacturing. Causes of Industrialism Availability of capital due to growth of capitalism & trade. Puritan work ethic and new attitudes toward change caused by the Enlightenment. Population growth caused an increased need for goods. Enclosure acts provided cheap labor & urbanization. Industrial Rev. in England Began in England because: Markets for manufactured goods due to wealth of the upper and middle classes plentiful supply of natural resources plentiful supply of workers (Eng. Population doubled between 1700 & 1800). Raw materials from its colonies capitalists with investment money liberal government ready to further the interests of the capitalists More Reasons English intellectuals urged a free trade policy. Few guild restrictions Colonies for markets Naval supremacy Encouragement of inventions (patents, copyrights, etc). Sound banking systems Advances in Production Textile industry 1st to industrialize New methods of iron, coal, and steel production New sources of power (steam engine) Expansion of communication & transportation (Railroads & canals & telegraph) Agricultural revolution Factory system Textiles Large market for cotton cloth. Therefore, great efforts were made to increase the amount of cotton cloth produced in England. Inventions: flying shuttle: increased speed of weaving Spinning Jenny: spun cotton fiber faster Water frame: spun cotton fiber quickly & produced a finer thread. Spinning mule: combined frame & jenny power loom: wove automatically cotton gin: separated cotton fiber from seeds Advances Iron smelted with coal, not charcoal Steam Engine (James Watt) powered factories Improved roads, canals, & steam locomotives telegraph & telephone expansion of banking & credit systems Only the bank of England could issue bank notes French and German Industrialization In the early 19th century, industrialization spread to France. France experienced its greatest period of industrial growth from 1850 - 1870. Germany was hampered by guild restrictions, poor transportation, & lack of unification. Industrialization began by mid century, but was greatest after 1871. Social Changes Population growth: British population tripled between 1800 & 1900. Urbanization led to more influence by the middle class & eventually the working class. Breakdown of the family as cottage industries are replaced by the factory system. Landed aristocracy threatened by the growing wealth & power of the industrialists. Labor Workers received low, often subsistence, wages & worked in often unsafe conditions. Men, women, and children often worked 16-18 hour days. Wages rose on the average of about 2% per year in the 1800’s in industrial jobs in England. Labor Conditions Urban workers followed three methods to improve their conditions: Violence: some sabotaged machines & killed bosses, but this was not successful in changing conditions. Unions: Unions were initially outlawed in England & France, but were finally successful by the late 1800’s Political Agitation: Chartism & general agitation led to reforms, such as the factory act, the mines act, and the 10 hours bill. The Classical Economists Adam Smith: 1776: The Wealth of Nations: believed that individuals working for their own self-interest would benefit the economy better than mercantilist policies. “Invisible hand” of supply & demand should dictate prices & production. Laissez-faire economics (early capitalism) Economists Thomas Malthus: Essay on Population Believed that the population grew geometrically, while the food supply grew arithmetically, thus eventually leading to famine &/or war which would check population growth. Believed that the poor should limit their offspring if they wanted to improve their standard of living. Economists David Ricardo: The Principles of Political Economy: “Iron law of wages:” there is a point where the market wage will constantly tend to approach the natural wage. If you pay a market wage below the natural wage (what workers need to survive), they will die off & a smaller labor pool can demand higher wages. If you pay a market wage significantly more than the natural wage, they will have more kids & their standard of living will drop. Believed in laissez-faire capitalism. Economists Jeremy Bentham: Utilitarianism: Believed in laissez-faire economics but wanted policies which would effect the “greatest good for the greatest number.” Believed that if an individual harmed the common good by acting in his own self-interest, then the government should step in. Also believed that government could step in to pay for research & development & education. Liberalism John Stuart Mill: On Liberty; Principles of Political Economy. Mill’s Principle: Persons should have complete freedom of action, speech, etc. as long as their actions do not harm others. If they cause harm, then the gov’t should stop them. Concerned about the