Urban Dynamics
 The urban dynamics of change:

Suburbanisation – growth of areas suburbs as units away from the
centre.

Exurbanisation – a process whereby people, usually affluent, move from
the city to rural areas but continue to maintain an urban way of life either
through long distance commuting or technology.

Counter-urbanisation – a marked decline in the total population, or
growth of the population, of large metropolitan areas and the subsequent
growth of smaller urban centres at their expense.

Decentralisation – to spread or redistribute, reorganise urban
settlement patterns away from the centre/city.

Consolidation – to reorganise urban planning to concentrate growth and
reduce the negative consequences of urban sprawl eg: dual occupancy.

Urban decay – the deterioration of the built environment. Urban
infrastructure falls into a state of disrepair and buildings are left empty for
long periods of time.

Urban renewal – a process of rebirth of an urban area involving
redevelopment. A change in functional role of the area. Improvement in
the quality of living for residents.

Urban village – distinctive residential districts comprising a clustering of
people with a common culture and forming an identifiable community.

Spatial exclusion – the defence of luxury lifestyles, which have resulted
in restrictions in spatial access and the freedom of movement of other
urban dwellers. It is manifest in ‘high security suburbs’, ‘walled estates’
and security conscious retail-business complexes.

Spatial patterns – key theme in geography that includes the concepts of
location, distribution, spatial organization and spatial differentiation.
Urban dynamics refer to the processes responsible for changing the
morphology or urban places. These processes are listed above.
SUBURBANISATION
Suburbanisation initially occurred in terms of residences in the mid-to-late
nineteenth century in Sydney.
Push factors (away from the CITY CENTRE)
-
deteriorating infrastructure
-
aging housing stock
-
congestion
-
pollution
-
crime
Pull factors (to the SUBURBS)
-
“Great Australian Dream” – detached house with front & back yard
-
space
-
privacy
Stages of Development:
1. City Centre alone.
2. Introduction of railway eg: Richmond/Penrith line. People now lived
along the railway lines and not just in the city centre as they could now
easily get to work and not live in the city centre.
3. Infilling by bus & trains. People now filled in the empty spaces and
began living further and further away from the train stations but still
relatively near.
4. Impact of cars.
From the 1950’s patterns developed of generally higher quality housing on
the northern side of the harbour and poor quality to the west and south
(exceptions on the south side of the harbour eg: eastern suburbs and pockets
of expensive housing especially near the coast).
The pattern is still changing today eg: recent rise in prices of beachside
southern suburbs eg: CRONULLA.
The 1970’s saw development of “dormitory” suburbs eg: Wollongong &
Central Coast.
Residential suburbanisation was followed by suburbanisation of commercial
industry led by Miranda Fair & Roselands closely followed by manufacturing
and office based activities. Today multifunctional urban centres or “minicities” or “edge cities” have become a distinct feature of the urban landscape
eg: CHATSWOOD and PARRAMATTA.
The process of suburbanisation continues today. The concept of “owning your
own house” is deeply engrained in the Australia community. It is a process
reinforced by the government eg: The First Home Owners Grant of $10 000.
Most suburbanisation is taking place to the west and south of Sydney.
EXURBANISATION
This is a form of counter-urbanisation comprising people who are ‘of the city
but not in it’. These households may share more rural than urban or suburban
values but may not appreciate essentially rural attributes.
Much of exurbia comprises prestige, higher-income social areas and an area
of relative affluence, characterised by widely spaced housing, quaint classy
villages and dedicated to the “gentleman” farming of fox hunting and horse
racing.
Exurbia excludes urban townships lying beyond the urban fringe.
The Australian Context
The perimetropolitan region around Sydney is the region bounded by the
furthest extent of commuting to metropolitan jobs.
Exurban areas include: - Dural, Galston & Kenthurst
-
north-west – Windsor & Richmond
-
south-west – Picton & Camden
-
west – Lithgow
-
north – Gosford – Wyong
Katoomba in the Blue Mountains, Bowral, Mittagong & Berrima are not part of
exurbia.
The perimetropolitan area is characterised by a mix of land use activities –
commercial and wholesale nurseries in the Galston-Dural area, hotels and
resorts for a weekend getaway from Sydney in the Bowral-Mittagong area.
Sydney’s exurban population consists of mainly younger (25 – 34 yrs) couples
in managerial, professional and skilled trade based occupation and middleincome earners.
There has been an increase in the ‘one hour or more’ category for travel
times to work and an increase in those working at home. People are moving
to exurbia predominantly for the high-quality, larger dwellings.
COUNTERURBANISATION & DECENTRALISATION
Counter-urbanisation was first detected in the USA in the 1970’s. In some
developed countries decentralisation became official government policy.
The rate of counter-urbanisation has slowed since the 1970’s. By the 1990’s,
the growth rate of large metropolitan areas in Australia had increased
significantly eg: Sydney’s 1989-99 growth rate of 1.5% compared to the
overall population growth rate of NSW of 1.2%.
Some areas of significant amenity value are going against this trend eg: large
numbers of retirees settling on the coast have meant that areas like Port
Macquarie lave experienced growth rates above the average.
URBAN CONSOLIDATION
Arguments for:
-
reduces urban sprawl
-
lowers cost of housing construction if units built
-
more efficient use of infrastructure
-
decrease pollution – less use of energy resources
-
rejuvenation of housing stock
Arguments against:
-
possible infrastructure overload
-
congestion
-
possible overcrowding – possible social problems
-
possible loss of heritage values
-
possible loss of amenity eg: less open space/person
Urban Consolidation in Sydney
In Sydney the process usually involves demolishing a row of ¾ buildings and
replacing them with town homes, villas or apartment blocks. This trend is
especially apparent around railway stations in desirable residential areas. In
inner city areas old industrial sites or desolate port facilities are being
developed eg: Walsh Bay Finger Wharves, Darling Harbour & Pyrmont Bay.
Demand for medium density housing is increasing as: 
Population ages, therefore increased demand for smaller dwellings “empty
nesters”

