The Effectiveness of First Ladies:
The Factors Contributing to First Lady's Influence
Inquiry Paper
NC State University
ECI 435
Methods and Materials for Teaching Social Studies in the Middle Grades
Emily Wood
October 12, 2010
1
The role of the First Lady has evolved and changed over time, but it never really remains the
same from one incumbency to the next. Each individual lady brings her own set of standards and
personality to the White House and her presidential era. For years, the effectiveness of the United
States Presidents has been researched and ranked. Little information, however, is produced about the
effectiveness of the First Ladies. Compared to the factors that determine an effective US President,
what makes an effective First Lady differs greatly. The general roles of the two figures, President and
First Lady, are unique, as is how they are viewed by the public. Just as men are viewed and judged
differently than women, the public judges the First Lady differently than they do the President.
Personal attributes play are large role for the First Ladies, and therefore affects their popularity, to
determine their effectiveness. That popularity is portrayed in the media and sways the First Lady's
influence. There is also a certain dependance on their husband's presidency circumstances- length of
time in office, crisis circumstances, etc., as to whether a woman is considered influential.
The Siena Research Institute of Siena College1 conducted a survey in 2010 that used categories
such as party leadership, communication ability, willingness to take risks, etc. to rank the effectiveness
of the Presidents. C-Span also conducted a survey in which they used several categories including,
public persuasion, crisis leadership, moral authority, international relations, vision, and performance
withing the context of time.2 While not all of the categories would be relevant for every First Ladythese categories were modified to fit within the context of First Ladies abilities. For example, the
category of Executive Appointments, used within the Siena survey, would not be a valid category for
the First Lady because she does not have the power to appoint officials. She does, however, have the
power to influence her husband when making those decisions; therefore those circumstances would fall
under the public persuasion category. Also taken into consideration was the First Ladies personal
1
2
"Siena Research Institute." 2010.http://bit.ly/cFfRHr (accessed September 28, 2010).
"C-SPAN 2009 Historians Presidential Leadership Survey." C-SPAN. http://www.cspan.org/PresidentialSurvey/presidential-leadership-survey.aspx (accessed September 27, 2010).
2
information: her education, age when entering office, etc. Based on the scholarly surveys conducted for
the presidents, I developed categories to rank the effectiveness of the First Ladies: age, education, time
in office, moral authority, public persuasion, vision, communication (including media and Congress),
crisis leadership, international relations, and projects. These ten categories can be divided into three
broad categories: personal, ability, and accomplishment.
Under the umbrella of personal attributes contributing to the First Ladies effectiveness are age,
education, time in office, and moral authority. To score the ages of the First Ladies, five ranges were
determined. If the woman was less than twenty-five, she received one point. If she was between the
ages of twenty-five and thirty-five, she received two points; between thirty-five and forty-five: three
points; forty-five and fifty: four points; fifty and fifty-five: five points; fifty-five and sixty: four points.
If she was over sixty, the woman received two points. This scaling was based on public opinion that if
the First Lady appeared too old, then she was not well received in the public eye, as in the case with
Margaret Taylor, 61 when she entered the White House.3 Also, if the woman was too young, she would
have little to no political experience and would not be as effective without that knowledge. The people
would view her as inadequate and not trust the nation in her hands.
Education also influences the effectiveness of the First Lady. Considering the norm based on the
time period, an Ivy League graduate, master's degree or seminary graduate, received a five. The points
awarded then descended as the amount of schooling declined. Most of the women after 1900 had some
form of formal education. An education was necessary for a First Lady to be competent on political
issues and intelligent enough to impress and influence the President, Congress, and the public.
Time in office was measured relatively simply, for each year as a First Lady in the White
House, one point was given. Logically, the more time in office that a First Lady has, the more time for
3
Holt, Michael F. "American President an Online Reference Resource." Miller Center of Public Affairs.
http://millercenter.org/academic/americanpresident/taylor/essays/firstlady (accessed October 1, 2010).
3
influence and effectiveness she will gain. Someone that is only in office for one year, even if it is a
productive year, like Lucretia Garfield, will not have the legacy as someone who is in Washington for
four, eight or even twelve years.
