Effect of macrophytes on aquatic
invertebrates – a literature review
P. Papas
April 2007
Arthur Rylah Institute for Environmental Research
Technical Report Series No. 158
Arthur Rylah Institute for Environmental Research
Technical Report Series No. 158
Effect of macrophytes on aquatic invertebrates – a
literature review
Phil Papas
April 2007
Effect of macrophytes on aquatic invertebrates – a literature review
Published by: Arthur Rylah Institute for Environmental Research
Department of Sustainability and Environment
PO Box 137
Heidelberg, Victoria 3094
Australia
Telephone: (03) 9450 8600
www.dse.vic.gov.au/ari
This publication may be cited as:
Papas, P. (2007) Effect of macrophytes on aquatic invertebrates – a literature review.
Freshwater Ecology, Arthur Rylah Institute for Environmental Research, Technical
Report Series No. 158, Department of Sustainability and Environment, Melbourne;
Melbourne Water, Melbourne, Victoria.
© The State of Victoria
Department of Sustainability and Environment 2007
This publication is copyright. Apart from any fair dealing for private study, research,
criticism or review allowed under the Copyright Act 1968, no part of this publication
may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any forms or by
any means, electronic, photocopying or other, without the prior permission of the
copyright holder.
ISBN 978-1-74152-895-4 (print)
ISBN 978-1-74152-901-2 (online)
ISSN 1326 6446
Disclaimer
This publication may be of assistance to you but the State of Victoria and its
employees do not guarantee that the publication is without flaw of any kind or is
wholly appropriate for your particular purposes and therefore disclaims all liability
for any error, loss or other consequence, which may arise from you relying on any
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Authorised by the Victorian Government, Melbourne.
Effect of macrophytes on aquatic invertebrates – a literature review
Contents
ABSTRACT ...........................................................................................................................................II
1 INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................................... 1
2 USE OF MACROPHYTES BY INVERTEBRATES................................................................... 1
2.1
FACTORS AFFECTING INVERTEBRATE COMPOSITION AND DISTRIBUTION ON MACROPHYTES 2
Leaf architecture............................................................................................................................... 3
Nutritional value of the plant tissue .................................................................................................. 4
Chemical inhibitors in the plant tissue.............................................................................................. 4
Plant growth habit ............................................................................................................................ 5
Macrophyte community structure and composition .......................................................................... 5
Other regulators for invertebrates .................................................................................................... 5
3 INVERTEBRATE PREFERENCE FOR NATIVE OR EXOTIC MACROPHYTES ............. 6
4 CONCLUSION ............................................................................................................................... 7
5 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ........................................................................................................... 7
6 REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................... 8
APPENDIX 1- SUMMARY OF LITERATURE REVIEWED ........................................................ 12
APPENDIX 2 - EXPERIMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS ................................................................ 22
Effect of macrophytes on aquatic invertebrates – a literature review
Abstract
Aquatic macrophytes are an important habitat for invertebrates. Invertebrates utilise
aquatic plants as a direct food source, shelter from predators, spawning and
attachment sites as well as feeding on the periphyton growing on their surfaces.
There are many attributes of macrophytes, operating at different scales that may
affect invertebrate abundance, diversity and community composition. Examples of
such attributes include the architecture of the leaves, the growth habit of the plant
and the presence of chemical inhibitors in the plant tissue. A summary of the
findings from studies pertaining to these attributes is as follows:
•
The degree of leaf dissectedness (leaf shape complexity) and surface area appear
to influence macroinvertebrate community composition, diversity and
abundance.
•
There is scant information on the presence of chemical inhibitors for E.
canadensis, E. densa and M. aquaticum. Chemical effects exist for some related
species.
•
Sturdiness of the plant and position of the leaves of the plant relative to the
substratum effects invertebrate community.
•
There is evidence to suggest both negative and positive impacts on invertebrates
with increasing macrophyte bed density.
•
Few studies compare macrophyte species diversity in macrophyte beds with
invertebrate assemblages. There is some evidence to support greater invertebrate
species diversity and abundance associated with greater macrophyte species
diversity. Dense monospecific stands can negatively impact on water quality and
degrade invertebrate habitat.
•
There are many factors other than those associated with the plant itself that are
likely to affect invertebrate abundance, diversity and composition. Variables such
as water depth, water quality, predator pressure and water flow have been shown
to have a greater influence on invertebrate distribution in wetlands and streams
that the macrophyte species present in the waterbody.
•
Some studies have found greater invertebrate abundance and diversity in native
macrophytes compared to exotics, however others have found no difference.
Care must be taken in extrapolating these findings to artificial systems as most of
the studies are related to natural systems. Additional knowledge gaps are outlined at
the end of the review. Some considerations for experimental design are presented.
Effect of macrophytes on aquatic invertebrates – a literature review
1
Introduction
Melbourne Water Corporation manages many artificial wetlands in the Melbourne
metropolitan area. The primary role of these wetlands is to improve water quality
(e.g. reduction of nitrogen and particulate matter) in streams that receive large
amounts of stormwater. These wetlands also have environmental values, e.g. habitat
for birds, frogs, fish and invertebrates as well as social values, e.g. recreation and
education.
Recently, three exotic aquatic plants have caused concern due to their invasive
nature and rapid spread in some artificial wetlands. These are the submersed Egeria
densa (egeria) and Elodea canadensis (elodea) and the submersed/emergent
Myriophyllum aquaticum (parrots feather). The impact of these plants on the
nutrient removal function of the wetlands forms part of a project to provide
information useful for the management of the wetlands. A brief consideration of
possible effects of these weeds on social, ecological, and economic values is
provided in Ainsworth et al. (unpublished a) with some further assessment of
impacts on aquatic biodiversity in Ainsworth (unpublished b).
This literature review is the first stage of a project which aims to determine whether
the properties of exotic macrophytes are inferior to those of natives such that when
present at similar densities the native plants support more biodiversity. Aquatic
invertebrates were selected as a component of the biodiversity to measure as:
•
•
•
•
•
They are generally less mobile than other fauna and thus more likely to reflect
conditions where they are collected;
they are generally easily sampled;
experimental work does not require the approvals needed for work on
vertebrates;
changes in invertebrate populations will have flow on effects on other
components of biodiversity;
invertebrates are widely used to monitor water quality.
An initial literature search revealed scant information specific to the effects of E.
densa, E. canadensis and M. aquaticum on aquatic invertebrates, hence the scope of
the literature search was broadened to incorporate all research pertaining to
(principally) submerged macrophytes and their effect on aquatic invertebrate
abundance, diversity and/or composition.