People living alone now represent: the fastest growing category of housing
type in Sydney

Numbers of DINKS increasing (double income no kids)

Migrants often seek medium density housing in inner city areas

Increased attraction of inner city living – entertainment, employment
URBAN DECAY & RENEWAL
This is similar to urban consolidation. It usually occurs in inner city areas
where deteriorating industrial or infrastructure areas are redeveloped.
Case Study:
Pyrmont Bay
If the process occurs with housing stock it is often called gentrification.
Examples of this process can be found in Pyrmont Bay and areas such as
Balmain, Darlinghurst, Leichhardt, Surry Hills & Paddington.
Urban decay is a much greater issue in the US.
Case Study:
Los Angeles
L.A. is located on America’s west coast, being one of the closest larger cities
to Mexico.
The rich live in walled estates and high-security apartment blocks, while the
masses live in identical suburbia. The homeless & dispossessed then live in
deserted back lots of the inner city.
This is a population drawn away from the inner suburbs, the relocation of
employment & industry in outer areas and degradation of the social &
physical infrastructure in the inner city. These processes have led to the
urban wastelands that dominate the centres of America’s largest cities.
The community hit hardest in LA are those in the centre. There has been a
total abandonment of inner residential areas, putting the unemployed and
low-income residents in a cycle of poverty.
In the 1960’s & 70’s, the Federal Government took a greater role with the
introduction of well-funded programs designed to assist urban areas. Then in
the 1980’s there was a dramatic reduction in federal support for cities. This
shifted responsibility for housing, urban infrastructure and other areas to the
cities. Federal housing assistance was cut by as much as 80%.
In inner-city areas, increasing property taxes encouraged more people to
leave. This led to a downward spiral in quality of inner-urban environment.
The urban infrastructure has been left to crumble and the range of social
problems has escalated – urban gangs, ‘crack’, ‘coke’ & alcohol. The sense of
isolation, rejection & poverty has had a debilitating effect.
URBAN VILLAGE
This is a community-based concept. People with similar backgrounds/interests
often gather in discrete areas to create distinct communities.
Their functional form & character is influenced by a particular community.
A community-as-place defines a community as one based on shared space.
A community-as-society defines a community as one based on groups of
people (eg: business people, university students etc). When these two
intersect, ‘urban villages’ are created.

