Understanding History
A. Historical Evidence
1. Kinds of Sources
a. Written
i. Journals
ii. Periodicals
iii. Official Documents
iv. Myths / Stories
b. Non-Written
i. Fossils: A remnant or trace of an organism of a past geologic age, such as a skeleton or leaf imprint,
embedded and preserved in the earth's crust.
ii. Artifacts: An object produced or shaped by human craft, especially a tool, weapon, or ornament of
archaeological or historical interest.
iii. Ruins: The remains of something destroyed, disintegrated, or decayed. Often used in the plural.
iv. Oral Tradition: The spoken relation and preservation, from one generation to the next, of a people's
cultural history and ancestry, often by a storyteller in narrative form.
B. Evaluation of Sources
1. Time of Origin
a. Primary
b. Secondary
2. The Historians’ Questions
a. Who created the source?
b. What kind of source is it?
c. When was the source produced?
d. Where was the source produced?
e. Why was the source produced?
C. Examining Sources
1. Archaeological Evidence
a. Formation
b. Excavation
c. Dating
i. Cultural Dating
Comparing artifacts with information already acquired to date newly discovered objects.
ii. Scientific Dating
Objects are analyzed and dated in a laboratory.
iii. Relative Dating
Determining whether an object is older or newer than other objects.
iv. Absolute Dating
The specific age of an object, in years, is determined.
d. Interpretation
1. Placing discovery within existing body of evidence.
2. Modifying existing views based upon new finds.
D. Determining the Age of Finds
METHOD
AGE RANGE
PROCESS
Written Records
Up to c. 5,000 y.a.
Use written records to date artifacts found with them.
Dendrochronology
Up to c. 8,000 y.a.
Radiocarbon Dating
1,000 y.a. to 60,000 y.a.
Potassium-Argon Dating
more than 500,000 y.a.
Match pattern in a wooden object to a master tree ring
pattern.
Measure the amount of radioactive carbon in an object.
(Plants &/or Animals)
Compare the amounts of potassium and argon present in
volcaninc rock. (Bones &/or Tools in rock)
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E. Examining Archaeology
1. Classical Archaeology
a. Purpose: Find spectacular artifacts.
b. Example: Howard Carter and Tutankhamen’s Tomb.
2. New / Modern Archaeology
a. Purpose: Learn about the lives of people from ALL socio-economic
levels and how they change over time.
b. Koster, Illinois
3. Interdisciplinary approach to greater understanding.
a. Modern archaeologists work with other specialists.
i. Geologists
ii. Botanists
iii. Zoologists
iv. Chemists / Physicists
F. Stratiagraphy
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G. Dendrochronology
1. The skeleton plot does is to extract the most pertinent information and record it on a
graph.
a. Each vertical line in the above graph represents one year. The yellow bars that
appear on three of the graph's lines represent narrow rings.
i. The narrower the annual ring, the longer the line.
ii. The "b" indicates a year with an unusually wide tree ring, for example, while a dashed line (not seen in
this graph) would mark a year in which that tree failed to produce a visible ring.
iii. With skeleton plotting, tree-ring scientists are able to accurately crossdate tree-ring samples.
2.
After crossdating, dendrochronologists can:
a. Assign the true year for every ring of each sample.
b. Analyze environmental and human events of the past
c. Crossdate samples that have overlapping rings.
H. Interpreting Sources
1. Evidence
a. Written accounts can give details about human interactions .
b. The archaeological record can provide information about “international” contacts.
i. new foods
ii. new technologies
iii. new designs / artistic styles
2. Cultural Contact
a. Acquainted Cultures
i. Trade
ii. War
iii. Migration
3. Cultural Diffusion
a. Exchange of goods &/or ideas.
b. The following may have been transmitted through cultural diffusion.
i. Writing
ii. Building Techniques
3
4.
iii. Domestication of Plants and Animals
iv. Irrigation Techniques
Independent Invention
a. Creation of similar ideas / technologies without cultural diffusion.
b. Similar problems lead to similar solutions.
4
Learning to Farm
Acquisition of surplus and heavier tools provided good reasons for hunter-gatherers to settle down in one location.
Learning about the environment helped improve food production.
Plants:
Growth stages and living conditions were observed. Not all grains were harvested. Some left to drop as seeds for next years harvest.
Animals:
Protecting herds by scaring away predators taught how to improve herd sizes.
Early Hunter-gatherers saved seeds so that they could plant and not rely on natural production. They also captured and tamed wild
animals.
This gathering, changing and controlling of plants and animals is called domestication.
The earliest evidence of this activity is c. 8,000 – 7,000 BC in the Middle East.
Plants: wheat, barley, lentils
Animals: Sheep, goats, dogs
The Advantages of Agricultural Production
1. Raise more food than hunter-gatherers.
2. Support more people on less land.
3. Move into fertile regions that did not contain wild foods.
4. Start and maintain a surplus for various uses.
Diversified Labor Force
With greater food production not everyone needed to raise food. Other activities that were useful for the group were investigated.
Other occupations were created. Farming becomes occupation. This is usually the bottom social class.
Technological improvement
Agriculture begins during the Neolithic (NEW STONE) Era. (c. 8,000-5,000 BC in the Middle East) Named because people used
more efficient stone tools.
With agriculture other changes follow:
1. Villages are created.
2. Pottery invented.
3. Weaving / cloth invented.
4. Basket weaving created.
5. Metal working started towards end of the era. First copper then bronze (first alloy).
5
THE CREATION AND GROWTH OF CITIES
What is a city?
All cities, ancient or modern, have certain characteristics or features in common.
1. Organized Structure / Leadership and Planning
a. Political
b. Military
c. Economic / Agricultural / Industrial
d. Religious
e. Architectural
2.
Specialized / Diversified Labor Force
a. Industrial
b. Agricultural
c. Merchant
d. Legal
e. Medical
f. Religious
3.
Differentiated Social Levels
a. Began simply and became more complex over time.
i. Upper Level: Officials, Priests, Generals
ii. Middle Level: Merchants, Skilled Laborers, Farmers
iii. Slaves
4.
Long / Short Distance Trade
a. Raw materials and finished goods were traded.
b. Trade was used to make up resource deficiencies as well as to bring in luxury items.
What is civilization?
The first civilizations started with city life. Stone Age villages gradually grew into more complex cities.
In order to do so, the farming techniques had to advance sufficiently to produce a surplus of food.
City residents engaged in a number of specialized, non-agricultural occupations such as artisans, merchants, administrators, and
priests.
The invention of writing was crucial for the civilizations to record and expand knowledge.
City life required organized governments that could direct building projects on a scale far beyond that found in the religions of each
city were controlled by a priest caste. This class effectively ruled the early cities.