tyranny of the majority. Mill, continued Mill served in Parliament for a time and championed the following causes: women’s suffrage the right of workers to organize into unions labor legislation to improve working conditions universal suffrage (for all men & women over 21) universal education equal political/economic rights for women proportional representation. Early Socialists Socialism can be defined as an economic system in which the means of production, exchange, and distribution are owned by the state rather than private individuals. Designed to abolish the abuses of capitalism by promoting collectivization. Socialism ranged from strictly economic reform in the context of a democratic government to the extreme of Marxism. Utopian Socialists Utopian socialists offered no practical plan for achieving the ideal societies they envisioned and thought industrialists would support their ideas as soon as they saw their merit. Socialism developed independently in France and England in the 19th century. Utopian Socialists Saint-Simon: (1760-1825): French: Advocated the abolition of private property and the development of an industrial state under the direction of a board of directors made up of scientists & skilled businessmen who would work for the betterment of all people, including the working class. Had little practical impact Pierre Proudhon: French: “Property is Theft.” Influenced Karl Marx. Utopian Socialists Charles Fourier (1772-1837): French: Called for a society made up of small cooperative communities called phalanxes in which economic competition would be eliminated & all work done voluntarily. People in his society would live in communal dwellings. Too idealistic & failed in his attempts. Utopian Socialists Robert Owen: (1771-1858): successful English industrialist Believed that environmental factors influenced people and thought factories and communities needed to be clean, and provide decent wages. Wanted to outlaw child labor & provide mandatory education. Created a model cotton mill in Scotland, but failed in his attempts in Indiana. Did a lot to popularize the need for social reform in England. Utopian Socialists Louis Blanc: French: (1811 - 1882) organized a socialist political party to achieve socialist measures in France. Believed that governments have the duty of providing workers with farms and shops to replace privately owned ones. He called these national workshops. These would be run by the workers for their own good. Wanted democratic government. Undermined by the provisional gov’t in 1848. Christian Socialists These people wanted to apply the principles of the Christian religion to the quest for social & economic reform. Pope Leo XIII: wrote Rerum Novarum in 1891 urged fair treatment of workers & the need for social reform. urged the foundation of Christian labor unions. Christian Socialists Charles Kingsley: (1819 - 1875) Novelist Wanted to end sweatshops Stressed the importance of boycotts in obtaining relief from capitalists abuses Stressed the need for brotherly love as the basis of all reform Urged the British Parliament to pass social legislation to help the working class. Marxism Founded by Marx & Engels, it was a militant form of socialism which is often called Communism. Marx and Engels asserted their ideas in The Communist Manifesto (1848) and Das Kapital (1867). Differed from other forms of socialism because it called for a revolutionary overthrow of the existing system. No accommodation. Marxist Ideas History must be interpreted economically. Economic factors shape the institutions of civilization, such as religion & politics. Surplus Value: the value of all commodities is a result of the labor put into them. If a worker gets paid less than the labor he put into a product, he is being exploited. “History is a constant series of class struggles” between the exploited & the exploiters. More Marxist Ideas Dialectic: Thesis, Antithesis, Synthesis. Believed this process would continue inevitably until Communism was established. Then there would be no more opposition to the new system. Materialism: Believed in no God or divine presence and believed that all things happened mechanically with no divine guiding principle. Marxism is also called Dialectical Materialism. More Marxist Ideas Capitalism is a necessary step in the eventual development of Communism. Revolution in which the proletariat overthrows the bourgeoisie is inevitable but must be led by Marxist intellectuals called the “vanguard of the revolution.” A temporary “dictatorship of the proletariat must be established after the revolution to reorder society. More Marxist Ideas Marx envisioned a situation in which workers all over the world would eventually overthrow their existing conditions and create Communist societies. When this had occurred, he believed there would be no need for