Moral authority was based on several different aspects of their personal life. If they attended
seminary they received a five. If the woman was raised by a parent, or parents that were ministers then
they received a four. If there was documented cases of infidelity, quarrelsome marriage, or owning
slaves, a point was deducted. These factors were important because they not only changed who the
woman was and how she approached her role, it also shaped how the public viewed her. In order to be
influential, a certain image had to be projected and that image was established by the above personal
factors.
The second broad category used to assess the First Lady focused on her ability with public
persuasion, vision, and communication with both the media and Congress. Her ability was assessed
qualitatively and based on research analyzing her actions during incumbency. Public persuasion can be
easily assessed: did she get her way, or not? Several women, like Lucy Hayes were persuasive in
restrictions on alcohol, or like Edith Wilson, using influential pull on who became an elected official.4
Also considered into this category was the First Lady's persuasiveness on her husband. If the First Lady
could push her ideas through to her husband than his power and influence would contribute to the First
Lady's effectiveness.
Vision played a significant role in defining the First Ladies' effectiveness in office. Some First
Ladies assumed a position as the silent, domestic partner, while others saw themselves as an agent of
action and progression. Some ladies simply focused on the home, while others were more forward in
their thinking of how to run the White House and the ways in which they conducted themselves. To not
4. "The National First Ladies' Library." Education and Research Center. http://www.firstladies.org/ (accessed September 27,
2010).
4
fall into the domesticated stereotype, the First Ladies had to work even harder to establish themselves
as visionary. As a woman, the First Lady had the added risk of being viewed too weak or feminine to
be beneficial to the nation. To be viewed as strong enough to be influential, the First Lady had to
project herself as even more forward thinking to offset any ideas that she may be merely a spouse to the
powerful President- not capable of being powerful on her own.
The way women approached their time in office affected communication ability with the public,
Congress and the media. While closely related to public persuasion, communication was based on
important legislation developed during their time in office, the First Lady's frequency in the media,
appearance at important events, and relationship with the President. Several First Ladies chose to stay
completely out of the public eye,which diminished their influence; while others, like Eleanor
Roosevelt, embraced it.
The final category used to assess the effectiveness of First Ladies in office surveyed
accomplishment. This category included crisis leadership, international relations, and personal projects
such as social reform or education improvement . Several First Ladies, especially those in early years
of American History, scored low on these categories, especially crisis leadership and international
relations. Because of their time in office, there simply was no crisis to be dealt with or international
relations to be judged. These circumstances do play a role in the effectiveness of the First Lady, and
without being tested on leadership in that type of situation, they cannot prove their influential mark on
society.
The First Ladies that received the highest rankings for effectiveness were: Eleanor Roosevelt,
forty-six points; Claudia 'Lady Bird' Johnson, thirty-nine points; Hillary Clinton, thirty-eight points;
Laura Bush, thirty-eight points.
Eleanor Roosevelt was clearly the most influential First Lady with a land-slide seven points
above Lady Bird Johnson. Several important factors attributed to Eleanor's effectiveness. Eleanor was
5
in office longer than any other First Lady and the terms in which she served were during two of the
most nationally tragic events. Because she was First Lady during the Great Depression and World War
II, her leadership during a crisis was greatly tested and proved to be extraordinary. Eleanor was also
very involved in the media and embraced her role as a public figure, she conducted several press
conferences, magazine column appearances, and weekly radio broadcasts. She used these outlets to
further her influence over the people. She wrote a daily newspaper column entitled “My Day”, in this
column she wrote about her daily encounters, the people she interacted with, as well as used the
column as a outlet to mobilize the American people around her efforts and her husbands'. On July 29th,
1940 she wrote,
“I still feel however, that this is the democratic way for us, through our representatives, to insist
that all of us shall give some service to the nation, and that it shall be specific as to time, place
and kind of service. After all, this is only delegating a little more authority over ourselves...I still
feel however, that this is the democratic way for us, through our representatives, to insist that all
of us shall give some service to the nation, and that it shall be specific as to time, place and kind
of service. After all, this is only delegating a little more authority over ourselves.” (Roosevelt,
“My Day”, 1940.)6
Because she was so well liked by the public, her column was widely produced throughout the country
and when she said statements like the one above, the people listened. She used her communication
ability to further her projects and therefore making herself extremely influential.