The Features of a Civilization
1. Cities
2. Stable Food Supply
3. Specialized Labor
4. A System of Government
5. Social Levels
6. Distinct Culture that includes:
A. Art
B. Monumental Architecture
C. Religion
D. Music / Entertainment
E. Law / Legal System
F. Writing System
G. Social Code
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EARLY FARMING SOCIETIES
IMPROVED FARMING METHODS
SURPLUS
Population
Growth
Permanent
Settlements
Specialization
Of Labor
CITIES
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MESOPOTAMIA
The Fertile Crescent
A.
Stretches from the Mediterranean Sea to the Persian Gulf.
B.
Includes parts of modern day Israel, Jordan, Lebanon, Syria, Turkey and Iraq.
C.
Eastern part of the area is Mesopotamia.
D.
Located on a low plain lying between the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers.
E.
The T & E Rivers did not provide a regular supply of water.
1. In summer no rain fell and the plain was dry. Fall planting coincided with water shortages.
2. During spring harvests the rivers were nearly flooding or flooding with rain and melting snow.
F.
Dams and channels built to control the seasonal floods.
G.
Canals and ditches constructed to bring water to the fields. These early irrigation systems allowed Mesopotamian
farmers to produce food in abundance by c. 4000 BC.
The Sumerian Civilization
A.
By 3000 BC the Sumerians had formed 12 city-states in the Tigris-Euphrates valley.
B.
A typical city-state consisted of a city and the surrounding lands needed to support it.
C.
Populations ranged from 20,000 to 250,000.
D.
The people of Sumer shared a common culture, language and religion.
E.
A ziggurat, or temple, was built in each city. The ziggurat was a series of terraces with a shrine on the topmost
terrace.
F.
The shrine was dedicated to the city’s chief deity.
Sumerian Government
A.
Each city-state was independent of the others.
B.
Councils of nobles, assembly of citizens, or priests ran each city initially.
C.
As threats from foreign invaders and the competition for resources grew military leaders were chosen to rule.
D.
Kingship became hereditary over time.
E.
Kings served as military and religious leader of the city-state.
F.
Government was a monarchy and a theocracy.
Sumerian Inventions
A.
The Sumerians are given credit for various technological innovations.
1. Wheel
2. Arch
3. Potter’s Wheel
4. Sundial
5. Number system based on 60
6. 12 month lunar calendar
7. Bronze
8. Writing (cuneiform)
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THE FIRST EMPIRES
Akkadian Empire
A. Sargon I (c. 2334-2279 BC) is the most important figure in Mesopotamian history.
B. Born of unknown parentage. He has a Moses-like myth of abandonment Reign of 55 years.
C. As a youth he was the cupbearer to the king of Kish.
D. He overthrew the king and conquered the Sumerian city-states making him lord of Sumer.
E. He keeps conquering and expands his control East across the Tigris, west across the Euphrates and north into modern
Syria.
F. This creates the first multiethnic empire.
G. His capital is in the city of Akkad which makes him the emperor of the Akkadian Empire.
H. Attempts to unify empire by:
a. Becomes known as the King of the Four Regions.
b. Replaces conquered city-state rulers with his own people.
c. Gave temple wealth and property to his supporters.
d. Spread Sumerian civilization throughout the conquered regions.
I.
Empire collapses due to internal and external stresses.
Assyrian Empire
A. Assyrian power was centered at the city-state of Assur in Northern Mesopotamia.
B. Assyrian power reaches its height under the reign of Shamshi-Adad who ruled from 1813 – 1781 BCE.
C. Shamshi-Adad was a conqueror that expanded his territory by force of arms.
D. He held his empire through force and trade.
a. Assyrian merchants exchanged goods such as:
i. Cloth
ii. Tin
iii. Copper
iv. Silver
E. Trade agreements were inscribed on clay tablets.
F. Eventually the Assyrian empire would succumb to invasion by nomads and foreign armies.
The Babylonian Empire
A. Hammurabi (c. 1792-1750) expands his empire through force and diplomacy.
B. Expands as far south as Uruk and north conquering Assyria. He eventually rules all of Mesopotamia.
C. He is known for his laws. Called the Code of Hammurabi the laws were:
To cause justice to prevail in the country
To destroy the wicked and the evil,
That the strong may not oppress the weak.
D. The code covers all parts of Babylonian life.
E. It lists offenses and punishments. Punishments are based on social status.
F. Protects women and children from unfair treatment.
G. Professionals had standards of behavior and competence to maintain.
H. Unique in that physical punishment added to monetary payment.
I.
Babylonian also made great advancements in mathematics.
a. Babylonian mathematics based on numbers system of 1-60.
b. Multiplication tables and reciprocals created which allowed quick computations.
c. Tables of squares and square roots created.
d. Developed and algebra system as well as solved linear and quadratic equations.
e. Tables of coefficients for determining area were also created.
J.
Hammurabi was a capable ruler.
a. He sent governors to rule in his name.
b. He deployed tax collectors, judges and military commanders.
c. He maintained a strong central government.
K. Internal and external threats destroy Babylonian empire following Hammurabi’s death in 1750 BCE.
The Hittites
A. Around 1600 BCE, the Hittites invade Mesopotamia and conquer Babylon.
B. The Hittite civilization dominated Mesopotamia from 1600 BC to 1200 BC.
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C.
D.
E.
F.
G.
H.
I.
J.
K.
L.
M.
The Hittites Empire stretched from Mesopotamia to Syria and Palestine.
Their invasion spelled the end of the Old Babylonian empire in Mesopotamia.
The Hittites were a warrior people noted for their ferocity.
a. They invented iron which was used to forge weapons.
b. They developed many siege tactics which were used by other nations that followed.
The Hittites greatly modified the system of law they inherited from the Old Babylonians.
These laws were far more merciful than the laws of the Old Babylonians, perhaps because the Hittites were less
concerned about maintaining a rigid, despotic central authority.
Under the Hittites only a small handful of crimes were capital crimes.
They modified the role of the monarch in that they gave the king ownership of all the land under his control. So the
bulk of the population became tenant farmers.
The Hittites adopted many of the gods of the Sumerians and Old Babylonians.
Whenever they conquered a people, they adopted that people's gods into their religious system.
From 1300-1200 BC, the Hittites waged a war against Egypt that drained both empires tragically.
Their civilization ended abruptly just as it had started. Hittite cities and territories thrived independently until they
were finally conquered most likely by the Assyrians and others.
The New Assyrian Empire
A. The New Assyrian Empire was built upon conquest and enslavement.
B. The highly organized military operated with infantry, cavalry and chariots.
C. Once inside a city no mercy was shown. Populations were killed or enslaved. This treatment bred a hatred that would
eventually destroy the empire.
D. By 911 BCE King Adad-Nirari had conquered northern Mesopotamia.
E. Following rulers enlarged the Assyrian territories west to the Mediterranean Sea.
F. In 750 BCE Tiglath-Pileser III became king.
G. He expanded Assyria’s borders by conquering Babylonia.
H. He faced rebellions from the conquered populations. Eventually he developed a method to end rebellions: EXILE.
I.