2
Use of macrophytes by invertebrates
Aquatic macrophytes are an important habitat for invertebrates - invertebrates
utilise them as a direct food source (Gregg and Rose 1982, 1985, Rooke 1986) shelter
from predators (Harrod 1964, Gregg and Rose 1985), spawning and attachment sites
(Keast 1984) as well as feeding on the periphyton growing on their surfaces (Higler
1975, Cattaneo and Kaliff 1980).
Feeding groups (also known as feeding guilds and trophic groups – see Table 1)
associated with aquatic macrophyte genera such as Myriophllyum, Elodea and Egeria,
typically include shredders and grazers, detritovores, filter feeders and predators.
The composition and abundance of the groups present varies depending on the
Effect of macrophytes on aquatic invertebrates – a literature review
location of the waterbody and the plant species that are present (e.g. Dvorak and
Best 1982, Talbot and Ward 1987).
Table 1 Functional feeding groups associated with aquatic plants (adapted from Cummins
1973, Dvorak and Best 1982).
2.1
Feeding group
Type of organism and feeding habit
Shredders/Grazers
Invertebrates that consume living plant
tissue– e.g. some Lepidoptera (moth larvae)
and Trichoptera (caddisflies)
Detritivores
Invertebrates that collect dead organic
material and/or scrape periphyton from
plants – e.g. some Hempitera (true bugs),
Lepidoptera (moth larvae) and Gastropoda
(snails)
Filter feeders
Zooplankton and some insect larvae that
filter water to gain detritus from around
plants – e.g. Cladocera (small crustaceans)
Predators
Carnivorous invertebrates that prey on
smaller invertebrates – e.g. Odonata
(dragonflies), some Hemiptera (true bugs)
Factors affecting invertebrate composition and distribution on
macrophytes
In order to begin to understand why there may be differences in the invertebrates
associated with native and exotic macrophyte species or preferences for particular
species, it is important to consider the factors affecting the distribution and
composition of invertebrates on all aquatic plant species. These include effects
operating at a range of scales from the individual leaves to the macrophyte beds
(Table 2). Additionally, external factors such as water quality, temperature and water
regime may also be a determinant of the macroinvertebrate community present on
macrophytes (Strayer et al. 2003). These factors are explored in detail following
Table 2.
Effect of macrophytes on aquatic invertebrates – a literature review
Table 2 Factors affecting the macroinvertebrate abundance and diversity associated with
macrophytes at different scales.
Scales at which effects are
operating
Factors affecting macroinvertebrate
abundance and richness
Individual plant
•
•
•
•
•
Whole plant
•
•
Macrophyte bed
•
•
Architecture of the leaves (also referred
to as leaf morphology) (Balci and
Kennedy 2003).
Dissectedness and surface area of the
leaves) (Shiel 1976, Balci and Kennedy
2003).
Nutrient content of the leaves (i.e.
nutritional value) of the plants (Lodge
1991).
Chemical compounds in the plant tissue
(Lodge 1991, Erven and Wetzel 2003).
Presence and type of epiphytic
community on the leaves (e.g. diatoms,
algae etc.) (Lodge 1985, Ervin and Wetzel
2003).
Plant growth habit: proximity of the
leaves of the plant to the substratum
(Timms 1981).
Location of microhabitats within the
water column (Shiel 1976).
Plant growth habit: density of the
standing crop (Cattaneo et al. 1998).
Diversity of the macrophyte community
(Quade 1969, Hanson 1990).
Leaf architecture
Leaf architecture refers to the physical form of the leaves and includes attributes
such as surface area of the leaves and the leaf dissectedness, which refers to the
complexity of the leaf shape - ovate leaves have low dissectedness and pinnate
leaves high dissectedness, for example. The relationships between leaf architecture
and surface area and aquatic invertebrate abundance and diversity has been welldocumented (e.g. Krecker 1939, Cheruvelli et al. 2001, Balci and Kennedy 2003).
Highly dissected leaves result in a higher surface area to volume ration per unit of
biomass and can consequently support a greater biomass of epiphytic growth
(Cattaneo et al. 1998) for grazing aquatic invertebrates. Macrophytes with highly
dissected leaves are generally recognised as supporting larger aquatic invertebrate
populations than plants with broader leaves (Krecker 1939, Cheruvelli et al. 2000),
with exceptions (eg. Cyr and Downing 1988).
It is also suggested that the increased complexity of the leaf surface can provide
better refuge from predators (Balci and Kennedy 2003) and substrate for
invertebrates (Keast 1984). Cyr and Downing (1988), in a study of ten lakes in
Canada, determined, however, that the abundance of invertebrates was not
systematically related to the level of leaf dissection but due to other factors such as
Effect of macrophytes on aquatic invertebrates – a literature review
plant morphology, surface texture, epiphytic algal growth and community
composition, nutrient content of plant tissues and presence of defensive chemicals
in the plant tissue.
Nutritional value of the plant tissue
It has been suggested that the nitrogen (protein) content of vascular macrophytes
limits herbivory (Mattson 1980, Lodge 1991). Lodge (1991) reviewed literature to
determine if the nitrogen content of aquatic plants varied between species and other
plant groups and hence was likely to lead to differences in grazing by invertebrates.
Data from the literature indicted little difference in the nitrogen content between
algae, aquatic plants and terrestrial shrub and tree leaves. There was some evidence
to suggest that floating aquatic plants had higher nitrogen content that other aquatic
groups, however Lodge (1991) noted there were many variables likely to be affecting
nitrogen concentrations and the results should be interpreted with caution. Lodge
(1991) summarised that nutrient concentrations were not likely to be limiting
grazing on macrophytes and that typically grazing preference was unrelated to
commonly measured plant physical and chemical characteristics (such as cellulose
content, micronutrients etc.).
Chemical inhibitors in the plant tissue
Allelochemicals or allelopathins, are largely secondary plant metabolites that play an
important role in allelopathic interactions (an interaction where one plant causes
suffering to another plant) and plant defence (Liu and An unpublished). Lodge (1991)
found evidence that the phenolic content of some macrophytes may be a factor
limiting grazing by invertebrates, however concluded that more work needed to be
done to test the hypothesis proposed by Crawley (1983) and Coley et al, (1985) that
discuss mechanisms that plants use to defend against herbivory.
A review by Ervin and Wetzel (2003) highlights that the allelochemical compounds
may be influenced by the availability of nutrients, inorganic carbon and light. The
following information is an extract from their review:
“Species are presently known to produce anti-algal compounds: Chara spp. (van
Donk and van de Bund 2002; Wium-Andersen 1987), Ceratophyllum demersum
(Wium-Andersen 1987), Myriophyllum spicatum (Gross et al. 1996; Gross and Sütfeld
1994; Nakai et al. 1996, 1999, 2000), Myriophyllum brasiliense (M. aquaticum) (Saito
et al. 1989), Hottonia palustris and the bryophyte Fontinalis antipyretica (Gross 1999).