Claudia Johnson is best remembered as 'Lady Bird', a nickname that stuck with her since
childhood. Although not in office during any major crisis, Lady Bird did have a lot of public
persuasion, communication ability, as well as involvement in several projects throughout her six years
at the White House. Lady Bird was the first First Lady to have prepared speeches when addressing the
media. She also began taking public speaking lessons when Lyndon entered office.7 The preparedness
and eloquence when speaking, gave Lady Bird an edge when making public speeches and therefore
6 Roosevelt, Eleanor. “My Day”. Boston Globe. July 29, 1940.
7 Clancy, Jane. "Lady bird johnson: flower power." Classic American Homes 27, no. 2 (April 2001): 28. MasterFILE
Premier, EBSCOhost (accessed October 10, 2010).
6
making her more influential when addressing the people. Lady Bird was also a successful lobbyist. She
kept up to date on the current political issues and developed relationships with the members of Lyndon
Johnson and knew which ones would need to be persuaded to support his legislation. This not only
defined Lady Bird as persuasive but also visionary. One of the major projects associated with Lady
Bird was her commitment to the beautification of the nation's capitol. Using her media influence, she
held a White House conference on natural beauty, explaining her theory on the connection between
environmental ugliness and crime.8 Her effective communication skills benefited her throughout her
time at the White House and allowed her to have productive projects. Lady Bird was successful in
raising over $2 million dollars within her time as First Lady and significantly improved the landscape
by building parks and planting trees, shrubs, and flowers.
Tied for third-most influential First Ladies are Hillary Clinton and Laura Bush. Both women
scored very high in the personal category, being highly educated and at an ideal age when entering
office. Hillary was more involved in her personal projects than Laura and was said to have more public
persuasion9 but Laura had better communication ability and more leadership during a crisis. Hillary
Clinton is often criticized for not being domestic and for having a hidden agenda when it came to her
role as a First Lady. Even so, she still was effective as First Lady and accepted her place next to
President Bill Clinton. Hillary was very involved health care reform, even appearing before Congress
to testify to the House on the issues concerning health insurance. Her involvement raised national
consciousness of health care reform, and she gave voice to the important issues involving health care of
citizens. Although the health care reform was not hugely successful during her time as First Lady,
Hillary was successful in raising awareness of the individual projects she was interested in. She used
her media influence to bring attention to other issues like foster care, welfare, and violence against
8 Ibid.
9 Burrell, Barbara C. "Hillary Rodham Clinton as First Lady: The People's Perspective." Social Science Journal 37, no. 4
(October 2000): 529. Business Source Premier, EBSCOhost (accessed October 10, 2010).
7
women. Hillary also traveled more than Laura and had more of a voice in the international relations
occurring during her incumbency.
Again, circumstance plays a role in the influence and effectiveness of the First Lady. Laura
Bush is viewed as influential due in large part because she was the woman in office during the 9/11
attacks. She had to deal with a crisis situation that Hillary Clinton did not. Because of the attacks,
Laura was much more visible to the people and made herself available as a public figure, therefore
making her influence through the media more effective. She took on a role as a comforter and supporter
of the victims, had gained high popularity from the public as a sympathetic but yet strong leader. Even
as George W. Bush lost favor with the public, Mrs. Bush maintained her popularity. Writing for the
Washington Times, historian Douglas Brinkley stated, “Everybody likes Laura Bush, even people that
can't stand her husband”.1 Laura Bush used her popularity to push her individual projects. She was
very focused on education and called for higher teacher salaries and better training for day care
workers. Because she was invested in improving education, it is likely that she had a hand in pushing
the No Child Left Behind Act of George W. Bush through to Congress. Laura Bush was also more
vocal about the fiscal and monetary issues affecting the Presidency than most of her previous First
Ladies, including Hillary Clinton. She offered her opinions to the public and used her influence to
persuade the people to support President Bush.
Several trends can be spotted through comparing the different scores of the First Ladies.