By 650 BCE the Assyrian Empire stretched from Persian Gulf to Egypt to present-day Turkey.
J.
The Assyrians did not win loyalty and stripped their conquests of all valuables. They used this wealth to build up their
own cities.
K. The forced relocations added to the discontent in their empire.
L. Eventually, the Chaldeans, who ruled Babylonia, joined with the Medes, from the Zagros Mountains, to overthrow the
Assyrians in 612 BCE.
The New Babylonian Empire
A. The Chaldeans ruled from their capital, Babylon.
B. They were conquerors like the Assyrians. However, they were also traders and merchants.
C. They traded with Lebanon, Egypt and Greece.
D. In order to protect their trade routes they sent military expeditions west.
E. King Nebuchadnezzar ruled from 605 – 562 BCE.
F. He captured cities such as, Jerusalem and Tyre.
G. He also drove the Egyptians out of Syria and Phoenicia thereby securing access to the rich Mediterranean trade
networks.
H. The Philistines, Phoenicians, and Jews were conquered by the Babylonians. They r repeatedly launched rebellions.
I.
Each year Nebuchadnezzar was forced to send troops and suppress these rebellions.
J.
Nebuchadnezzar used the wealth from his conquests for great building projects such as the Hanging Gardens of
Babylon. He also built fortifications and temples.
K. The sciences also flourished under his reign. Areas that showed great improvement were:
a. Astronomy
i. Stellar movements were recorded.
ii. Lunar calendars were created.
b. Mathematics
i. The hour was divided into 60 minutes.
ii. Place value was introduced.
L. The Babylonian Empire did little to gain the support of the conquered peoples.
M. When the Persians, under Cyrus the Great, invaded they were welcomed as liberators.
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ANCIENT EGYPT
Geography
A. Black Land and Red Land
1. Rich, fertile valley soil = black land.
2. Surrounding desert = red land.
B. The Nile is 4,160 miles in length = world’s longest river.
C. East African sources feed the Nile.
D. Six cataracts (waterfalls) make navigation difficult until
the last 650 miles.
E. The Nile forms a marshy, fan-shaped delta just before it reaches the Mediterranean Sea.
F. Little effort needed to make the Nile floodplain agriculturally productive.
1. Flooding due to rains and melting snow at the source provided flooding to irrigate crops and deposit rich silt.
G. Egypt’s geographic position limited outside contacts. This allows Egypt to:
1. be self-sufficient
2. focus on culture and society
3. avoid the upheavals/invasions/war common to Mesopotamia
Earliest Settlement
A. Earliest settlements appear on the western edge of the Nile delta c. 4000 BC.
B. By c. 3200 BC Upper Egypt had acquired political unity and a high level of culture.
1. In contact with Mesopotamia obtaining and adapting Mesopotamian art and architectural traditions.
2. Develops a pictographic script at approximately the same time.
C. King Narmer, a.k.a. Menes c. 3150 BC, expands control over Lower Egypt uniting the two lands.
D. New capital established at Memphis along the border of the two lands.
E. For the next 2500 years Egypt enjoys the most stable civilization in history.
Time Periods and Achievements
A. Egyptian history divided into 31 dynasties grouped into four distinct eras.
1. pre- and early dynastic Egypt c. 3150-2270 BC
2. The Old Kingdom c. 2770-2200 BC
3. The Middle Kingdom c. 2050-1786 BC
4. The New Kingdom c. 1560-1087 BC
B. Gaps between periods are known as intermediate periods which signify political confusion or unrest.
The Old Kingdom
A. A strong central government develops during this time.
B. The monarchy becomes a theocracy.
C. The king wields absolute power in which his commands are law.
D. The king delegated authority and responsibilities to a bureaucracy for the day-to-day operations.
E. Massive construction projects were carried out during this period. (The Pyramids)
F. The first pyramid was a step pyramid built for King Zoser and designed by Imhotep.
The Middle Kingdom
A. Loss of power by the kings and ambitious nobles created instability in Egypt.
B. By 2050 a new dynasty assumes control.
C. A new capital is created at Thebes and lasts until c. 1786.
D. Egyptian territory expanded through military conquest.
E. A canal was created connecting the Nile and Red Sea.
F. Towards the end of the period local rulers begin to challenge the kings’ authority.
G. Power does not go to the nobles. Hyksos invaders invade using iron weapons and horse-drawn chariots. Egyptians
easily defeated.
H. Hykosians rule for c. 110 years.
The New Kingdom
A. C. 1600 BC Ahmose (an Egyptian prince) raises an army and using Hyksos technology and tacticts drives out Hyksos
rulers.
B. Ahmose and his successors assume the title of pharaoh.
C. Ahmose embarks on an ambitious rebuilding project. This includes:
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D.
E.
F.
G.
1. rebuilding temples
2. reopening avenues of trade
3. repairing the infrastructure
Following pharaohs use large armies to expand east and south.
The Egyptian Empire grew wealthy from commerce and tribute. Egyptians also were influenced through cultural
diffusion.
1. Hatspepsut
During the 1300s BC Egypt went into decline as an imperial power. This was temporarily halted during the 1200s.
In the 1100s BC a long period of decline further weakened Egypt. By 945 BC came under the control of foreigners.
Contributions of the Egyptians
A. Unique view of the afterlife.
B. Calendar of 360 days +5 yearly days. Each day was divided into two 12 hour periods.
C. Stone architecture including the development of the column and clerestory.
D. Glass making
E. Papyrus / paper
F. Medical knowledge
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ANCIENT AND CLASSICAL GREECE
Geography and Climate
A.
Ancient Greece includes the southern part of the Balkan Peninsula and the small, rocky islands that in the Aegean Sea.
B.
Low, rugged mountains make up 3/4ths of the mainland.
C. Between the mountains and the coast lie fertile lands suitable for farming.
D. Short, swiftly moving rivers flow from the interior to the sea.
E.
The deeply indented coastline provides many harbors.
F.
The climate is mild, with rainy winters. Offshore breezes offset the hot summers.
G. Mountains isolated and protected the mainland population.
H. The rugged terrain limited communication contact between communities. This prevents Greek unification.
I.
With numerous harbors and closeness of the sea many people become fishers, traders and pirates.
Ancient Civilizations
Minoans
A.
The Minoan culture develops on the island of Crete from c. 2500 BC to 1450 BC.
B.
The Minoans were traders in contact with the major civilizations of the time.
C.
Minoan civilization peaks c. 1600 BC with a final collapse occurring 250 years later. Cause unknown.
Mycenaean
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
F.
G.
H.
I.
J.
Each Mycenaean kingdom was centered around a hilltop on which a royal palace/fortress was constructed.
Walls surrounded this hilltop fortification.
Nobles lived on estates outside of the walls.
Slaves and tenant farmers lived in villages near these estates.
The Minoans and Mycenaeans came into contact through trade. Eventually the Mycenaeans adopted Minoan
cultural elements.