Hydrolyzablepolyphenolic compounds (tannins) from Myriophyllum aquaticum
demonstrated significant suppressive activity against cyanobacteria; such
compounds were isolated from plant material and from waters surrounding live
plants, indicating an active production and release (Saito et al. 1989). Similar
properties were shown for hydrolyzablepolyphenolic compounds from Myriophyllum
spicatum and sulfur-containing compounds from Ceratophyllum spp. (Gross 1999).
Other work by Newman (Newman et al. 1990, 1992, 1996) demonstrated
experimentally the deterrent properties of glucosinolate compounds (demonstrated
by Siemens et al. 2002) to have dual allelopathic/anti-herbivory properties) in
watercress (Nasturtium officinale) to feeding by the omnivorous amphipod
Gammarus pseudolimnaeus, the snail Physella gyrina, and a suite of Trichoptera
Effect of macrophytes on aquatic invertebrates – a literature review
(caddisfly) larvae. The ecological benefit of multiple functionality of such
compounds, however, remains to be demonstrated in aquatic systems”.
Plant growth habit
Cyr and Downing (1988) propose that the macroinvertebrate community
composition on the plants is be affected by the sturdiness of the plant, e.g. larger
plants might be more suitable to support heavy crawling invertebrates. It has also
been found that elodea often supports more gastropods than more fragile plants
such as Chara and Myriophyllum (Kufikowski 1974, Soszka 1975).
Timms (1981) postulates that differences in aquatic macro and micro invertebrates
between different macrophyte beds is driven by the proximity of the leaves to the
substratum. In his study involving three lakes in Victoria (Australia), differences in
invertebrate assemblages were found between Myriophyllum propinquum and
Ruppia sp. beds. – species with similar leaf architecture but different growth habits,
i.e. Ruppia grows close to the substratum and M. propinquum has long stalks with
most leaves near the water surface.
Some macrophyte species have the tendency to form thick beds that can lead to a
homogeneous canopy with low light penetration. Dense homogeneous beds can
prevent the establishment of ‘understorey’ species, inhibit the growth of epiphytic
algae and lead to low macroinvertebrate diversity (Cheruvelil et al. 2001). Unmuth et
al. (2000) found significant changes in temperature and dissolved oxygen
concentration in dense stands of M. spciatum in a Wisconsin lake. Cheruvelil et al.
(2001) suggests these conditions can make it inhospitable for invertebrates.
Sandilands and Hann (1996) found however, that dense stands of macrophytes
harboured large numbers of invertebrates and considered that protection from
predation was the likely mechanism explaining this. Dvorak and Best (1982) also
found high numbers of macroinvertebrate species in dense beds and linked this to
the colonisable surface area of the macrophyte bed and its density.
Macrophyte community structure and composition
Whilst there are many studies comparing the invertebrates between macrophyte
species (e.g. Krecker 1939, Gerrish and Bristow 1979, Jeffries 1993, Rooke 1986,
Nichols and Shaw 1986, Cheruvelli et al. 2000, Strayer et al. 2003), there appear to be
few studies involving macrophyte beds that contain a suite of species. Of the few,
Hanson (1990) found in a study on two different macrophyte communities in a
Canadian lake, that any changes in plant species composition in the macrophyte
beds greatly altered the structure of the macroinvertebrate communities. Keast
(1984) found greater numbers of invertebrates on macrophyte beds with two native
species of Potamogeton and Vallisneria compared to a monospecific bed of an exotic
species M. spicatum (Eurasian milfoil) in a Canadian lake.
Other regulators for invertebrates
Many authors agree that there is a range of factors affecting invertebrate abundance
and diversity in aquatic systems – some of which have been covered thus far in the
review. Factors other than those associated with the plants themselves are likely
Effect of macrophytes on aquatic invertebrates – a literature review
determinants (in addition to macrophyte attributes) for macroinvertebrate
abundance, diversity and/or community composition, these include: flow (e.g. Greg
and Rose 1985), water level (e.g. Timms 1981, Humphries 1996), water quality (e.g.
Strayer et al. 2003) and interactions between invertebrates such as predator-prey
relationships and fish (e.g. Dibble and Harrel 1997).
A study by Humphries (1996) showed water level was a determinant of invertebrate
richness and abundance in rivers. Similarly, Timms (1981) found water depth was
correlated with invertebrate abundance and community composition in three lakes
studied. In systems with water movement, macrophytes can significantly alter flow
patterns as demonstrated by Gregg and Rose (1985) who conducted manipulated
macrophyte trials in a flowing system and concluded reduced current velocities in
the macrophytes appeared to be the reason why invertebrates chose to occupy them.
Strayer et al. (2003) proposed that low dissolved oxygen (DO) levels in Trapa beds
may have reduced the amount of food available to predatory invertebrates, while
Gregg and Rose (1985) proposed that low DO levels at night was a possible cause for
reduced planktonic invertebrate numbers observed in dense beds in their
manipulated trials. The potential for seasonal die-off of dense macrophyte beds and
the consequential accumulation and breakdown of organic matter may also lead to
low DO levels and impacts on invertebrates (Smock and Stoneburner 1980).
3
Invertebrate preference for native or exotic macrophytes
Few studies have specifically compared the invertebrate communities of native and
exotic species of macrophytes – however some related studies have drawn
conclusions that compare invertebrate communities associated with native and
exotic macrophytes.
All of the studies found by this review were from countries other than Australia.
Findings from the studies are mixed with some showing clear differences in
invertebrate abundance, diversity and/or community composition between native
and exotic species and others no difference was demonstrated. In a study of
invertebrate communities associated with macrophyte species in a Canadian lake,
Keast (1984) found that the emergence of invertebrates was twice as high above
native macrophyte beds (i.e. Potamogeton sp. and Vallisneria sp.) than the exotic
beds (i.e. M. spicatum) and in the benthos beneath the native macrophyte beds, five
major taxa of prey invertebrate were five to seven times more abundant. Also, the
foliage of Potamogeton plus Vallisneria supported twice as many invertebrate per
square metre than M. spicatum. Keats (1984) concludes that the likely reason for
these patterns is the small substrate particle size beneath M. spicatum, which was
unfavourable for invertebrates. Other studies where M. spicatum were shown to
support fewer invertebrate species that native macrophytes include Soszka (1975)
and Cattaneo et al. (1998)
Balci and Kennedy (2003) also studied M. spicatum and compared the invertebrate
communities of that exotic species with the native water stargrass Heteranthera
dubia in a Texan reservoir. They found no significant difference in the species
richness between the native and exotic macrophyte beds and concluded that
temporal variation was the overriding determinant of invertebrate patterns in
abundance. Similarly, in a study on the invertebrate assemblages in a New Zealand
Effect of macrophytes on aquatic invertebrates – a literature review
lake, Biggs and Malthus (1982) found no clear preference (in terms of either numbers
of taxa, abundance or biomass) for native macrophytes, as opposed to exotic species.