Interestingly, the top five First Ladies did not correlate with the top five Presidents. According to the
Siena and C-Span polls, among the top five presidents were Franklin Roosevelt, Abraham Lincoln,
George Washington, Thomas Jefferson, and James Madison. These men had more of a hand in shaping
the nation and the political system that exists today but their wives, excluding Eleanor, did not have
1
Andrea, Billups. "Laura Bush's legacy emerges." Washington Times, The (DC), n.d., Regional Business News,
EBSCOhost (accessed October 10, 2010).
8
much of a voice or power when it came to issues involving the presidential term.
Personal and background information plays a major role in the effectiveness of the First Lady.
The ladies that were the top five based on personal traits alone, were also the top five for overall
effectiveness, just in a different order. These traits most likely play a role because the First Lady's
influence is affected by how the public views her and the public view is often largely shaped on her
personal attributes- more so than it would be for a man. If a woman is seen as too old, not educated
enough, or lacking moral codes, she will not have as much of an influence. However, some of the
presidents that have been recorded as having the highest amount of infidelity, therefore with low
morals, were also some of the most influential. A president has the power to pass legislation and to
change the government's role; he has resources surrounding him, tangibly and intangibly that effect his
influence. The First Lady, however, depends largely on herself as her resource. She must be well liked
by the public for them to respect her enough to listen to her positions. Her popularity is the biggest
leverage that the First Lady owns and to gain the popularity needed she has to overcome labels and
skeptics with a personality that is believed to have the potential to be effective.
Unfortunately, circumstance and time, two factors out of the First Lady's hands, also play a role
in her effectiveness. Some of the first ladies had great potential but their husbands died before they
could ever get fully invested in a project or they were in office during a time where the nation saw little
to no crisis. The ladies that are ranked at the bottom three on the effectiveness scale, Sarah Polk,
Margaret Taylor and Letitia Tyler, all received zeroes in the crisis leadership category. To be
remembered as great, one must do something great. Eleanor Roosevelt was a strong figure during the
Great Depression, Laura Bush provided sympathy for the nation during 9/11; most of the ladies low in
effectiveness just did not have the opportunity to prove themselves as great leaders. This is also true for
the presidents, George Washington, Abraham Lincoln, James Madison-all President during times of
high crisis. What differs for the two, though, is that the President's effectiveness depends more on the
9
legislation that is developed or the official actions taken, like declaration of war. The First Lady's
effectiveness is much more related to her personal actions and leadership. She does not have the ability
to perform the executive orders, but she can control the programs she starts, like Laura Bush's support
to the troops, or the response she shows the public, like Eleanor's daily syndicated letters to the
newspapers.
Media also played a large role in the First Lady's effectiveness. The 1960 debates brought
presidential campaigns into the homes of America and since then, beginning with John F. Kennedy's
win over Richard Nixon, politics has depended on the media. Running with the new idea of media in
the home, one of the things that First Lady Jackie Kennedy is most remembered for is allowing
cameras into the White House for a tour. As the media progressed, so did the influence of the First
Lady. The more she could enter the home of the public, the more she could reach the people. Being in
sight meant being in mind and therefore influencing the actions of her constituents. Those first ladies
that chose to avoid the public eye were not only not seen, their image and ability to influence was
injured. Bess Truman never granted an interview with a newspaper or magazine and avoided the media
whenever possible, she therefore scored very low in the communication category. The public wanted to
see the First Lady and if she shunned the communication opportunities she was viewed in a negative
light and therefore any persuasion she attempted was not well received.
To become an effective First Lady, there are some things one must do, and some things one
must simply hope for. Like Eleanor Roosevelt, an effective First Lady must be a highly visible
communicator and active political figure; projects must be pursued and the people addressed. She must
have the ability to persuade her husband, her people, and her government. Through communication and
media, the First Lady must establish a positive image and therefore maintain a high level of popularity.
Once the popularity among the people is found, the persuasion will follow. Luck must also enter the
equation to make an effective First Lady. Being First Lady during the 9/11 attacks was a sheer case of
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circumstance but one that brought Laura Bush to the top of the effectiveness ranking. The time period,
an uncontrollable variable, is an extremely important fact on the influence of a First Lady. Possessing
all of these factors are the ladies at the top of the rankings. Eleanor, Claudia, Hillary and Laura are all
extremely powerful women that left a legacy as highly influential, effective First Ladies.