By c. 1400 BC the Mycenaeans were in control of Minoan territory.
By c. 1100 BC fighting among the Mycenaeans had weakened them. This allowed the Dorians, using iron, to invade
and conquer the Greek mainland.
The next 300 years is known as the Dark Age. It was characterized by:
1. overseas trade stopped
2. poverty increased
3. skills (such as writing) was lost
4. towns became isolated
By 750 BC the Ionians had reintroduced culture crafts and skills to the mainland.
This ends the Dark Age and the emergence of a new Greek culture which would flourish from the 700s BC to 336
BC.
The Polis
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
F.
A typical polis includes the city and surrounding villages, fields and orchards.
At the center of the city stood on top of a fortified hill (acropolis) stood a temple to the local deity.
At the base of the acropolis was the public square (agora) which served as the center of government of the polis.
Citizens were those who took part in government by passing laws etc.
Merchants also conducted business in the agora.
Citizens had rights and responsibilities. They could:
1. vote
2. hold public office
3. own property
4. speak in court
G. They were expected to:
1. serve in the government
2. serve in the military in time of war
H. Citizens were a minority of the population. Slaves,
foreigners, landless men were excluded. Women had
no political and legal rights.
Colonies
A.
By 700 BC the population had grown to such a degree that many city-states were unable to grow enough grain to feed
everyone.
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B.
C.
D.
E.
F.
G.
Many sent out groups of people to establish colonies in the coastal areas of the Black Sea and Mediterranean.
Each colony maintained close ties with the parent city (metropolis).
Colonies supply homeland with grain.
The mainland produced wine, olive oil, and cash generating crops for export.
As trade expanded throughout the Mediterranean barter was replaced with a monetary system.
Merchant issue their own coins. Eventually cities take over this responsibility.
Political and Social Change
A.
Originally Greek cities were ruled by kings.
B.
By the 700s BC the kings had lost power to landholding aristocrats who provided military service to the kings.
C.
By 650 BC disputes arise between aristocrats and commoners.
D. As the phalanx became more militarily valuable aristocrats began to lose influence.
E.
Tyrannies arise from these disputes. A tyrant would seize power and rule the polis single-handedly. Many were fair
but some were harsh thus giving the word its present meaning.
F.
Tyrants ruled from 500 BC until 336 BC.
G. Most city-states became oligarchies or democracies.
Sparta
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
F.
Sparta established by Dorian descendants.
Located on the southern peninsula of Greece, the Peloponnesus.
Invasion and enslavement replaces colonization in Sparta.
The Spartan polis owned slaves called helots which provided the manual labor force for the Spartans.
Free artisans and merchants (perioci) provide other goods and services.
Spartans outnumbered 200,000 to 10,000. A revolt in 650 BC by helots takes 30 years to end. A military society is
created to maintain control.
Spartan Society
A.
All life revolves around the army.
1. Men want to become soldiers.
2. Women want to be mothers of soldiers.
3. Spartans look down on other Greeks.
B.
Spartan officials examined newborns to see if they were healthy.
C. At 7 years old, Spartan boys taken from homes and sent to live in military barracks. Training included:
1. reading
2. writing
3. weapons
D. At 20 years of age a Spartan became a soldier and was sent to the frontier areas.
E.
At age 30 they were expected to marry. Did not live at home. They lived in barracks until 60 years old.
Spartan Government
KINGS: TWO kings: Two royal families both claiming descent from HERAKLES. Kings served for life, and the office was hereditary
MILITARY: leaders of the army.
POLITICAL: presiding officers in the GEROUSIA, the Spartan Senate, kings also had veto power over the doings of the
Spartan Assembly (Apella)
-RELIGIOUS: priests of special cults of certain gods (Zeus Hellenios and Athena Hellenia)
GEROUSIA: The "Old Men": 28 Spartiates over the age of 60 + the two kings (= 30). The Gerontes (Senators) were elected by the
Assembly of Spartiates for life. They controlled the public business and decided on what the Assembly could discuss. They could
also veto actions taken by the Assembly
EPHORS: 5 Spartiate "Overseers", elected annually by the Assembly. Any Spartiate could be EPHOR. They had financial, judicial,
and administrative powers--even over the Kings and Gerontes Two Ephors always went with a king on campaign to protect the
interests of the whole State.
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ECCLESIA: the Spartiate Assembly, men above 18; could only vote YES or NO,; were subject to veto. Could only meet on
summons, and only discuss what was submitted to them.
Results of Militarism
A.
Power held and maintained for nearly 250 years.
B.
Spartans lag far behind other polis in trade and manufacturing.
C.
Spartans do not produce great intellectual achievements.
D. Perpetual winners of the Olympics.
Athens
A. Located on Attica. A peninsula in central Greece.
B. Named after the goddess Athena.
C. Population made up of four distinct groups.
1. Citizens
2. Wives and children of citizens
3. Metics (foreigners living in Athens)
4. Slaves
D. When the Athenian kings were overthrown a new system of government is created. This system favors the aristocracy.
E. The conflicts between the aristocracy and the rest of the population allowed tyrants to take control and make changes.
Tyrannical Reforms
F. The first of the tyrants was Draco. In 621 BC he issued and had his laws written down.
1. Draco’s laws too harsh.
Crime: Stealing a cabbage
Punishment: Death
2. Eliminates debate over what is legal.
F. Solon is the second reforming tyrant.
G. He focuses on improving economic conditions.
1. Cancels land debts and frees debtors from slavery.
2. Limits property size.
3. Promotes cash crops and trade.
4. Extends citizenship to non-Athenian artisans and
merchants.
5. Creates bicameral (two-house) legislature.
a. Aristocrats in Council of 400 that proposes legislature.
b. Landowning commoners belong to the Assembly which votes on proposed legislature.
H. Peisistratus makes even more radical reforms.
1. Divides large estates among landless farmers.
2. Grants citizenship to the landless.
3. Provided work and loans to the poor.
I. Cliesthenes establishes the Athenian democracy.
1. Ends local rivalries.
2. Breaks the power of the aristocracy.
3. Extends citizenship to more people.
4. Reorganizes the government.
Athenian Democracy
A. The Assembly is the major political institution in Athens.
B. All citizens could belong to the Assembly.
1. All considered equal before the law.
2. All guaranteed free speech.
C. The Assembly performed the following functions.
1. Passed laws
2. Acted as a supreme court
3. Annually selected 10 generals to run the army and navy.
4. A Council of 500 administered daily government functions such as:
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a.
b.
c.
taxes
treaties
public works
D.
Members of the council were chosen in an annual lottery.
1. Lottery used for all selections except for military posts.
2. All citizens competent to hold public office.
3. Elections considered unfair.
4. All citizens were to participate in government.
E. Juries decided court cases. Juries could number from 201 to
1,001 members and requiring a majority vote to decide issues.
F. Annual ostracism practiced by Athenians.
1. Citizens could write the name of an undesirable
politician on a piece of clay (ostracon).