governments and predicted the “withering of the state.” Believed in the principle “From each acc. to his ability, to each acc. to his need.” Socialist Parties Pre-WWI First International: founded in 1864 in London: followed Marxist ideas, but finally disbanded. German Social Democratic Party: advocated many Marxist ideas & gained a large number of seats in the Reichstag. Fabian Society: Britain: formed to spread socialist ideas. Its members later formed the modern Labor party. Anarchism Aimed at destroying governments ASAP usually by the use of force because governments always restricted human liberty. Peter Kropotkin: Russian: wanted to abolish private property & gov’t non-violently. Wanted a loose communistic social organization to replace the government. Anarchism Mikhail Bakunin: Russian: organized groups all over Europe to stage an international revolution to destroy the gov’ts of Europe. Advocated terrorist acts until the time was right for a general strike/revolution. Responsible for the assassinations of a number of world leaders. Wanted a socialist economy established. 19th Century British Problems The Landed Aristocracy still monopolized political power due to voting restrictions (10% of adult males could vote in England in 1848). Rotten Boroughs kept industrial centers from being fairly represented (Manchester had no representatives at all in 1800) No secret ballot More Problems No secret ballots Property & religious qualifications restricted the right to hold political office. No salaries for the members of the House of Commons The House of Lords could block all legislation passed by the House of Commons except for revenue bills. British Reforms 1820’s: Combination Code (that suppressed unions) was repealed & the Criminal Code was reformed. 1829: Catholic Emancipation Act: permitted Catholics to hold an elected public office. 1833: Slavery abolished in the British Empire The Great Reform Bill of 1832 Sponsored by the Whigs, this bill yielded to the demands of the middle class. It did the following: Extended suffrage to most of the middle class and small land owners, but still denied it to most urban workers & peasants. Provided for redistricting to eliminate rotten boroughs Gave more power to the House of Commons After being threatened with the creation of new Whig peers, the House of Lords passed the bill. Chartism Organized in the 1830’s by city workers to achieve political reforms and improve their living conditions. The charter demanded: Universal manhood suffrage No more property qualifications for Parliament Equal electoral districts Secret ballot Annual Parliamentary elections Salaries for Parliament Chartism Chartists pushed their demands throughout the 1840’s and the movement culminated with a march of 50,000 protesters in 1848. Although Parliament refused to give in to Chartist demands (as a whole package), most of their demands were met through reform legislation, and the movement died out. More Reforms Great Reform Bill of 1867: reduced property qualifications so that most urban workers could vote Sponsored by Benjamin Disraeli, the Conservative Party leader who wanted to take credit for the reform. Ballot Act of 1872: secret ballot introduced Reform Bill of 1884: extended suffrage to most peasants. Sponsored by the Liberal Leader, Gladstone. More Reforms The Parliament Act of 1911: Weakened the House of Lords by giving it only a temporary veto over bills passed in the House of Commons. Revenue bills could be delayed only 30 days. All other bills could be delayed up to two years. Reform Bill of 1918: Extended Suffrage to British women over 30 years of age. Reform Bill of 1928: Women over 21 could vote. British Economic/Social Reforms New Poor Law of 1834: created poor houses & put able-bodied paupers to work. (hated by the poor) 1846: Corn Laws repealed Factory Act of 1819: banned employment of children under 9 in cotton mills & limited older kids to 12 hours per day. More Reforms Factory Act of 1833: Applied to all textile mills. Banned employment of kids under 9 Established a 9 hour day for kids 9-13 and a 12 hour day for kids 13-18. Provided inspection to enforce the law. Mines Act of 1842: banned women and children under 10 from working in mines. Ten Hour Law of 1847: established a ten hour day for women and children in textile mills. More Reforms 1870: Education Act: Free public elementary education was provided for all children, and England’s educational standards were upgraded. National Insurance Act of 1911: required employers to provide health and unemployment insurance to all workers. The Irish Problem The Irish people were bitter toward the British for the following reasons: They were forced to support the Anglican church English absentee landlords controlled most Irish land and charged high rents. They evicted peasants who couldn’t pay. The