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Appendix 1
Age
4
Education
4
12
2
4
3
Claudia 'Lady Bird' Johnson
5
4
6
4
4
3
Hillary Rodham Clinton
3
5
8
3
4
3
Laura Bush
5
5
8
3
3
2
Nancy Reagan
4
4
8
3
4
2
Dolley Madison
3
1
8
3
3
4
Edith Galt Wilson
3
4
6
3
4
2
Helen Taft
4
4
4
3
5
3
Pat Nixon
4
4
5
2
3
4
Edith Roosevelt
3
3
8
4
3
3
Lou Henry Hoover
5
5
4
3
3
3
Abigail Fillmore
5
3
3
4
3
4
Lucy Webb Hayes
4
4
4
4
4
4
Bess Wallace Truman
3
4
8
2
2
2
Mamie Eisenhow er
4
3
8
4
3
2
Rosalynn Carter
4
4
4
3
4
2
Martha Washington
4
1
8
3
4
2
Abigail Adams
5
1
4
4
3
4
Elizabeth Monroe
4
2
8
4
2
2
Mary Todd Lincoln
3
4
4
3
3
3
Julia Grant
3
3
8
3
2
3
Betty Ford
4
4
3
3
4
3
Lucretia Garfield
4
5
1
4
3
3
Caroline Scott Harrison
4
4
3
3
2
2
Grace Coolidge
3
4
6
2
3
2
Barbara Bush
2
3
4
3
3
3
Loisa Adams
5
3
4
3
2
2
Frances Cleveland
1
4
3
2
4
3
Ida McKinley
4
5
4
3
3
2
Florence Harding
3
3
2
2
3
4
Ellen
AxsonOnassis
Wilson
Jacqueline
Jane Pierce
5
2
4
4
5
2
1
2
4
4
2
5
2
4
4
4
3
2
Julia Tyler
1
4
1
2
3
4
Eliza Johnson
5
2
4
2
1
2
Sarah Polk
3
4
4
4
4
0
Margaret Taylor
Letitia Tyler
2
5
2
1
1
1
3
4
3
2
1
0
First Lady
Eleanor Roosevelt
Tim e in Office Moral Authority Public Persuasion
Vision
12
Appendix 1 cont'd
Com m unication (Media
and Congress)
Crisis Leadership
International
Relations
Projects
Total Points
4
5
3
5
46
Claudia 'Lady Bird' Johnson
4
2
2
5
39
Hillary Rodham Clinton
3
2
3
4
38
Laura Bush
4
3
2
3
38
Nancy Reagan
3
2
3
4
37
Dolley Madison
4
3
3
4
36
Edith Galt Wilson
4
4
4
2
36
Helen Taft
4
2
3
3
35
Pat Nixon
3
2
4
4
35
Edith Roosevelt
4
2
2
2
34
Lou Henry Hoover
2
4
1
4
34
Abigail Fillmore
4
2
2
3
33
Lucy Webb Hayes
2
2
2
3
33
Bess Wallace Truman
1
3
4
4
33
Mamie Eisenhow er
3
4
1
1
33
Rosalynn Carter
4
2
3
3
33
Martha Washington
2
4
2
2
32
Abigail Adams
3
4
2
2
32
Elizabeth Monroe
2
2
4
2
32
Mary Todd Lincoln
3
4
1
4
32
Julia Grant
2
2
2
3
31
Betty Ford
4
2
2
2
31
Lucretia Garfield
3
2
2
3
30
Caroline Scott Harrison
4
2
2
4
30
Grace Coolidge
4
2
2
2
30
Barbara Bush
4
2
3
3
30
Loisa Adams
4
2
2
2
29
Frances Cleveland
4
2
2
4
29
Ida McKinley
2
2
2
2
29
Florence Harding
4
2
2
4
29
Jacqueline Onassis
4
3
2
2
29
Ellen Axson Wilson
Jane Pierce
2
1
1
1
1
1
4
1
28
25
Julia Tyler
4
2
0
2
23
Eliza Johnson
2
2
2
0
22
Sarah Polk
0
0
0
1
20
2
1
0
0
0
0
1
0
15
14
First Lady
Eleanor Roosevelt
Margaret Taylor
Letitia Tyler