4
Conclusion
The assessment of the literature relating to macrophytes and aquatic invertebrates
revealed that findings from the studies are divergent with respect to invertebrate
preference for native versus exotic macrophyte species, different macrophyte
species in general and different densities of macrophytes. Hence, the effect of exotic
species such as elodea, egeria and parrots feather on invertebrates in artificial
wetlands cannot be confidently ascertained from the literature alone.
Most studies have been undertaken in natural lakes and wetlands. Caution is needed
when extrapolating the results of these studies to artificial systems as artificial
systems exhibit altered water regimes and degraded water quality, which is likely to
influence the type of invertebrate community in these systems. Importantly, external
factors such as water quality and the relatively recent establishment of the wetlands
themselves may be overriding the effect of the macrophyte species on the
invertebrate communities present in the wetlands.
Knowledge gaps
The following knowledge gaps need to be overcome before an appropriate
assessment/experiment of the impact of the exotic species on aquatic invertebrates
can be determined (see also Appendix 2 for experimental design considerations).
•
The invertebrate community present in the artificial wetlands with and without
macrophytes needs to be ascertained (from existing data and/or sampling).
•
Water quality and hydrological data from the artificial wetlands needs to be
examined and its likely impact on invertebrate communities determined.
•
The value of an experiment to determine effects of exotic species on
invertebrates should be debated and pending the outcome of the debate, the
most appropriate experimental design should be determined.
5
Acknowledgements
Funding for this review was provided by Melbourne Water. David Bryant and Michael
Nicol, Freshwater Ecology, Department of Sustainability and Environment are
thanked for assisting with the literature search and review. Diane Crowther and
David Bryant, Freshwater Ecology, Department of Sustainability and Environment are
thanked for proof reading the document.
Effect of macrophytes on aquatic invertebrates – a literature review
6
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Miller, A.C., Beckett, D.C., David, C., Way, M. and Bacon E.J. (1989) The habitat value
of aquatic macrophytes for macroinvertebrates. US Army Engineers Waterway
Experimental Station. Technical Report A-89, Vicksburg, MS.
Nakai, S., Hosomi, M., Okada, M. and Murakami, A, (1996) Control of algal growth by
macrophytes and macrophyte-extracted bioactive compounds. Wat. Sci. Technol.
34: 227–235.
Nakai, S., Inoue, Y., Hosomi, M. and Murakami, A. (1999) Growth inhibition of bluegreen algae by allelopathic effect of macrophytes. Wat. Sci. Technol. 39:47–53.
Nakai, S., Inoue, Y., Hosomi, M. and Murakami, A. (2000) Myriophyllum spicatumreleased allelopathic polyphenols inhibiting growth of blue-green algae
Microcystis aeruginosa. Wat. Res. 34:3026–3032.
Newman, R.M., Kerfoot, W.C. and Hanscom, Z, III (1990) Watercress and amphipods:
potential chemical defenses in a spring stream macrophyte. J. Chem. Ecol. 16:245–
259.
Newman, R.M, Hanscom, Z. III and Kerfoot, W.C. (1992) The watercress glucosinolatemyrosinase system: a feeding deterrent to caddisflies, snails, and amphipods.
Oecologia 92:1–7.
Newman, M.R.M, Kerfoot, W.C. and Hanscom, Z. III (1996) Watercress allelochemical
defends high-nitrogen foliage against consumption: effects on freshwater
invertebrate herbivores. Ecology 77:2312–2323.
Nichols, S. A. and Shaw, B. H. (1986) Ecological life histories of the three aquatic
nuisance plants, Myriophyllum spicatum, Potamogeton crispus and Elodea
canadensis. Hydrobiologia, 131: 3-21.
Quade, H.W. (1969) Cladoceran faunas associated with aquatic macrophytes in some
lakes in northeastern Minnesota. Ecology 50:170-179
Rooke, B. (1986) Macroinvertebrates associated with macrophytes and plastic
imitations in the Eramosa River, Ontario, Canada. Archiv fuer Hydrobiologie
106(3): 307-325.
Saito, K., Matsumoto, M., Sekine, T. and Murakoshi, I. (1989) Inhibitory substances
from Myriophyllum brasiliense on growth of bluegreen algae. J. Nat. Prod.
52:1221–1226.
Sandilands, K. A. nd Hann, B. J. (1996) Effect of fish and submersed macrophytes on
the abundance of zooplankton in a prairie wetland. UFS (Delta Marsh) Annual
Report 31: 58-62.
Effect of macrophytes on aquatic invertebrates – a literature review
Shiel, R.J. (1976) Associations of Entomostraca with Weedbed Habitats in a Billabong
of the Goulburn River, Victoria. Australian Journal of Marine and Freshwater
Research 27: 533 - 549.
Siemens, D.H., Garner, S.H., Mitchell-Olds, T. and Callaway, R.M. (2002) Cost of
defense in the context of plant competition: Brassica rapa may grow and defend.
Ecology 83:505–517.
Smock, A. and Stoneburner, D.L. (1980) The Response of macroinvertebrates to
aquatic macrophyte decomposition. Oikos 35:397-403
Soszka, G.J. (1975) The invertebrates on macrophytes in three Masurian lakes.
Ekologia Polska 23:371-391
Strayer, D.L., Lutz, C., Malcom, H.M., Munger, K. and Shaw, W.H. (2003) Invertebrate
communities associated with a native (Vallisneria americana) and an alien
(Trapa natans) macrophyte in a large river. Freshwater Biology 48: 1938-1949.
Talbot, J. M. and Ward, J. C. (1987) Macroinvertebrates associated with aquatic
macrophytes in Lake Alexandrina, New Zealand. New Zealand Journal of Marine
and Freshwater Research 21(2): 199-213.
Thorp, A. G., Jones, R.C. And Kelso, D.P. (1997) A Comparison of Water-Column
Macroinvertebrate Communities in Beds of Differing Submersed Aquatic
Vegetation in the Tidal Freshwater Potomac River. Estuaries 20(1): 86-95.
Timms, B.V. (1981) Animal communities in three Victorian lakes of different
salinities. Hydrobiologia 81: 181-193.
Wollheim, W. M. and Lovvorn, J. R. (1996) Effects of macrophyte growth forms on
invertebrate communities in saline lakes of Wyoming High Plains. Hydrobiologia,
323: 83-96.