Chinatown – in the CBD, focus for Chinese-Australian interests

Norton St., Leichhardt – focus of local café society with strong Italian
presence
SPATIAL EXCLUSION
Often referred to as “fortified suburbs”. It refers to excluding what are
regarded as “undesirable elements” from particular urban spaces. It began in
the USA.
Examples in Australia:

Development of former H.W. Wills site in Todman Avenue, East
Kensington

Pyrmont Bay – exclusion by means of price eg: most units new cost
over $1 million or rent for a 3 bedroom unit are $700+

Aurora Adult Residential Community, Hope Island on Queensland Gold
Coast
 A case study of the results of the urban dynamics in a large
city: SYDNEY
SOCIAL STRUCTURE & SPATIAL PATTERNS OF ADVANTAGE &
DISADVANTAGE, WEALTH & POVERTY, ETHNICITY
CLASS
-
Sydney has well defined class structure
-
Class determined by a person’s occupation in terms of prestige, financial
rewards & material lifestyle
-
Where one lives and what kind of housing reflects income, occupation &
education
SOCIAL EFFECTS OF ECONOMIC RESTRUCTURING
-
Major effect of economic restructuring has been growth in the producer
services & finance sectors & a decline in manufacturing jobs
-
Economic restructuring involves massive job cuts
-
Differences in living standards growing
-
Pockets and districts of poverty, unemployment, violence, poor health &
social distress now feature in Sydney’s social morphology
-
There are also areas of wealth & privilege, producing security apartment
buildings & ‘gated communities’
Australia’s changing social structure
-
End of 1990’s:

1% of the population controlled 25% of Australia’s personal
wealth

the wealthiest 10% owned 60% of the total wealth

the least wealthy 30% had no wealth

50% of Australians had just 7%

nearly 2.1 million of Australia’s 19 million people live at or below
the poverty line

-
about 21% of children live in poverty
Growing divisions socially and economically have risen spatial inequality
(distinct geographical divisions between poor & affluent)
-
Between 1976 & 1991, the average household income in the 1000 poorest
neighbourhoods declines $8000 p.a.
-
The richest neighbourhoods rose almost $20 000 p.a.
-
Poor are becoming increasingly concentrated in one set of neighbourhoods
and rich in another
-
-
Rising poverty & social disadvantage because of:

High levels of unemployment

Casualisation of the workforce

Falling wages

Cuts to welfare & public services
Concentration of economically & socially disadvantaged into particular
neighbourhoods often results in association with high crime rates, drug
dependency, domestic violence, urban decay & vandalism
-
Advantage or disadvantage depends on class (or socio-economic status)
Spatial patterns of advantage & disadvantage
-
3 most common indicators:
- occupation
- education
- income
-
Spatial concentration of disadvantaged can lead to being caught up in a
cycle of poverty
-
Intergenerational transmission of unemployment – ‘underclass’ & a
‘culture of poverty’ (in the US but not Australia)
This is because Australia’s welfare system provides a working safety net.
Spatial patterns of wealth & poverty
Wealthy zone: 40% of men 25 – 44 earn $1000+/week
: north & harbour side :
- Sydney
- Mosman
- Pittwater
- North Sydney
Poor zone: >17% of men 25 – 44 earning <$300/week
: inner west :
- Fairfield
- Auburn
- Canterbury
- Bankstown
“Battlers”: 25% earn $300 - $599/week
: outer west :
- Blacktown north
- Blacktown southwest
- Blacktown southeast
- Holroyd
Moderate income: 35% of men 25 – 44 earn $600 - $900/week
: periphery :
- Liverpool
- Campbelltown
- Hawkesbury
- Penrith
CHANGING ECONOMIC CHARACTER, NATURE & LOCATION OF RESIDNETIAL
LAND, COMMERCIAL & INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT
Sydney is an ‘international city’, being Australia’s financial capital and the
regional corporate base for a growing number of TNC’s with investments in
Asia. It is emerging as a national metropolis.
Economic restructuring involves shifts in the productive base of an economy
and the subsequent changes in patterns of employment. Job losses –
manufacturing or goods production. Job gains – service or non-good
production and in business & information services.