English did little to relieve the misery created by the crop failures of the 1840’s (the potato famines) The Irish wanted home rule but didn’t get it in the 19th century. France 1852: Napoleon III declares the establishment of the 2nd French Empire. His domestic policies included: Vast public works projects (canals, roads, RR) Removed legal barriers to trade unions Encouraged industrialization and promoted economic prosperity, gaining the support of the middle class. French Foreign Policy Napoleon III followed these policies: Stopped Russian aggression in the Crimean War. Annexed Algiers Helped Piedmont gain independence from Austria, but stationed troops in Rome to protect the Pope Invaded Mexico in 1862 and set up the Austrian archduke Maximilian as King. After the US Civil War ended, the US forced French withdrawal. Problems in the French Empire Nationalists protested after the humiliation of France in the Maximilian affair. Catholics were mad because Napoleon had helped Piedmont Republicans were made that they didn’t have a democratic form of government. Workers were striking due to poor wages & working conditions. French Revolution of 1870 1870: Napoleon plunged France into war with Prussia in hopes of restoring the glory of France (remember the Ems Dispatch) After the defeat of France in the Franco-Prussian war, revolts broke out & Napoleon III abdicated. A provisional gov’t was formed, but it was unsuccessful because it chose to stay in the war. The Third French Republic Delegates in the new National Assembly ranged from various monarchists to radical republicans. Because of the dissension between different factions of monarchists, the Republicans passed a series of laws which collectively became the Constitution of the Third French Republic. The republic began in 1871 and ended in 1940. Problems of the Third French Republic Boulanger Affair: a monarchist general (Boul) who wanted to become dictator, he was discredited by the government. Dreyfus Affair: a Jewish Republican army captain was framed by monarchist army officers for treason. His unfair trial discredited the monarchist faction of the government. Zola wrote “J’accuse” in his defense Italian Unification After 1815, Italy was disunited and consisted of the following parts: Kingdom of the 2 Sicilies (Naples) controlled by Austria in Southern Italy Papal States and Austrian-controlled Parma, Tuscany, and Modena in North-central Italy Austrian-controlled provinces of Lombardy + Venetia and the free Kingdom of Sardinia-Piedmont in North Italy. Italian Unification Nationalist movements to unite Italy in 1848 were a failure but nationalists did not give up. Several methods to unite Italy existed: Mazzini: Romantic Republicanism “Young Italy” Garibaldi: Red Shirts Cavour: Moderate Liberalism: wanted a constitutional monarchy under the king of Sardinia-Piedmont. The Process of Unification Cavour was the mastermind of the successful unification of Italy. He did the following things: Strengthened the army and economy of Sardinia-Piedmont (he was its Prime Minister) Created an alliance with Napoleon III at the Plombiers conference. Provoked war with Austria and forced Austria to ceded Lombardy to Sardinia-Piedmont. More Steps in the Unification Process The Duchies of Parma, Tuscany, and Modena successfully revolted against Austria and united with Sardinia-Piedmont. Garibaldi did the following: Invaded Naples in 1861, after securing Sicily. He won many battles in S. Italy and then turned the region over to King Victor Emmanuel II of Sardinia-Piedmont. Cavour invaded the Papal States, taking over everything except Rome. Italian Unification 1861: Victor Emmanuel II becomes King of Italy. Transformismo policy followed 1871: Rome & Venetia annexed by Italy Government consisted of a limited monarchy with a bicameral legislature consisting of a senate (appointed for life by the king) and a chamber of deputies (elected by the middle & upper classes). Problems in Italy Italy was poor with a large illiterate population. Most people were ignorant of democratic ideas & did not participate in government. The Pope condemned the new gov’t and decreed that Catholics should not participate in it. The north was more developed than the south and the 2 regions had little in common, economically and socially. Solving Italy’s Problems Industry and trade were fostered by the government. Improved agricultural methods were developed The Italian gov’t encouraged emigration to the US to ease over-population due to such a high birthrate. Italians paid high taxes to support a growing army & navy. German Unification Unification was supported by the growing middle class & city-workers. (Their influence was growing due to industrialization). Competition between Austria & Prussia further complicated the unification process. A turning point in Germany occurred