Unmuth, J.M.L., Lillie, R.A., Dreikosen, D.S. and Marshall, D.W. (2000) Influence of
dense growth of Eurasian watermilfoil on lake water temperature and dissolved
oxygen. Freshwater Ecology 15:497-503
Van Donk, E. and van de Bund, W.J. (2002) Impact of submerged macrophytes
including charophytes on phyto- and zooplankton communities: allelopathy
versus other mechanisms. Aquatic Botany. 72:261–274.
Wium-Andersen, S. (1987) Allelopathy among aquatic plants. Arch. Hydrobiol.
27:167–172.
11
Effect of macrophytes on aquatic invertebrates – a literature review
Appendix 1 – Summary of the literature reviewed.
Reference
Location
Balci, P. and Kennedy, J. H.
(2003). Comparison of
Chironomids and Other
Macroinvertebrates Associated
with Myriophyllum spicatum and
Heteranthera dubia. Journal of
Freshwater Ecology 18(2): 235247.
USA
Waterbody
Objective/Aim
Findings
Experimental
ponds
•
•
•
•
Investigate the influence of different plant
species on macroinvertebrate abundance
and community composition.
Examine the secondary productivity of
chironomids, the major macrofauna
associated with macrophytes.
•
•
•
Biggs, B. J. F. and. Malthus, T. J
(1982). Macroinvertebrates
associated with various aquatic
macrophytes in the backwaters
and lakes of the upper Clutha
Valley, New Zealand. New
Zealand Journal of Marine and
Freshwater Research 16(1): 8189.
New
Zealand
Cattaneo, A., Galanti, G.,
Gentinetta, S. and Romo, S.
(1998). Epiphytic algae and
macroinvertebrates on
submerged and floating-leaved
macrophytes in an Italian lake.
Freshwater Biology 39: 725-740.
Italy
Lago Di
Candia
Backwater
Lakes
•
A study of the macroinvertebrates
inhabiting the major aquatic macrophyte
communities in the Upper Clutha Valley.
•
•
•
•
Lake
•
•
•
To test the effect of different host
architecture on epiphytic algae and
invertebrates.
Three species tested – submerged
Myriophyllum spicatum and Ceratophyllum
demersum, Najas marina and floating
Trapa natans
With the aim of predicting consequences
for the lake of changes in predominant
vegetation.
•
•
•
•
•
•
Experimental ponds 30m x 16m x 50cm
Macrophyte morphology explained some of the variation
in the abundance of macroinvertebrates.
In general, plants with highly dissected leaves supported
larger macroinvertebrate populations than plants with
broader, undissected leaves.
Significant correlation between epiphyton and
macroinvertebrate abundance.
Suggested that the contributions of macroinvertebrates to
the aquatic communities (with respect to secondary
productivity) are similar in native and non-native plants.
Samples collected by SCUBA divers
Invertebrates showed a preference for certain
macrophyte taxa as habitat, however, no discussion of
architecture or theories on this finding.
All communities were dominated by Potamopyrgus
antipodarum.
There was no clear preference (in terms of either
numbers of taxa, abundance or biomass) for native
macrophytes, as opposed to adventive species.
Plant architecture affected the quantity of epiphyton.
Algae and macroinvertebrate density higher on
submerged plants.
Taxonomic composition of epiphytic algae and
macroinvertebrates was similar on the different plants.
Floating-leaved T natans had greater diversity of algae
but not macroinvertebrates.
Significant inverse relationship found between epiphyton
biomass and the biomass of the standing crop of the host
plant.
Replacement of floating-leaved macrophytes with
submerged plants will increase the total biomass of
epiphytic algae and invertebrates.
12
Effect of macrophytes on aquatic invertebrates – a literature review
Reference
Cheruvelil, K. S., Soranno, P. A.
and Madsen, J. D. (2001).
Epiphytic Macroinvertebrates
Along a Gradient of Eurasian
Watermilfoil Cover. Journal of
Aquatic Plant Management 39:
67-72.
Location
USA
Southern
Michigan
Waterbody
Lakes
Objective/Aim
Findings
•
•
•
•
Examine how milfoil cover affects the
interactions between macrophytes and
epiphytic macroinvertebrates.
Determine whether macroinvertebrate
density and biomass on the dominant plant
species in a lake varies predicably with
percent of littoral zone covered with milfoil.
Assess potential of Fluridone as a means
of Milfoil control.
•
•
•
Cyr, H. A. and Downing., J.A
(1988). The abundance of
phytophilous invertebrates on
different species of submerged
macrophytes. Freshwater Biology
20: 365-374.
Lakes,
Quebec,
Canada
Lakes
•
To test the hypothesis that macrophytes
with finely dissected leaves support higher
abundance of invertebrates than plants
with broad leaves.
•
•
•
•
•
•
Snorkelers sampled Macroinvertebrates using a 500
micron mesh bag with individual stems sampled.
Macroinvertebrate biomass did not show consistent
trends with milfoil cover while it was expected despite
milfoil leading to an increased SA:V ratio,
macroinvertebrate biomass would decrease due to thick
milfoil canopy reducing heterogeneity of macrophyte
beds.
Hypothesised that as samples were taken from
heterogenous macrophyte beds while milfoil often results
in homogeneous canopies, a true comparison may not
have been achieved.
The use of Fluridone reduced milfoil cover while having
no long term effects on macroinvertebrate biomass.
Ten lakes in Quebec, Canada sampled with
Myriophyllum spp., Ceratophyllum spp., Potamogeton
spp., Vallisneria sp.
Abundance of invertebrates not systematically related to
level of dissection.
Macrophytes with finely divided leaves did not support
more macroinvertebrate per unit plant biomass that
plants with larger leaves.
Larger plants might be more suitable to support heavy
crawling invertebrates.
Elodea often supports more gastropods than more fragile
plants such as Chara and Myriophyllum.
Abundance of epiphytic invertebrates is probably related
to a suite of factors including plant morphology, surface
texture, epiphytic algal growth and community
composition, nutrient content of plant tissues and
presence of defensive chemicals.
13
Effect of macrophytes on aquatic invertebrates – a literature review
Reference
Douglas, M. M. and O'Connor R.
A. (2003). Effects of the exotic
macrophyte, para grass
(Urochloa mutica), on benthic and
epiphytic macroinvertebrates of a
tropical floodplain. Freshwater
Biology 48(6): 962-971.
Location
Australia
(tropical)
Waterbody
Magela
Creek
Objective/Aim
Findings
•
•
Examine the effect of the exotic
macrophyte, para grass, on benthic and
epiphytic macroinvertebrates of a tropical
floodplain.
•
•
Dvorak, J. A. and Best, E.P.H.
(1982). Macro-invertebrate
communities associated with
macrophytes of Lake Vechten:
structural and functional
relationships. Hydrobiologia 95:
115-126.
Lake
Vechten
The
Netherland
s
Lake
•
Study the structure and size of the
macroinvertebrate communities associated
with eight species of macrophytes in the
lake.