2. 6000 ostraca = exile for 10 years.
G. Cleisthenes’ reforms last for nearly 200 years, until the Macedonians conquer Greece.
Athenian Education
A. Social and economic status determines education.
B. A Male child received a name and was enrolled as a citizen.
C. Athenian sons were required to be educated since they would participate in government.
D. Private tutors educated boys from wealthy families. Other students attended private schools for a small fee.
E. Boys entered school at age 7 and graduated at 18 years old.
1. Main texts were Illiad and Odyssey which were memorized.
2. Course of study included:
a. arithmetic
b. geometry
c. drawing
d. music
e. gymnastics
f.
rhetoric
F. At 18 years of age each Athenian male served for two years in the military.
G. Athenian girls were taught household skills such as weaving and baking, from their mothers.
War, Glory and Decline
The Persian Wars
A. 546 BC the Persian forces, led by Cyrus II, conquers the Ionian city-states.
B. Considering all non-Greeks as barbarians the Ionians revolted in 499 BC.
C. Athens sends warships in support of the rebellion.
D. When Darius I defeats the Ionians he decides to punish Athens for supporting the Ionians.
Marathon
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
F.
G.
490 BC, Darius sends an invasion fleet that lands on the coastal plain of Marathon.
Outnumbered 2:1 the Athenians do nothing.
When the Persians begin to reload their ships the Athenians attack.
The Athenian hoplites charge down the hills and attack the Persians.
A total victory for Athens follows. 6400 Persians and 192 Greeks lost.
The Athenians had made plans before the battle that if they won, they would get word back to Athens as soon as
possible.
Miltiades sent a young soldier, Phaedippas, to take word back to Athens. He ran the entire distance (just under 25
miles) shouted "We have won!" and fell dead of exhaustion. He had previously run 280 miles in four days.
Salamis and Themopylae
A. Persian go back to Asia Minor but return for revenge 10 years later.
B. 480 BC, Darius’ son Xerxes, invades Greece with 200,000 soldiers.
C. The Greeks, under Spartan leadership, faced the Persians.
D. The Greeks have and army under the command of Leonidas and a navy under the command of Themistocles.
E. Leonidas and the Spartans defend the mountain pass at Thermopylae.
16
F.
G.
Themistocles defeats the Persians at Salamis.
Greek victories at Platea and Mycale force Persian retreat to Asia Minor never to invade Greece again.
The Golden Age of Athens.
From League to Empire
A. Athenians organize the Delian Legue to protect against future Perisan threats.
B. Large polis were to supply ships and men; smaller polis were to provide money.
C. Over time, most polis give money since this is easier.
D. Eventually the League became an empire since Athens controlled the navy that every city contributed to.
1. Contributions now taxes and used by the Athenians.
2. Athenians crush all attempts at withdrawal or rebellion.
3. The Parthenon is built with league money.
4. Criminal cases tried in Athens.
5. Athenian currency universal.
6. Non-democratic Greek governments overthrown.
E. Sparta becomes the leader of an anti-Athenian alliance called the Peloponnesian League.
F. To guard against a future attack Athens builds the Long Walls around Athens and Piraeus.
The Age of Pericles
A. Athenian military power makes Athens rich in commerce, industry and culture.
B. Achievements in art, science, literature, and philosophy are the high point of Greek genius.
C. Four major factors contribute to the Golden Age.
1. Victory over the Persians strengthened patriotism.
2. Athens was rich.
3. Athenian democracy stressed the importance of the individual.
4. The Greek love of beauty, athletics, religion, and intellectual curiosity.
Leadership of Pericles
A. From 461-429 BC Pericles ruled Athens.
B. He was an elected general.
C. Under his leadership Athens becomes the most beautiful city in Greece.
D. He expanded the democracy by paying members of the government.
The Arts
A.
B.
C.
Architecture:
1. Parthenon by Ictinus and Phidias
Art:
1. The Discus Thrower by Myron
Plays came in two forms; tragedies and comedies.
1. Aeschylus wrote tragedies about the gods and heroes of Greece.
2. Sophocles introduces a third actor and deals with human emotion.
3. Euripides questions whether the gods existed.
4. Aristophanes wrote comedies / satires about political and social conditions.
The Sciences
A. Thales studied astronomy and could foretell a solar eclipse.
B. Pythagoras explains things in mathematical terms. Taught that the world was round. Pythagorean Theorem is A2 + B2 =
C2
C. Hippocrates disease was natural not supernatural. Medicine as a science not religious. Stresses proper hygiene.
The Mind
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
Philosophers sought wisdom but had different ideas of how to gain wisdom.
Sophists challenge traditional beliefs. Reject idea that gods and goddesses influence our behaviors. No absolute moral
or legal standards.
Socrates believes in absolute rather than relative truth. Wants people to learn to think for themselves. Socratic Method
Plato gives more importance to the state rather than the individual. Only most intelligent and best educated rule.
Logical thought gives understanding.
Aristotle Observes facts and classifies them. Tutors Alexander the Great.
17
F.
G.
H.
The Greeks develop the idea of history as facts not legend.
Herodotus wrote a study of the Persian Wars called Historia (investigation). Considered the “Father of History”.
Thucyides visits sites, examines evidence and only accepts eyewitness accounts, offers explanations. Believed that the
future can learn from the past.
The Peloponnesian War
A. The Delian League:
1. Freed Ionia from Persian control.
2. Swept the Aegean free of pirates.
3. Expanded overseas trade and became richer.
B. Athenian arrogance, heavy-handedness and domination of the league forces Sparta to create a league of their own.
C. The Peloponnesian War lasts from 431 BC until 404 BC.
D. The Elephant vs. The Whale.
1. Sparta invincible on land.
2. Athens invincible at sea.
E. Each year the Spartans would invade Attica and destroy the farms and crops.
F. Athens would bring the rural population into the city and behind the Long Walls.
G. The Great Plague of 429 BC results. 1/3 of the population killed including Pericles.
H. After the death of Pericles many wanted to make peace while others wanted to keep on fighting.
I.
The democracy could not reach a decision so the war dragged on.
J.
Athenian allies switch sides and Persia bankrolls Spartan fleet construction.
K. With their fleet destroyed and food cut off Athens was forced to surrender.
L. The peace stated that:
1. The Long Walls destroyed.
2. surrender of Athenian ships.
3. Recognition of Spartan leadership in peace and war.
Effects of the War
A. Many city-states declined in population
B. Farmland devastated.
C. Unemployment widespread.
D. Rise of mercenaries.
E. Greeks lost ability to govern themselves.
F. Social conflicts grew.
G. Continual fighting between city-states.
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Alexander’s Empire
Rise of Macedonia
A. 359 BC Philip II becomes King of Macedonia.
B. Learned to admire Greek culture and military organization while a hostage in Thebes.
C. He is determined to create three tings:
1. a strong standing army
2. unification of the quarreling Greeks under Macedonia
3. destroy Persia
D. Philip becomes the master of Greece after victory in the Battle of Chaeronea in 338 BC.
E. He creates the Hellenic League as congress of city-states to destroy Persia.
F. Philip is assassinated in 336 BC. The assassin was hired by his ex-wife. His son, Alexander, becomes king of
Macedonia.
