Musical Culture and Society in Paris, 1830-1900
G46.2530
Dr Katharine Ellis, Visiting Professor
This course explores the diversity of musical life in Paris from the end of the Restoration through the turn of the
20th century. It examines the social and historical contexts that affected musical performance, musical repertory and
musical thought from the July Monarchy to the turn of the twentieth century. The professional culture of art music is
foregrounded, but there are also sessions on working-class music and amateur music-making. Seminars early in the
course focus on the structures of musical life and on specific repertories (opera, piano music and instrumental music,
for instance). Later seminars broaden into discussions of some of the most important themes which characterise this
musical period: issues of nationalism, heritage/identity, gender and the formation of a canon of ‘masterworks’. Two
seminars act as historical reference points: the first on the Romantic generation, and a second on musical life around
1900. A central paradox emerges from the course: given that Paris was one, if not the centre of musical activity
throughout the century, why did the Parisian intelligentsia suffer a severe lack of confidence in their own culture?
Students do not need to have a university-level training in Music to follow this course successfully, since it centres on
the importance of institutions and ideas in the shaping of a musical culture. Very few of the required readings contain
music examples. Nevertheless, an active interest in music of the Western classical tradition (and not necessarily
French music of the nineteenth century) will be an advantage to students. Secondary source readings as outlined
below will be supplemented by primary materials discussed in seminars. During the course we will focus on the
importance of close reading of these primary documents, to extract as much evidence as possible about what they
reveal of attitudes towards musical culture.
*********
In the lists of reading that follow, asterisked items are required reading for each seminar (and have been provided as
photocopied offprints); other items are complementary material to which I shall sometimes refer in seminars, and
which may be useful to you in the preparation of two written assignments, details of which will be made available at
the start of the course.
Seminar 1 10 September Nineteenth-century Paris as a cultural centre
This seminar sets the scene, explaining the ‘map’ of musical activity in Western Europe during the period, and the
map of musical Paris. It also explores the various regimes under which musicians worked, and introduces the issues
that will characterise the course.
*Ringer, Alexander L.: ‘The Rise of Urban Musical Life between the Revolutions, 1789-1848', in The Early Romantic
Era. Between Revolutions: 1789 and 1848, ed. Alexander L. Ringer (Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall, 1990), 1-31
*Eigeldinger, Jean-Jacques: ‘1830-1870: éléments d’une trajectoire musicale’, in La musique en France à l’époque
Romantique, 1830-1870, ed. J.-M. Bailbé et al. (Paris: Flammarion, 1991), 7-19
*Brody, Elaine: Paris: the Musical Kaleidoscope, 1870-1925 (London: Robson Books, 1988), 77-96 (Music at the
Great
Expositions)
Olsen, Donald: The City as a Work of Art: London, Paris, Vienna (New Haven & London: Yale University Press,
1986),
210-34
Seminar 2 17 September The structures (and strictures) of musical life
This seminar addresses a central question: what factors shaped musical life and/or constrained musical
entrepreneurs? Some originated with the State (France was an extremely bureaucratic society); others were financial,
social or aesthetic.
*Cooper, Jeffrey: The Rise of Instrumental Music and Concert Series in Paris, 1828-71 (Ann Arbor: UMI Research
Press,
1983), 13-21
*Lacombe, Hervé: The Keys to French Opera, trans. Edouard Schneider (Berkeley, Los Angeles & London: U. of
California Press, 2001), 9-32
Krakowitch, Odile: ‘L’opéra-comique et la censure’, in Die Opera Comique und ihr Einfluss auf das Europaïsche
Musiktheater im 19. Jahrhundert, ed. Herbert Schneider & Nicole Wild (Hildesheim, Zürich & New York:
Georg Olms, 1997), 211-34, esp. 224-34
Ferey, Mathieu: ‘Le Conservatoire et la politique culturelle de l’État au XIXe siècle: cent ans de décisions
budgétaires’, in Le Conservatoire de Paris: regards sur une institution et son histoire, ed. Emmanuel Hondré (Paris:
Assn du Bureau des Étudiants du CNSMDP, 1995), 237-54
Bloom, Peter: ‘Berlioz’s Directorship of the Théâtre-Italien’, in Échos de France & d’Italie: liber amicorum Yves
Gérard,
ed. Marie-Claire Mussat, Jean Mongrédien & Jean-Michel Nectoux (Paris: Buchet-Chastel, 1997), 137-52
Wright, Lesley: ‘Bias, Influence, and Bizet’s Prix de Rome’, 19th Century Music, 15 (1991-2), 215-28
Seminar 3 24 September Opera and the national theatres
Despite increasing concert activity during the period, opera remained the central focus of professional musical life in
Paris. This seminar focuses on its function within Parisian society, analysing the nature of its repertories and its
audiences, and seeking to explain its dominant place in the minds of aspirant composers.