•
•
Macroinvertebrate richness, abundance and community
similarity showed very few differences among the grass
communities, particularly in the epiphytic habitat. Benthic
invertebrates showed some differences among grasses,
with lower richness and abundance and different
community structure associated with Hymenachne.
Herbicide control of para grass had no apparent effect on
benthic invertebrates but reduced the abundance of
epiphytic invertebrates in the short term.
The results of this study indicate that para grass has very
little impact on macroinvertebrate communities, despite
the changes to macrophyte communities. This is
probably because para grass has similar physical
structure to the native grasses and because none of
these grasses contribute directly to aquatic food webs.
Control of para grass using herbicide has little impact on
aquatic invertebrates. This suggests that predicting the
impact of weed invasion in wetlands requires an
understanding of both the functional properties of
macrophytes and the habitat preferences of the
macroinvertebrates
SCUBA diving used to sample macrophytes
Distribution of macroinvertebrates depended on
colonisable plant surface area and vegetation density.
14
Effect of macrophytes on aquatic invertebrates – a literature review
Reference
Ervin, G. N. and. Wetzel, R.G.
(2003). An ecological perspective
of allelochemical interference in
land–water interface
communities. Plant and Soil 256:
13-28.
Location
Literature
Review
Waterbody
Literature
Review
Objective/Aim
Findings
•
•
Literature review
•
•
•
•
Among the species presently known to produce anti-algal
compounds are: Chara spp., Ceratophyllum demersum,
Myriophyllum spicatum, Myriophyllum brasiliense (M.
aquaticum), Hottonia palustris and the bryophyte
Fontinalis antipyretica.
Hydrolyzablepolyphenolic compounds (tannins) from
Myriophyllum aquaticum demonstrated significant
suppressive activity against cyanobacteria; such
compounds were isolated from plant material and from
waters surrounding live plants, indicating an active
production and release. Similar properties were shown
for hydrolyzable polyphenolic compounds from
Myriophyllum spicatum and sulfur-containing compounds
from Ceratophyllum spp.
Other work has demonstrated experimentally the
deterrent properties of glucosinolate compounds to have
dual allelopathic /anti-herbivory properties in watercress
(Nasturtium officinale) to feeding by the omnivorous
amphipod Gammarus pseudolimnaeus, the snail
Physella gyrina, and a suite of Trichoptera (caddisfly)
larvae. The ecological benefit of multiple functionality of
such compounds, however, remains to be demonstrated
in aquatic systems.
In studies of the effects of atmospheric CO2 enrichment
on macrophyte growth and decomposition, fungal
biomass and growth rates were demonstrated to be
markedly lower (25–50%) on the more recalcitrant
particulate organic matter of plants grown in elevated
CO2 concentrations that also possess lower tissue N
concentrations.
Bacterial development on detrital surfaces was also
appreciably reduced by nearly an order of magnitude on
elevated CO2-grown tissues. Detritivorous invertebrates
feeding on these more recalcitrant organic materials and
their microbial epiphytes consumed less, assimilated
less, and grew 12 times more slowly than their
counterparts fed on microbes associated with plant
tissues grown on ambient CO2 concentrations.
15
Effect of macrophytes on aquatic invertebrates – a literature review
Reference
Location
Gregg, W. W. and Rose, F. L.
(1985) Influences of aquatic
macrophytes on invertebrate
community structure, guild
structure, and microdistribution in
streams. Hydrobiologia, 128:4556.
USA
Hann, B. J. (1995). Invertebrate
associations with submersed
aquatic plants in a prairie
wetland. UFS Delta Marsh
Annual Report. Winnipeg,
Manitoba, Department of
Zoology, University of Manitoba.
30: 78-84.
USA
Winnipeg,
Manitoba
Waterbody
River
Prairie
Wetland
Objective/Aim
Findings
•
Study the influences of macrophytes on
invertebrates in streams (Macrophytes
previously shown by the authors to alter
conditions of current velocity, substrate
and detritus/diatom availability in the
stream microhabitat).
•
• Determine if the structure and relative
abundances of invertebrates differ between
plant taxa (Ceratophyllum demersum,
Potamogeton zosteriformis and Chara).
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Hanson, J. M. (1990).
Macroinvertebrate sizedistributions of two contrasting
freshwater macrophyte
communities. Freshwater Biology
24: 481-491.
Narrow
Lake,
Canada
Lake
• Compare size distributions of benthic
macroinvertebrates between Chara and
rooted plants.
•
•
•
•
•
•
Macrophytes were shown to increase stream invertebrate
taxa richness and abundance, particularly that of
shredders, scrapers and predators, and more so in
Autumn than in Spring. Some groups of invertebrates
were found to avoid the macrophytes.
Reduced current velocities in the macrophytes appears
to be what causes the invertebrates to choose to occupy
them (bugs are known to have current velocity
preferences). However the increase in microhabitats
created by plants, and their large surface area, are also
considered to benefit invertebrate abundances by adding
habitat to the water column that would otherwise not be
there (ie. compared to open water, no plants).
Macrophytes and Chara sampled using Downing sampler.
Species composition generally similar between different
plants
Many species favoured Ceratophyllum and Potamogeton
in preference to Chara even though Chara and
Ceratophyllum are more similar morphologically.
Very low abundance of many species associated with
Chara may be due to allelochemical properties of the
taxon.
No preference found with gastropods.
Fewer planktonic invertebrates associated with dense
macrophyte beds – possibly due to low oxygen at night
and physical conditions detrimental to filtering and
feeding activities.
Macrophytes/substrate sampled using an Ekman grab
sampler.
Macroinvertebrates on macrophytes and sediment not
differentiated.
Chara had consistently higher and significantly greater
invertebrate abundance than rooted plants.
Chara beds dominated by chironomids, anisopterans,
gastropods and sphaeridae.
Rooted plants dominated by amphipods.
Species composition of macrophyte beds can greatly
influence abundance size structure and composition of
macroinvertebrates.
16
Effect of macrophytes on aquatic invertebrates – a literature review
Reference
Humphries, P. (1996) Aquatic
macrophytes, macroinvertebrate
associations and water levels in a
lowland Tasmanian river.
Hydrobiologia, 321: 219-233.
Location
Tasmania
Australia
Waterbody
River
Objective/Aim
Findings
•
•
Measure invertebrate abundance/richness
and describe the invertebrate
assemblages associated with three
species of macrophytes, and examine their
response to changes in water levels
•
•
•
•
•
Keast, A. (1984). The introduced
aquatic macrophyte,
Myriophyllum spicatum, as a
habitat for fish and their
invertebrate prey. Canadian
Journal of Zoology 62: 12891303.