Alexander the Great
A. He is 20 years old when he becomes king.
B. In 334 BC 30,000 soldiers and 5,000 cavalry invade into Asia.
C. His first victory is at the Granicus River where he was victorious.
D. In 333 BC he defeats Darius III at Issus, Syria.
E. Alexander then conquers the Mediterranean coastline including Phoenicia and Egypt.
F. In 331 BC Alexander invaded Mesopotamia and smashed Darius’ army at Gaugamela.
G. He then captures the major cities of the Persian Empire:
1. Babylon
2. Persepolis
3. Susa
H. In 330 BC Darius is killed by Bessus, governor (satrap) of Bactria, and Alexander declares himself ruler of the Persian
Empire.
I.
328 BC, Alexander leads his troops into India. Three ears later he reached the Indus River. His troops mutiny and
he is forced to return to Macedonia.
J.
Alexander returns to Babylon, which he names his new capital.
K. In 323 BC he fell ill with a fever, possibly malaria, and died at the age of 33.
Divided Empire
A. Following his death Alexander’s empire was divided among his generals. The Diadochi (Successors) fought among
themselves for control of the empire.
B. The three main successors and their territories were:
1. Ptolemy controls Egypt, Libya and parts of Syria.
2. Selecus controls Remaining Syria, Mesopotamia, Iran, and Afghanistan. Only holds on to Syria.
3. Antigonus controls Macedonia and Greece. Retains Macedon only.
Hellenistic Contributions
A. Philosophies
1. Cynicism = live life simply with nature.
2. Epicureanism = avoid joy and pain / live simply and quietly
3. Stoicism = natural laws govern events/ accept difficult circumstances as their duty.
B. Art
1. Art as business = production of busts.
2. No longer produce idealized individuals.
3. Comedies written more than tragedies.
C. Science
1. Aristarchus = Sun larger than the earth. Earth revolves around sun. Stars immensely far away.
2. Eratosthenes = Determines circumference of the earth (1% error)
3. Euclid = Geometry texts that organize all information about the subject.
4. Archimedes = invents the compound pulley, cylinder screw, principals of buoyancy and the lever.
Hellenic vs. Hellenistic
19
Hellenic refers to the people who lived in classical Greece before the conquests of Philip. Greeks (Hellenes) were isolated and their civilization was
termed classic because it was not heavily influenced by outside forces.
Hellenistic refers to Greeks and others who lived during the period after Alexander the Great's conquests. (It was a mixture of civilizations)
Features
Hellenic World
Hellenistic World
Empires ruled by monarchs, kings.
Government
Small, self-governing city-states
Cities ruled by wealthy class
Education
Private tutors for well-to-do. Physical training at gym
Education and physical training at gymnasium
Language
Classical Greek
Greek and Aramaic
Limited commercial activity
extensive trade on sea and land
restricted roles, domestic chiefly
marriage contracts, own slaves and property, act
as regents
Widespread use
Widespread use
Literature
Golden age drama, poetry
Greek influence with local culture
Philosophy
Emphasis on logic ethics, reason(Socrates, Plato, Aristotle)
Non-rational, Oriental mysticism
1. Stoic 2. Epicurean 3. Cynic
Science
Acceptance of experimental method but more attention to
philosophy
Advances in astronomy, mathematics, and
medicine
Religion
Olympian gods of Greece
Adapted Olympian gods for Rome, local religions
Commerce
Status of women
Slavery
20
ROME: REPUBLIC AND EMPIRE
The Italian Peninsula
A.
Central location in the Mediterranean Sea. Extends from Europe to the shores of Africa.
B.
Ideally situated to be the center of trade between Europe, Asia and Africa.
C. Rich soil and mild climate provide agricultural opportunities.
D. Silt deposits blocked many streams forming mosquito laden swamps. This causes recurring epidemics of malaria as
well as other mosquito transmitted diseases.
E.
Alps in the north cut off Italy from the rest of Europe.
F.
Few good harbors along the rocky and marshy coastline.
Early Peoples
A.
Archaeological remains suggest that settlements were formed as early as c. 5000 BC.
B.
Between 2000 BC and 1000 BC Indo-European migrations absorb / overwhelm Neolithic settlements.
C. Three main cultures inhabit the peninsula:
1. Umbrians in the north.
2. Latins in the central plain (Latium).
3. Oscans in the south.
D. 900 BC to 500 BC northern Italy ruled by the Etruscans.
1. Etruscan society made up of wealthy overlords, aristocratic priests and slave laborers.
2. After repeated revolts, the Etruscan lower classes and other Italian peoples freed themselves.
The Rise of Rome
A.
Legend: 753 BC Romulus is the founder of Rome.
B.
Reality: Sometime between 800 BC and 700 BC the Latins agreed to form one community by joining those villages
found on seven nearby hills.
C. Around 620 BC the Etruscans gained control of Rome.
D. The Tarquins would provide the kings that would rule Rome.
E.
The following occurred during Etruscan rule:
1. marshy lowlands drained
2. Forum created
3. building with brick introduced
4. roof houses with tile
5. religious rituals adopted
6. Rome becomes one of the wealthiest in Italy
F.
534 BC Tarquins driven out of Rome. Skilled Etruscans remain allowing the city to prosper.
Society and Social Groups
A.
Under Etruscan rule a new wealthy aristocratic class was created. These nobles were called patricians.
B.
The patricians declared Rome a republic after successful revolt.
C. Remaining population of Rome were plebeians. This includes all non-aristocratic members of the society regardless of
economic status.
D. Both groups had rights and responsibilities such as:
1. right to vote
2. hold public office (patricians only)
3. pay taxes
4. serve in military
The Roman Republic
A.
Control of the government was in the hands of the patricians.
B.
Two consuls, heads of state, were elected annually by an assembly of all adult citizens.
C. Consuls were chief judges and generals of the army. They oversaw other executive officials such as:
1. praetors
2. censors
D. The consuls were attended by lictors. The lictor's main task was to attend as bodyguards. Each lictor carried a bundle
of rods, fasces, surrounding an axe as a symbol of the consul’s power of punishment.
E.
One consul could veto, another consuls decision. (Veto is Latin for “I forbid”.)
21
F.
G.
H.
The only person that had more power than a consul was a dictator. This person was chosen in time of crisis and held
power for a period of six months.
Only patricians could hold high public office and sit in the Senate (senex=old man in Latin).
Assembly can only vote on magistrates’ proposals and the Senate can reject any vote. This guarantees patrician
control of the Republic.
The Conflict of Orders
A.
In the early years of the Roman Republic, patricians controlled all the religious and political offices; plebeians had no
right of appeal against decisions of the patrician government, since no laws were codified or published.