when King William I became the king of Prussia in 1861. German Unification William began to strengthen the Prussian army , but liberals in Parliament opposed the spending of so much money. William appointed Otto von Bismarck as chancellor in 1862. Bismarck was a typical conservative junker who opposed liberalism He raised money for the army by disregarding the constitution and invoking medieval laws. Bismarck Known as the “iron chancellor,” Bismarck accomplished the following: Created a powerful & efficient army 1864: Danish war: ended Danish control of Schlesswig & Holstein 1866: Austro-Prussian war (7 weeks war): established Prussian control of the German states Annexed the N. German Confederation The Franco-Prussian War Realizing that only a war with France would allow the annexation of the S. German states, Bismarck engineered a war with Napoleon III in 1870 through the editing of the Ems Dispatch. (“Realpolitik”) German armies overwhelmed French armies in several months, and in the Treaty of Frankfurt, France ceded Alsace & Lorraine to Germany and paid reparations to Germany. Unification Following the Franco-Prussian War, the 4 Southern Catholic German provinces joined the Prussian dominated Germany. In 1871, the German Empire was declared with King William I as its Kaiser (emperor). This made Germany the most powerful nation on the continent, and its military power began to rival that of England. German Government 25 states handled local matters The federal government handled national matters, such as defense and banking. Constitution: bicameral legislature Bundesrat: 58 reps from member states Reichstag: 397 members elected by universal manhood suffrage. Bundesrat could only introduce legislation, and Reichstag could only reject it. German Government The executive power rested in the hand of the emperor who commanded the army & navy, & appointed gov’t ministers. Chancellor: as chief minister, the chancellor was the prime advisor to the emperor and held a huge amount of governing power. Accomplishments of Bismarck Consolidation of the German Empire: created a uniform currency, and legal code. Tried to suppress the Catholics in the South Catholics organized the Center Party to oppose certain policies of the central gov’t, & Bismarck resented them because of their ties to the Catholic Church Bismarck passed a series of laws to restrict the church (restricting education & clergy) and the KULTURKAMPF resulted. Eventually, Bismarck backed down. Other Actions of Bismarck Tried to suppress the socialists: Socialists appealed to urban workers who resented low pay and bad working conditions. Bismarck tried to suppress them forcibly in 1878 with anti-socialist laws, but this failed. By the 1880’s, Bismarck began to undermine them by supporting social legislation to gain the support of the workers. These programs included unemployment insurance & workers’ comp., and social security payments for retired Germans. German Policies 1888: William II (defender of divine right) became king and Bismarck remained the chancellor, until he was dismissed by William. William II did the following: Built up a strong army & navy Encouraged industry & commerce Encouraged imperialism and annexation Austria-Hungary Although Emperor Francis-Joseph tried to solve the problems of the empire, they were too great for any one ruler to solve. Problems faced by the empire included: The great number of national minorities which were living in the empire Over-extension of the empire into areas, such as Italy Failure to compete with the growing power of Prussia. Developments Before 1867 1850: Suspended the Constitution and attempted to develop a more centralized administration of the empire (Bach System) 1855: Concordat with the Catholic Church 1859: Austria fared badly in the Crimean war and the war with France & Piedmont. 1861: October Diploma/February Patent: attempted to rule Hungary dictatorially. Dual Monarchy Revolts occurred in the Hungarian part of the empire between 1861 & 1867. 1867: Ausgleich: Created a Dual Monarchy (Austro-Hungarian empire) Made the Hungarians (Magyars) dominant over other nationalities in their region Hungarians recognized the emperor and accepted common policies for finances & foreign policy. Hungary could make its own local laws. Austria faced many revolts between 1860 & 1914 Russia in the 19th Century Russian society remained semi-feudal and backward, with much popular discontent. Russia remained isolated from Western culture and did not modernize. Oppression & censorship increased and the government was inefficient. Czars were anti-liberal Russia was weak internationally & began to lose foreign wars (Crimean, Russo-Japanese) Nicholas I (1825-55) Dictatorial ruler who stood for strong nationalism, autocracy, and religious orthodoxy. He did the following: Expanded the royal