Lake
Opinicon,
Canada
Lake
•
Investigate the distribution and abundance
of fish species and their prey invertebrates
by comparing them (i) before and after the
milfoil invasion and (ii) in communities of
M. spicatum and Potamogeton-Vallisneria.
•
•
•
•
•
•
Other studies have found that different macrophytes
support different invertebrates > often attributed to
differences in plant architecture resulting in differences in
microhabitats available to invertebrates.
The three plant species. used in the study each had
different dissectedness of its stems/leaves (architecture),
and different locations in the littoral zone (depth) of the
lowland river studied
Greatest abundance was found at all times (or with
decreasing flow) with the plant that was the most
structurally complex and occupying the shallowest
position in the littoral zone. However it often had lower
associated invertebrate richness when compared to the
other two, structurally simpler and deeper, plant species.
Water depth and total plant biomass often correlated with
invertebrate abundance/richness, however the
relationships were different for each of the three plant
species/
Species of inverts are not evenly distributed across the
species of macrophytes.
Water levels and their influence on macrophytes as
invertebrate habitat may play an integral part in
determining invertebrate abundance /richness and
assemblages in rivers.
M. spicatum supported fewer isopods, chironomids, and
trichopteran larvae.
In the benthos beneath the native macrophyte beds, five
major taxa of prey invertebrate were five to seven times
more abundant.
Foliage of Potamogeton plus Vallisneria supported twice
as many invertebrates per square metre than M.
spicatum.
Emergence of invertebrates was twice as high above
native beds.
These results may be due to the greater plant biomass
and diversity as previously found.
Some authors note that plants with finely divided leaves
provide better substrate for invertebrates than those with
simple leaves, however it has also been found that M.
spicatum had the poorest fauna of eight species studied,
consistent with the present study.
17
Effect of macrophytes on aquatic invertebrates – a literature review
Reference
Location
Krecker, H. F. (1939). A
comparative study of the animal
population of certain submereged
aquatic plants. Ecology 20(4):
553-562.
Lake Eerie,
USA
Waterbody
Lake
Objective/Aim
Findings
•
•
Compare the invertebrates present on
seven different macrophyte species.
•
•
•
•
•
•
Lodge, D. M. (1985). Macrophytegastropod associations:
observations and experiments on
macrophyte choice by
gastropods. Freshwater Biology
15: 695-708.
Radley
Pond
England
Lake
Lodge, D. M. (1991). Herbivory
on freshwater macrophytes.
Aquatic Botany 41: 195-224.
Literature
Review
Literature
Review
•
•
•
•
Distribution and abundance of several
periphyton pulmonate snails described.
Associations between macrophyte species
tested.
•
•
Sweep sampling method most effective.
Preference for macrophytes by snails linked to periphyton
preference.
Literature review of grazers (moose, snails
and carp)
Experimental work (crayfish)
•
Nutrient concentrations not limiting grazing on
macrophytes
Preference unrelated to commonly measured plant
physical and chemical characteristics (such as cellulose
content, micronutrients etc.)
Some evidence that phenolic content may be a grazing
deterrent.
•
•
Nichols, S. A. and Shaw, B. H.
(1986) Ecological life histories of
the three aquatic nuisance plants,
Myriophyllum spicatum,
Potamogeton crispus and Elodea
canadensis. Hydrobiologia, 131:
3-21.
North
America
Both
•
Sampled by snipping lengths of macrophytes and
standardising data to 20 foot lengths.
Macroinvertebrate identified to genus where possible.
Species richness: Elodea had the highest number of
taxon (6) and Vallisneria the least (4).
Abundance: Myriophyllum spictatum had the greatest
abundance and Vallisneria the least.
Chironomids, caddis larva and flatworm found on all
species.
Annelids abundant on Myriophyllum and chironomids
abundant on Potamogeton crispus.
Macrophytes with dissected leaves suit annelids and
chironomids, Elodea less suitable but Hydra abundant.
Define the life history characteristics of
Myriophyllum spicatum, Potamogeton
crispus and Elodea canadensis (serious
aquatic nuisances in many regions of the
world) which allow them to compete so
successfully in the aquatic environment
and discuss what additional information is
needed to better manage the plants.
•
•
•
All three species possess a number of adaptations,
including an ability to rapidly propagate vegetatively, an
opportunistic nature for obtaining nutrients, a life cycle
that favours cool weather, and a number of mechanisms
which enhance photosynthetic efficiency.
The three species provide benefits to the ecosystem
through their roles in primary productivity, therefore
management should take this into account.
The life history information of the species in question is
incomplete and better understanding of resource gain
and allocation is needed to manage all three species.
18
Effect of macrophytes on aquatic invertebrates – a literature review
Reference
Rooke, B. (1986).
Macroinvertebrates associated
with macrophytes and plastic
imitations in the Eramosa River,
Ontario, Canada. Archiv fuer
Hydrobiologie 106(3): 307-325.
Location
Eramosa
River
Canada
Waterbody
River
Objective/Aim
Findings
•
•
•
•
To discover if there were differences
amongst the invertebrate fauna of several
real macrophytes and a few plastic
imitations in a short reach of running
water.
•
•
•
Sandilands, K. A. and Hann, B. J.
(1996). Effect of fish and
submersed macrophytes on the
abundance of zooplankton in a
prairie wetland. UFS (Delta
Marsh) Annual Report 31: 58-62.
Shiel, R. J. (1976). Associations
of Entomostraca with Weedbed
Habitats in a Billabong of the
Goulburn River, Victoria.
Australian Journal of Marine and
Freshwater Research 27: 533 549.
Canada
Prairie
Wetland
•
•
Victoria
Billabong
•
PVC cylinder used to sample macrophytes.
Differences between macrophytes were evident.
Greatest abundance on plants with most dissected
leaves.
Plastic imitations supported very different abundances to
real plants hence leaf form not only important factor –
also periphyton, surface microstructure, and organic
exudates.
Differences between forms of plastic plants indicate that
form is important.
Similar community composition of plastic to real plants.
Examine the effects of planktivorous fish
on the zooplankton community.
Determine if submersed macrophytes
provide a refuge for phytophilous
zooplankton against predation from fish.
•
Macrophytes provide refuge for zooplankton from fish
predation with fish reducing abundance in more open
water before reducing the abundance within macrophyte
beds.
Describes the composition of
microcrustacean communities associated
with beds of various hydrophytes in a
billabong.
•
•
Infers partitioning into microhabitats within weed beds.
Makes mention of different surface texture of different
plant species favouring particular taxa.
19
Effect of macrophytes on aquatic invertebrates – a literature review
Reference
Strayer, D. L., Lutz, C., Malcom,
H.M., Munger, K. and Shaw,
W.H. (2003). Invertebrate
communities associated with a
native (Vallisneria americana)
and an alien (Trapa natans)
macrophyte in a large river.