B.
The struggle of the plebeians to gain rights and an opportunity for advancement within Roman society and political
structures is known as “the conflict of orders.”
C.
The one advantage plebeians had over patricians lay in their numbers, and they used this effectively through the
strategy of secession (secessio), withdrawal or the threat of withdrawal from the Roman state during times of crisis.
D. The major accomplishments of the plebeians were:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
494 BCE: traditional date of the First Secession of the Plebs, during which they established their own
assembly (the Concilium Plebis) and elected their own magistrates, the Tribunes and the Plebeian Aediles.
450 BCE: traditional date of the Law of the Twelve Tables, the first codification of Roman law
445 BCE: patricians and plebeians were permitted to intermarry
367 BCE: plebeians became eligible for the consulship
342 BCE: law passed making it mandatory that one of the two Consuls must be a plebeian
339 BCE: law passed making it mandatory that one of the two Censors must be a plebeian
300 BCE: half of the priesthoods (which were also state offices) must be plebeian
287 BCE: Third Secession, won the concession that all plebiscites, measures passed in the Concilium Plebis,
had the force of laws for the whole Roman state.
Roman Militarism and Expansion
A.
500 BC to 300 BC Rome faces threats within the Italian Peninsula.
B.
Rome conquers or forms alliances in order to protect the republic.
C. By 264 BC Rome rules the entire peninsula.
D. Conquered cities treated as allies with the rights and responsibilities of full citizenship. Citizenship NOT hereditary
as it was in Greece.
Rome and Carthage
A.
The conquest of southern Italy brings Rome into contact with Sicily.
B.
Sicily occupied by two peoples:
1. east occupied by Greek cities
2. west occupied Carthage
C. Carthage was:
1. Founded in 800 BC by Phoenician colonists.
2. Ruled by a shrewd commercial class.
3. The most powerful state in northern Africa.
4. An industrial city with a population of nearly 1 million.
5. An empire that stretched across North Africa and into Spain.
The Punic Wars
The First Punic War
A.
The First Punic War was fought between 264-241BC.
B.
Control of Sicily was the primary issue.
C. Rome was unwilling to have a strong enemy so close.
D. Rome=larger army, Carthage=larger navy
E.
Rome is victorious when they turn naval battles into land battles. The invention and deployment of the corvus (raven
or crow in Latin) gives Rome victory.
F.
Carthage agrees to withdraw from Sicily and pay a large indemnity. (Indemnities were payable in talents. Modern
conversion is 1 talent = $1 million) Both sides agree to maintain existing borders &/or territiories. (Sicily becomes
Rome’s first province outside of the Italian Peninsula.)
22
The Second Punic War
A.
The 2d Punic War lasted from 218-202 BC.
B.
Causes:
1. Carthage expands power in Spain an attacks Saguntum an ally of Rome.
2. Rome seizes the Carthaginian islands of Sardinia and Corsica.
C. Carthaginian forces, under Hannibal Barca, move from Spain into Gaul and then cross the Alps into northern Italy.
D. Hannibal remains in Italy for 15 years. Unable to secure victory and is forced to leave the Italy when the Romans
invade North Africa.
E.
At the Battle of Zama, the Romans led by Scipio were victorious. Carthage agrees to:
1. Gave Spain to Rome
2. Handed over all of their warships to Rome
3. Paid another large indemnity.
4. Never go to war without Rome’s consent.
The Third Punic War
A.
The 3d Punic War is from 149-146 BC.
B.
Carthaginian trade begins to thrive despite huge indemnity.
C. Jealousy and envy of rich Romans is the cause of this conflict.
D. Senators such as Cato end each speech in the Senate with “Carthago delenda est!” (Carthage must be destroyed!).
E.
Carthage uses military in self-defense against the Numidians who had been raiding Carthaginian lands in the
southwest.
F.
Rome uses this as an excuse to go to war. Rome lays siege to Carthage for two years. Carthage was burned. The
surviving population was sold into slavery, and agricultural areas salted.
Expansion towards the East
A.
During the 2d Punic War Macedonia allies itself with Carthage.
B.
Rome moves east for revenge.
C. Rome soon gains control of Greece, Egypt and Syria.
D. Some rulers handed Rome their kingdoms after their death.
The Results of the Punic Wars
A.
Rome was now a naval as well as a military power.
B.
Professional army replaces citizen militia.
C. Class distinctions became more pronounced.
D. Rome becomes master of the Mediterranean.
Civil War and Expansion
A.
With empire came the eventual downfall of the republican form of government.
B.
The old ideals of simplicity and hard work had been replaced by to worship of power and wealth. Honesty and selfsacrifice had given way to corruption and ambition.
Problems
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
F.
G.
H.
I.
The Roman government faced three major problems:
1. Satisfying the discontented lower classes.
2. Reforming the administration of the provinces.
3. Creating and maintaining border defenses.
Neither the government nor the Senate were able to overcome selfishness and greed to make changes.
Centuries of warfare had brought misery to small farmers and landowners of Italy.
Local farmers could not compete with cheap grain from the provinces or slave labor.
Landless farmers move to Rome and live in tenements on government supplied grain.
Tiberius Gracchus, a young noble, demands that public lands be divided among the poor.
Tiberius is assassinated in a riot as a means of stopping his reforms.
Tiberius’ brother Gaius was elected to the Senate. He wanted to reduce the Senate’s power and redistribute lands.
He was eliminated shortly after his election.
The deaths of the Gracchi began nearly 100 years of civil war.
Class Warfare: Marius v. Sulla
A.
After the death of the Gracchi the people’s party elected Marius, a successful general, consul six times.
23
B.
C.
D.
E.
F.
G.
He is chosen not for political skill but because of battlefield victories.
During Marius’s rule a young aristocrat named Sulla becomes leader of the Senatorial party.
The Senate tasks Sulla with invading Asia Minor. Not to be outdone the Assembly picks Marius for the same
operation.
Sulla is victorious but while he is away the people’s party takes over Rome and eliminates the Senatorial leadership.
When Sulla returned he sought revenge and took the title of perpetual dictator.
Sulla makes the Assembly and tribunes give up their powers. He dies soon after.
The First Triumvirate
A.
With Sulla’s death the people’s party elects Pompey, one of Sulla’s generals, as consul.
B.
After repealing the more hated laws Pompey is given command of the military.
C. Pompey conquers Asia Minor and extends Roman control westward. He also eliminated the Mediterranean pirates.
D. On his return to Rome, Pompey made an alliance with two other powerful men, Crassus (financial) and Caesar
(politician). This alliance was the First Triumvirate.
Pompey v. Caesar
A.
To gain a military reputation Caesar obtains an army tasked with the conquest of Gaul.
B.
In a series of brilliant campaigns he conquered Gaul, drove the Germans behind the Rhine and moved into Britain.