Industrial
The suburbanisation of manufacturing and the process of economic
restructuring have resulted in the decline of Sydney’s central industrial area
(CIA), Sydney Harbour’s decline as a working port & the development of new
business parks.
Sydney’s CIA had undergone a prolonged period of decline. Where it was
previously dominated by industry, is now entertainment facilities & apartment
blocks.
The manufacturing employment sector in the CIA between 1968-1969 &
1983-1984, declined from 42% of all employed in manufacturing, to 29%.
The middle suburban industrial areas have benefited from suburbanisation.
These areas include Parramatta, Rosehill, Bankstown & Auburn, which have
increased their share from 30% in 1969-1969 to 33% in 1983-1984.
Within the economic restructuring there has been:
o Significant closure in:

Metal fabrication

Industrial

Electrical machinery subsectors

Pharmaceutical & chemical industries

Food processing

Packaging

Building materials

Manufacturing & specialised engineering
o Growth in:
Having recently started locating head office functions in the CBD, they act by
attracting other forms of activity back to the CBD. Up to the late 1980’s banks
had been decentralising. The now introduction of phone & internet banking
services has increased the competition between banks. This has contributed
to the recentralisation of decision-making & inquiry services. The CBD is now
becoming increasingly specialised as a banking & financial centre.

Commercial/Retail
There are two main areas of geographical interest in the retail sector: 1. The processes affecting retailing activity
2. The spatial outcomes of the processes
There has been a rapid increase in the corporate mergers and takeovers since
the 1960’s. This has resulted in domination by large, multi-outlet firms. Large
chains have forced many smaller players out of business, having increased
their market share from less than 40% to about 75% since the mid-1970’s.
Franchising has also become popular, including the franchises of Myers, David
Jones & more recently Bakers Delight & Starbucks.
Planned shopping centres for one-stop shopping encourage the “come, stay,
spend” attitude.
The ‘re-imaging’ of retail activity
The spatial outcome of retail concentration & restructuring is the development
of large, planned shopping centres. The effects of these then have been the
upgrading of local shopping centres to retain customers and the demise of
many independent, local retailers.
Planned shopping centres are designed to promote shopping – the aim of
“come, stay, spend” – and are complementary, putting individual retailers to
an advantage throughout. The architecture of them creates spectacle, fantasy
& escapism. To remain competitive, independent retailers have had to:
1. Create visually attractive shopping malls
2. The individual ‘store image’ acts to differentiate a shop – used to
attract & hold customers
New types of retailing
Becoming increasingly popular are the bulky goods retail complexes, large
warehouse-type complexes. They have increased customer flow with
advantages associated with being close to sellers of complementary products.
A revival of inner-city retailing
There has been a revival of Sydney’s CBD retailing since the mid-1990’s.
Potential customers have increased because of growth in the CBD-based
economic activity, rising incomes, growth in the CBD population, a surge in
international tourism & millions spent on upgrading the physical environment
of the CBD.
Grace Bros. & David Jones have made comebacks by spending millions
rebuilding & refurbishing their ‘flagship’ stores. Representing Sydney’s
growing status as a world city is the influx of international designer brands
such as Prada, Armani, Gucci & Versace.

Residential
Land has no value except in terms of how it can be used.
Economic processes – where people live depends on their ability to buy or
rent in a particular area. This relates to socio-economic status.
Social processes – lifestyle and family composition help determine where on
lives. Lifestyle differentiation divides non-family households to medium-high
density but family households to semi or fully detached housing.
There are 3 main factors contributing to the decision of where to live:
1. Pattern of land values
2. Local residential environment – neighbourhood character & location
relative to work or other facilities
3. Type of housing stock
New suburban developments on the urban periphery
These areas are dominated by detached dwellings, catering primarily for the
needs of families. Access to freeways plays an important factor in location.
The M2 Motorway has contributed to a further surge in northwest residential
development.
Residential infilling & replacement
This development is closely linked to economic restructuring. The decline and
abandonment of the CIA increased availability of land close to the city centre.
Residential units built here vary; usually include medium & high-density
housing. (NB: renewal & redevelopment of Pyrmont)
Building conversions
-
Gentrification – retains architectural heritage
-
Cost of conversion less than demolition & rebuilding
-
Historic finger wharves, now residential apartments
Mixed residential developments with shared community facilities
-
Residential access to sport facilities, playground equipment &
commercial areas
Transport node developments
-
Suburban railway stations & bus stations become important
locational focus for non-family households
-
Process of consolidation often centred in these areas
Demolition & rebuilding
-
Most common in middle ring of post WWII suburbs
-
This is economically viable as existing dwelling worth less than the
land
Dual occupancy
-
Subdivision of suburban blocks into 2 residential sites
-
Usually new dwelling constructed in front/back yard
High-density inner-city residential development
Inner-city living is growing and land acquisition & building costs are very high.
This then accounts for the high prices of these housing units.
CULTURE OF PLACE
Factors contributing to culture of place:

Streetscape

Heritage

Biophysical environment

Architecture

Street life

Noise

Colour

Lifestyle
Sydney’s “culture of place” is defined by the nature of its biophysical
environment (especially its climate, beaches & harbour setting); its
multicultural character; the casual lifestyle of its population; its people’s
preoccupation with sport & outdoor pursuits; its streetscape & architectural
heritage (especially its iconic buildings – Sydney Opera House & Harbour
Bridge); its low density urban sprawl & suburban lifestyle; its increasingly
international outlook; especially its status as a world city and popular tourist
destination.
Urban villages are often differentiated on the basis of distinctive “culture of
place” that develops in particular areas eg: Chinatown & Little Italy.
SYDNEY’S FUTURE
Major issues confronting Sydney:

Accommodating future growth

Projecting the amenity of the biophysical & built environment

Traffic congestion & providing transport infrastructure

Maintaining air & water quality

Disposing of solid & toxic waste
1. Accommodating future growth
 Sydney’s population will rise by 60 000/annum for the
foreseeable future
 Major policies are:
-
Consolidation eg: Jackson’s Landing
-
New suburban areas on city outskirts eg:

North west sector – Parklea to Londonderry –
projected population of 250 000

South creek sector – west of Liverpool, east of
Badgery’s Creek – projected population of 200 000

Macarthur south sector (near Picton) – projected
population of 250 000
- “Seven city policy” – see article “Bursting at…”
2. Protecting amenity
 Biophysical – includes protecting remnant bushland, parkland,
harbour foreshores, beaches & other places of scenic beauty eg: St.
Mary’s ADI site
 Built – includes protecting specific buildings eg: Sydney Opera
House, distinctive streets eg: Oxford St, important features of
industrial & transport heritage eg: Walsh Bay Finger Wharves and
places associated with history eg: Woolloomooloo Finger Wharves
(embarkation point for troops in WWI & II).
Some buildings redeveloped but façade kept eg: Queen Victoria
Building (once city market).
3. Traffic congestion & infrastructure
 Problems of congestion & reliance on cars:
-
Increase in pollution especially carbon monoxide & lead
-
Large land areas devoted to roads
-
Decrease amenity-noise, pollution, physical danger
 Problem is getting worse 1981 – 91 – Sydney population up by
12%, car use up by 20%.
 Solution:
-
Flexitime stagger annual arrival & departure times
-
Work from home technology
-
Public transport
Transport Infrastructure
 Problems:
-
Reliance on cars
 Solutions:
-
Motorway programs: M2 – access to northwest
M5 – access to southwest
Eastern Distributor – reducing street level
congestion in Sydney’s east
-
Encouraging private sector to build & operate tollways & rail
links
-
NSW government’s Integrated Transport Plan
o Better use of existing infrastructure eg: computered traffic
controls
o Upgrade & extend public transport
o High-speed rail links to Central Coast, Newcastle &
Wollongong.
4. Air Quality
Sydney’s basin-like topography lends itself to the accumulation of
pollutants. Air pollution problems peaked in the 1970’s. Since then,
regulations limiting car emissions, increased use of unleaded petrol &
factory closures have increased the air quality in the inner city. Pollution in
western Sydney is increasing especially as cars have increased.
5. Waste Disposal
Problems of waster disposal have increased, as suitable sites are in short
supply. Recycling has been used to increase lifespan. As waste disposal
costs have increased, illegal dumping has increased.

A Case Study showing one of the urban dynamics listed
above, operating in a country town or suburb: ORANGE &
URBAN CONSOLIDATION
Country town: ORANGE
: 300 km west of Sydney
(insert own NSW map)
Orange is the regional centre of 38 000 people in the Central West of NSW,
approximately 300km west of Sydney.
It is a thriving rural community with an important orcharding & viticulture
industry.
As Orange has expanded, concerns have been raised about residential land
encroaching on valuable fertile agricultural land. The latest subdivision to the
west of Orange – Ploughman’s Hill Estate, will see more than 120 residential
blocks on land that was formerly prime orcharding country.
One purpose of the Orange City Council has been CONSOLIDATION. This
policy has been facilitated by the fact that many housing blocks close to the
centre of Orange are quite large.
The process of consolidation has taken 3 main forms:
KEY:
1.
2.
3.
existing house
units/town houses