Freshwater Biology 48: 19381949.
Location
USA
Waterbody
Freshwater
Tidal River
Objective/Aim
Findings
•
•
Compare the macroinvertebrate faunas
(including both epiphytic and benthic
animals) of Trapa with those of nearby
beds of Vallisneria, the species it is
thought to have displaced.
•
•
•
•
•
Talbot, J. M. and Ward, J. C.
(1987). Macroinvertebrates
associated with aquatic
macrophytes in Lake
Alexandrina, New Zealand. New
Zealand Journal of Marine and
Freshwater Research 21(2): 199213.
Thorp, A. G., Jones,R.C.
And Kelso,D.P. (1997). A
Comparison of Water-Column
Macroinvertebrate Communities
in Beds of Differing Submersed
Aquatic Vegetation in the Tidal
Freshwater Potomac River.
Estuaries 20(1): 86-95.
Lake
Alexandrina
New
Zealand
Lake
USA
Virginia
Tidal
Freshwater
River
•
•
•
•
•
•
Macroinvertebrates collected when
samples of aquatic macrophytes were
taken for biomass and productivity studies.
Trophic categories identified and patterns
in abundance and biomass of
macroinvertebrate species in six
macrophyte communities and a sub littoral
community were studies over a 2-5 year
period.
Investigates the influence of submerged
aquatic vegetation on water-column
macroinvertebrate abundance and
community composition.
Compares open water to macrophyte
macroinvertebrate assemblages.
Compares macroinvertebrate
assemblages between different
macrophyte beds.
Compares macroinvertebrate
assemblages over time in macrophyte
beds.
•
•
•
•
•
The density of epiphytic macroinvertebrates was
positively correlated with plant biomass.
The density of benthic macroinvertebrates was nearly
unrelated to plant biomass, except for being low in
entirely unvegetated areas.
Effects of site and plant species on density (per unit
biomass of plant) of both epiphytic and benthic
macroinvertebrates were weak and inconsistent.
The two macrophytes supported different kinds of
invertebrates leading to an increase in biodiversity.
Low DO levels in Trapa beds may reduce the amount of
food available to predators.
Lack of congruence among studies suggests either that
the macroinvertebrate communities are so variable
across beds or years that all underlying patterns are
obscured or that the ecological role of an aquatic plant
depends on the environmental context into which it is
placed.
Mostly species-specific results/discussion.
Sampling was performed using a 500 micron mesh
around a weighted frame that was lowered over the
sample area. Using SCUBA a draw string was tightened
10 cm above the surface and plant shoots severed.
Higher richness and abundance were recorded in
macrophyte beds when compared to open water.
Differences between different macrophyte beds were less
striking with temporal influences appearing to complicate
findings. Most taxa demonstrated a significant interaction
between plant type and month of sampling.
In a study utilising artificial plants in the same area fish
predation was shown to strongly impact odonate and
chironomid numbers.
20
Effect of macrophytes on aquatic invertebrates – a literature review
Reference
Timms, B.V. (1981). Animal
communities in three Victorian
lakes of different salinities.
Hydrobiologia 81: 181-193.
Location
Australia
Victoria
Waterbody
Lakes
Objective/Aim
Findings
•
•
A comparison of the effects of differing
salinity in inland lakes on their animal
communities (vertebrates, zooplankton,
net invertebrates).
•
•
Wollheim, W. M. and Lovvorn, J.
R. (1996) Effects of macrophyte
growth forms on invertebrate
communities in saline lakes of
Wyoming High Plains.
Hydrobiologia, 323: 83-96.
USA
Wyoming
Saline Lakes
•
•
Explores the effects on invertebrate
communities of changes in macrophyte
species and growth forms between
oligosaline (0.8-4.2mS/cm) and
mesosaline (9.3-23.5 mS/cm) lakes of the
Wyoming High Plains.
Paper not relevant
•
•
Invertebrate communities were compared (average
similarities) between Triglochin, Scirpus, Potamogeton,
Myriophyllum and Ruppia.
Observed differences were attributed to two factors. 1)
Basic plant morphology, and 2) closeness of the leafy
parts of the plant to the substratum.
The emergent Scirpus has round stems while Triglochin
leaves are thick and ribbon-like and hence both provide
similar gross physical features. Myriophyllum and Ruppia
are both fine leaved but do not harbour similar
communities because Ruppia grows close to the
substratum while Myriophyllum has long stalks and most
of its leaves are clustered near the surface. The
community in Potamogeton was intermediate between
those of Ruppia and Triglochin since a good proportion of
the plant is near the substratum, yet its leaves are broad.
Conclude weed-bed structure is the dominant factor.
N/A
21
Effect of macrophytes on aquatic invertebrates – a literature review
Appendix 2 - Experimental considerations
Sampling methods and options
There are many approaches to sampling macrophytes that vary according the
objectives of the study and study location. Such methods include sweep nets (e.g.
Lodge 1995), SCUBA divers or snorkellers that use mesh nets or other devices to
remove plants (e.g. Biggs and Malthis 1982, Dvorak and Best 1982, Talbot and Ward
1986, Thorp et al. 1997, Cheruvelil 2001), box samplers (Downing and Cyr 1985,
Downing 1986), coring tubes that cover plants and press into the substratum (e.g.
Strayer et al. 2003) or other forms such as tong-like devices that snip off sections of
plant (e.g. Marklund 2000). The appropriateness of a particular method will vary
according to the macrophyte species sampled, water depth, water clarity and the
target organisms to be collected (e.g. benthic, epiphytic etc.).
Mesocosm experiments (e.g. large tubs) have also been used to test differences
between macrophyte species with respect to invertebrate preference and community
composition (e.g. Balci and Kennedy 2003) – these studies appear less common than
studies undertaken in waterbodies. Experiments using artificial macrophytes (i.e.
plastic plants) have been used and is worthy of consideration (e.g. Rooke 1986).
Temporal considerations
The plant community may change during the growing seasons, with a resultant
change in community composition and dominance of species. Wetlands are very
dynamic environments where macroinvertebrate community structure may vary
throughout the growing season. (Thorp et al. 1997). Hence, temporal effects may be
significant as has been found by many researchers (e.g. Humphries 1996, Thorp et al.
1997, Balci and Kennedy 2003). It has been postulated this may be due to changes in
epiphyton growth (Miller et al. 1989, Cattaneo et al. 1998).
Experimental considerations
•
•
•
The scale of the experiment, i.e. whether a microcosm, mesocosm or wetland
design is appropriate.
The target organisms – i.e. whether to target a limited suite of invertebrate
species or examine effects at the community level.
The timing of the experiment – be mindful of likely temporal effects.
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