C. His popularity increased and he was seen as a threat to the Senate. The Senate convinces Pompey to eliminate
Caesar.
D. Caesar crosses the Rubicon River and entered Rome in 49 BC.
E.
By 45 BC Caesar had crushed all opposition, he transferred all powers of the Senate and tribunes to himself. He then
named himself dictator for life.
Caesar as Dictator
A.
He undertakes colonizing projects to siphon off idle population.
B.
He created plans for rebuilding the city of Rome as well as public works throughout the empire.
C. He began to reform the provincial governments.
D. Introduced a revised calendar of 12 months and 365¼ days.
E.
Caesar was assassinated by a group of Senators on March 15, 44 BC.
Antony v. Octavian
A.
Octavian (Caesar’s adopted son/grand-nephew) and Antony (Caesar’s chief lieutenant) combined with Lepidus to
form the Second Triumvirate.
B.
The Second Triumvirate defeats the Senatorial forces and divide Roman territory among themselves.
C. Lepidus is driven out by Octavian. Eventually, Octavian would go to war against Antony.
D. In the naval battle of Actium (31BC), Octavian is victorious and becomes undisputed ruler of the Roman Empire.
The End of the Republic
A.
Octavian rules until his death in 14 AD.
B.
He let people believe in the “Republic” by allowing the Senate, Assembly, and magistrates to “go through the
motions” but he held supreme authority.
C. He commanded the army, conducted foreign affairs, supervised the administration of the provinces.
Octavian, a.k.a. Augustus Caesar, maintained his popularity by giving out free food and spending on public works, his
simple lifestyle and his refusal to accept a crown.
D. His titles included:
1. Augustus = Majestic Caesar
2. Imperator = General
3. Princeps = First Citizen
Rome under Augustus
A.
During the long reign of Augustus the following occurred:
1. public order restored
2. the army was reorganized
3. provincial governments were improved
4. construction projects completed
5. Rome was beautified
6. art and literature flourished
24
The Successors of Augustus
A. The emperors that follow Augustus are called the Julian Emperors since they are related to Julius Caesar in some way.
1. Tiberius
2. Caligula
3. Claudius
4. Nero
B. Following Nero’s death the empire was ruled for army backed emperors for 28 years.
C. In 96 AD the Senate placed their own candidate, Nerva, on the throne. He is the first of the Good Emperors.
1. Nerva
2. Trajan-increased empire’s size
3. Hadrian-strengthens borders of the empire
4. Antonius Pious-maintains prosperity of the empire
5. Marcus Aurelius-increases height of prosperity
The Pax Romana
A.
From the reign of Augustus to the reign of Marcus Aurelius (161-180 AD) there was peace within the boundaries of
the Roman Empire. This time period is called the Pax Romana or Roman Peace.
B.
Inside the empire industry, trade and commerce expanded and cities flourished.
1. On the frontiers the legions were always busy.
Administration of the Empire
A. The known world obeyed the emperor of Rome.
B. The governors of the provinces and armies on the borders answered to him.
C. A body of trained officials administered the government.
D. In 212 AD citizenship was granted to all freemen throughout the empire.
Roman Law
A.
B.
C.
D.
The Twelve Tables was the foundation of Roman law.
The code stressed broad principals and gave judges great freedom in deciding cases.
Older, harsher features were gradually replaced with a more just and humane system.
This system of law and administration is one of the greatest contributions to civilization. It has far-reaching influence
on:
1. the law of the Catholic Church –canon law
2. the legal systems of Western Europe and those areas colonized by Western Europeans
Roman Economy
A. Artisans in Italy produced finely crafted goods for sale throughout the empire.
B. The provinces sent luxury items, raw materials and finished goods to Rome.
C. Roman trade networks connected Britain in the west with China in the east.
Roman Decline
A. The empire faced many problems which would eventually destroy it.
B. Political
1. Political instability following the death of Marcus Aurelius. 80 emperors in less than 100 years.
2. Political unrest encourages barbarian incursions.
3. The populace lost interest in government and public affairs.
C. Economic
1. Never-ending conflict paralyzed trade and industry.
2. High taxes virtually eliminate the middle class.
3. The gulf between rich and poor grew wider.
D. Military
4. Military weakness allowed barbarian invasions to increase.
5. Roman population centers being overrun by invaders.
Attempts to Reform Fail
A. Diocletian splits empire into two parts to make governing easier.
B. He issues the Edict of Prices to eliminate inflation.
C. Constantine makes jobs hereditary and has employees chained to positions.
25
D. He moves the capital to Byzantium and renames the city Constantinople.
E. Theodosius permanently splits the empire.
End of the Western Empire
A. Germanic and Hun invasions devastate Italy and the empire.
B. Vandals sack Rome in 455 AD.
C. Franks and Goths divide Gaul.
D. Odoacer kills the emperor and names himself King of Italy in 476 AD.
E. With no new emperor the Roman Empire ceases to exist.
CAUSES OF THE FALL OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE
CONTRIBUTING FACTORS
POLITICAL
ECONOMIC
1. Political office seen as burden not a reward.
1. Poor harvests
2. Military interference with politics.
2. Disruption of trade.
3. Civil wars and unrest.
3. No more plunder from wars.
4. Division of the empire.
4. Inflation
5. The capital was moved to Byzantium.
5. Heavy taxes
SOCIAL
MILITARY
1. Lack of interest in public affairs.
1. Persian and barbarian threats.
2. Lack of confidence in the empire.
2. Low funds for defense.
3. Disloyalty, lack of patriotism and corruption.
3. Problems recruiting Roman citizens.
4. Contrast between rich and poor.
4. Decline of loyalty/patriotism among soldiers.
IMMEDIATE CAUSES
Pressure from Huns and Germanic tribes
FALL OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE
Conquest and sack of Rome.
26
HELLENISTIC GREECE VS ROME
Alexander's Empire
(336-323 B. C.)
Hellenistic
Rule
Role of army
Alexander the Great had all the power
Power rested in the hands of the various
emperors, although there was an established
Roman code of law
led by and supported Alexander
army supported the emperor and on some
occasions assassinated an existing emperor
and/or chose a new emperor
cities were built as cultural centers;
Effects on conquered people
blend of all cultures united people;
had uniform currency
With no one chosen to follow empire
crumbled after Alexander's death
Succession
split among three generals
Long-lasting effects
Roman Empire
(27 B.C.-A.D. 476)
Spread Greek ideas over large areas, which
tended to unify people
People came under Roman law and rule;
individuals could become citizens of Rome;
people experience peace and prosperity
during the "Pax Romana"; people came in
contact with Roman culture and values such
as language, art, architecture, religion, and
engineering
Some emperors attempted to establish
dynasty, while others adopted the man they
wanted to succeed them. Succession
frequently resulted in civil wars or power
struggles.
Spread Roman ideas over large area, many
aspects of culture are still evident today,
especially in western Europe-for example,
use of Latin, basic tenets of law, and
engineering techniques established by the
legions
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