bureaucracy Published a new legal code Fostered industry and Railroads Enforced strict censorship with secret police Had strong control over the military Lost the Crimean War Put down a Polish revolt Alexander II (1855-81) A conservative reformer, who abolished serfdom in 1861. Zemstvo Laws: created local assemblies to solve local problems in 1864. As reform led to radical demands, many groups began to plot and carry out terrorist acts. 1881: Alexander was assassinated. Nicholas II (1881-1917) Industrial progress occurred during his reign, but urban & rural conditions remained miserable and the population was on the verge of revolution. (Witte 1905: Russia lost the Russo-Japanese war. 1905: Revolution occurred which included the Bloody Sunday massacre. The czar was forced to accept the October Manifesto which created the Duma. Nicolas, continued Nicholas failed to uphold his promises made in the Oct. Manifesto and instead promoted more conservative policies under his chief agricultural advisor, Stolypin. Stolypin was assassinated by rebels Three major groups of revolutionaries existed in Russia at the turn of the century: Social Democrats (Marxists), Cadets, and Social Revolutionaries The 19th Century Intellectual Revolution The liberal nature of society, during the Victorian era, encouraged scientific and intellectual experimentation and discovery. Advances in Astronomy progressed when better telescopes were perfected. By the late 19th century, Lavoisier, Priestly, and Dalton all made advances in chemistry and new elements were being discovered. Intellectual Developments Advances in physics included the following: discovery of the law of conservation of energy discovery of how to analyze the spectrum Faraday developed the generator to produce electricity continuously (Electro-magnetism) Edison invented the incandescent lamp Motors were developed, thus providing a source of power from electricity. Medical Developments Advances in medicine included the following: 1796: Jenner discovered how to immunize people against smallpox Lister introduced antiseptics Anesthetics (ether) were introduced Pasteur promoted the germ theory & bacteriology Koch also promoted the germ theory and isolated the germ that causes tuberculosis More Medical Developments Roentgen discovered the use of x-rays. New medical instruments were created in factories Vitamins were discovered & used to combat scurvy Antibiotics were discovered & in 1928, Fleming discovered penicillin. Scientific Developments Atomic Developments included: 1905: Albert Einstein advanced the theory of relativity which modified Newton’s laws. Marie & Pierre Curie, Ernest Rutherford, Sir James Chadwick, and Enrico Fermi all made discoveries about the structure of atoms and radiation. The Theory of Evolution Charles Darwin and Sir Alfred Wallace simultaneously developed the theory of evolution, but Darwin is famous, because he was the first to publish the idea. In his works, The Origin of the Species (1859) and The Descent of Man (1871), Darwin held that the existing animals and plants (including man) have evolved during millions of years from simpler forms of life. Darwin, continued Darwin also held that forms of life are constantly changing, and that new forms of life are coming into existence all of the time. He claimed that life was a constant struggle for existence, with only the strongest, most adaptable species surviving. He called this process Natural Selection or the Survival of the Fittest. Effects of Darwinism Darwin’s ideas were met with a storm of protest, especially from religious circles. Social Darwinism: other people, such as Herbert Spencer, tried to apply Darwin’s evolutionary ideas to man and society. Spencer stated that only the strongest, most fit, humans should survive, and thus, he attacked social welfare measures, such as shielding the poorer (and inferior) people from starvation, etc. This justified the attitudes of many industrialists. Other Effects of Darwinism Eugenics: (selective breeding of humans) Imperialism: colonizers were inherently better and had the right to exploit others. Elitism: some Social Darwinists saw superior people in all races & nationalities and urged the to band together so as to prevent their being submerged by the ignorant and inferior masses. Nietzsche: superman Extreme racial elitism later applied by the Nazi party during the holocaust. Literature The Victorian Era saw an explosion in literature which included the following: Dickens & Balzac: Realism Many poets, incl. Tennyson, Arnold, the Brownings, and Dickenson Flaubert: French realist with romantic tendencies Zola: political statements (‘J’accuse”) Playwrights: Ibsen, Shaw, Chekhov, etc. Art New styles of art included the following: Impressionism: Manet, Monet, etc. Cubism, Abstraction, and Surrealism were practiced by