*Gerhard, Anselm: The Urbanization of Opera: Music Theater in Paris in the Nineteenth Century, trans. Mary Whittall
(Chicago: U. of Chicago Press, 1998), 17-40
*Lacombe, Hervé: The Keys to French Opera, trans. Edouard Schneider (Berkeley, Los Angeles & London: U. of
California Press, 2001), 209-25
Huebner, Steven: ‘Opera Audiences in Paris, 1830-1870', Music & Letters, 70 (1989), 206-25
Macdonald, Hugh: ‘From opéra-comique to opéra-sérieux’, Rivista de musicologià, 16 (1993), 1-9
Patureau, Frédérique: La palais Garnier dans la société parisienne, 1875-1914 (Sprimont: Pierre Mardaga, 1991)
Seminar 4 1 October Concert life
Concert life embraced wealthy amateur and professional traditions alike. In this seminar we consider the evolution of
concert life throughout the period, and its contribution to the establishment of a canon of ‘master’ musicians.
*Cooper, Jeffrey: The Rise of Instrumental Music and Concert Series in Paris, 1828-71 (Ann Arbor: UMI Research
Press,
1983), 135-67
*Bernard, Élisabeth: ‘Musique et communication’: les formes du concert’, in La musique en France à l’époque
Romantique,
1830-1870, ed. J.-M. Bailbé et al. (Paris: Flammarion, 1991), 59-99
Johnson, James: Listening in Paris: a Cultural History (Berkeley, Los Angeles & London: U. of California Press, 1995),
257-69
Campos, Rémy: La renaissance introuvable? Entre curiosité et militantisme: la Société des concerts de musique vocale
religieuse et
classique du prince de la Moskowa (1843-1846) (Paris: Klincksieck, 2000), 59-81
Seminar 5 8 October Virtuosity and domesticity: the centrality of the piano
The piano represented the height of instrument technology in a field where the French were pre-eminent (until 1867).
It was central to the definition of the ‘virtuoso’ recitalist during the period, but also functioned in the domestic
sphere as a medium for the expression of female social accomplishments.
*Ehrlich, Cyril: The Piano: a History (revised edn, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1990), 108-27
*Murphy, Kerry: ‘Liszt and Virtuosity in the 1830s: the Artist as Romantic Hero’, in Essays in Honour of David Evatt
Tunley (Nedlands, AUS: U. of Western Australia, 1995), 91-104
*Kallberg, Jeffrey: ‘The Harmony of the Tea Table: Gender and Ideology in the Piano Nocturne’, in Chopin at the
Boundaries: Sex, History, and Musical Genre (Cambridge, MA, & London: Harvard University Press, 1996),
30-45 only
Leung-Wolf, Elaine: Women, Music and the Salon Tradition: its Cultural and Historical Significance in Parisian
Musical Society
(DMA Diss. New York: Julliard School, 1996), 202-33
Seminar 6 15 October The Romantic generation
This seminar focuses on the inter-relations between artists, musicians and novelists during the 1830s and ‘40s,
Romantic images of the artist in French writings, and music’s close relationship with other arts.