Picasso, Bralve, etc. Naturalism in sculpture: Rodin (the Thinker), and bartholdi (Statue of Liberty) With the advent of structural steel, skyscrapers were built Music: Composers tried to make music emotionally appealing. (Wagner, Debussy,etc) Imperialism Imperialism is the building up of an empire by a country. “New Imperialism” (stimulated by the industrial revolution) began to occur after 1870 when Africa and Asia were consumed by the European powers. Imperialism, continued Reasons for imperialism included: The need for cheap raw materials (cotton, rubber, oil, etc.) to meet the demands of industrialization. The need for markets for the sale of manufactured goods The provision of an outlet for surplus capital to be invested The concern for underdeveloped areas of the world The desire to convert natives to Christianity Geography Imperialist nations included: Britain, France, Germany, Italy, Belgium, Japan, and the US. Exploited areas included the Near East, Africa, & the Far East. Near East: Previously dominated by Turkey & Persia, imperialist rivalries in this area (Balkans, etc.) were a catalyst in the outbreak of WWI and the Crimean War. Geography, continued Africa: Rivalries here were very pronounced. Early 19th century: the interior was basically unknown. Pre 1850: France had claimed Algeria, and the Cape Colony was occupied. Post 1850: Stories from missionaries and explorers, such as Stanley and Livingstone, stimulated interest in the wealth of the region and led to settlement and more exploration. By the end of the century, practically all of Africa was settled. Africa Important developments in Africa included: 1882: British took over Egypt 1884: Belgium’s claim over the Congo was recognized 1890’s: France extended its control over most of NW Africa 1890’s: Britain claimed the Sudan and most of S. Africa Germany and Italy were desperately trying to gain control of any African territories. Independent Nations in Africa Only two independent nations remained in Africa at the turn of the century. Liberia: a small republic founded by American anti-slavery groups for emancipated slaves Abbysinia (Ethiopia): defeated the Italians at the battle of Adowa in 1896. This Italian defeat was a great humiliation and was later avenged by Mussolini. The Far East The following things happened in the far east: European powers took over Burma, Malaya, Indo-china, and the islands of the East Indies. Britain consolidated its control over India China was penetrated but not partitioned by imperialist forces who set up “spheres of influence.” The British Empire South Africa: originally settled by Boers (Dutch) 1814: Britain takes over Cape Colony and trouble breaks out between the British & the Boers who fled NW to escape British rule. The Boers founded the Orange Free State and Transvaal and soon discovered gold in both of them. British settlers tried to move in and take over the gold. The British Empire, cont. South Africa, continued: The Boers tried to restrict the political rights of the British & led to friction Eventually, Cecil Rhodes hatched a plan to take over both states, and when it failed, Britain declared war on the 2 states. The British won the “Boer war,” and eventually the 2 states were granted dominion status, after the other S. African states combined in to the Union of South Africa. The British Empire Egypt: The British wanted to control the Suez canal. The British took Egypt from the French after the canal was done (1870’s) 1876: Disraeli purchased 60% of the shares in the canal from Egypt 1877: Egypt became a British Protectorate, but a minority of French investors (who had built the canal) still held stock in the canal (until 1956). The British Empire By 1900, Britain controlled 1/3 of Africa’s land area and over 1/2 of the African population. Britain also controlled many islands in the Caribbean and had some colonies in Latin America. One of Britain’s most important colonies was India. India After the Sepoy rebellion (1857), Britain transferred control of India from the Eng. East India Company to the Eng. Government. The English introduced many reforms: roads, bridges, canals, and railroads sanitation humane laws telegraph postal service India British rule was resented and many natives wished to expel English rule. Many organizations were created to rebel against the British. In response, the British granted a limited self-rule in 1909, but this didn’t satisfy those who wanted complete independence. India gained dominion status in 1947 under the leadership of Ghandi & Nehru. Other British Territories Afraid that they would revolt and be lost forever, Britain gradually granted self-government to other colonies, as well. Canada: British N. American Act of 1867 granted dominion status to Canada Australia: received dominion status in 1900 New Zealand: received dominion status in 1907