*Haar, James: ‘Berlioz and the “first opera”’, 19th Century Music, 3 (1979-80), 32-41
*Dale, Catherine: ‘The Mirror of Romanticism: Images of Music, Religion, and Art Criticism in George Sand’s
Eleventh Lettre d’un voyageur to Giacomo Meyerbeer’, Music Review, 54 (1993), 198-226
*Johnson, James: Listening in Paris: a Cultural History (Berkeley, Los Angeles & London: U. of California Press,
1995),
270-85
Berlioz, Hector: Memoirs, trans. David Cairns (London: Gollancz, 1977)
Miner, Margaret: ‘Phantoms of Genius: Women and the Fantastic in the Opera-House Mystery’, 19th Century Music,
18 (1994-5), 121-35
Seminar 7 22 October Critics and the shaping of musical taste
The 1830s saw the first signs of a healthy market for a specifically musical press. Critics working for newspapers and
specialist journals alike had considerable influence on musical tastes, irrespective of whether they set out to ‘educate’
the public or not. This seminar analyses the fraught, politically -charged and sometimes corrupt relationship between
composers, performers and the press.
*Lacombe, Hervé: The Keys to French Opera, trans. Edouard Schneider (Berkeley, Los Angeles & London: U. of
California Press, 2001), 67-82
*Spies, André Michael: Opera, State and Society in the Third Republic, 1875-1914 (New York: Peter Lang, 1998),
139-64
*Reeve, Katherine Kolb: ‘Rhetoric and Reason in French Music Criticism of the 1830s’, in Music in Paris in the
Eighteen-Thirties, ed. Peter Bloom (Stuyvesant, NY: Pendragon Press, 1987), 537-51
Goubault, Christian: La critique musicale dans la presse française de 1870 à 1914 (Geneva & Paris: Slatkine, 1984)
Barbier, Patrick: Opera in Paris, 1800-1850: a Lively History, trans. Robert G. Luoma (Portland, OR: Amadeus Press,
1995), chapter 7
Seminar 8 29 October Music for the masses
Wealthy amateurs had their choral societies and Sociétés Philharmoniques; the equivalent, for men of the artisan and
working classes, was the ‘orphéon’ society. This seminar explores how a culture was created for the lower classes by
their social superiors, as an attempt both to civilise and control them.
*Gerbod, Paul: ‘Vox populi’, in La musique en France à l’époque romantique, 1830-1870, ed. J.-M. Bailbé et al. (Paris:
Flammarion, 1991), 231-55
*Fulcher, Jane: ‘The Orphéon Societies: “Music for the Workers” in Second-Empire France’, International Review of
the
Aesthetics and Sociology of Music 1 (1979), 47-56.
*Murphy, Kerry: ‘Joseph Mainzer’s “sacred and beautiful mission”: and Aspect of Parisian Musical Life of the
1830s’, Music & Letters, 75 (1994), 33-46
Gumplowicz, Philippe: Les travaux d’Orphée: 150 ans de vie musicale amateur en France (Paris: Aubier, 1987)
Seminar 9 5 November Women as professional musicians
Women faced particular obstacles when they left the amateur arena to follow careers in music. Social convention
limited the instruments they could play, and their work was publicly judged almost exclusively by men. This seminar
explores the implications of a woman’s decision to become a professional musician in nineteenth-century Paris.
*Friedland, Bea: Louise Farrenc (1804-1875): Composer, Performer, Scholar (Ann Arbor: UMI Research Press, 1980),
25-40
*Pasler, Jann: ‘The Ironies of Gender, or, Virility and Politics in the Music of Augusta Holmès’, Women and Music, 2
(1998), 1-25
Citron, Marcia J.: Gender and the Musical Canon (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993)
Seminar 10 12 November Nationalism
Nationalisms of different hues were particularly apparent in Paris after the Franco-Prussian War and the Commune.
This seminar concentrates on the post-war period, analysing several cases of nationalist activity aimed at
promoting/elevating the status of French musical culture in the eyes of the French themselves, and the outside
world.
*Zeldin, Théodore: A History of French Passions ii: Intellect, Taste and Anxiety (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1973), 3-28
*Fauser, Annegret: ‘Gendering the Nations: the Ideologies of French Discourse on Music (1870-1914), in Music and
Nationalism: Re-evaluations of the History and Ideology of European Musical Culture, 1830-1945, ed. Michael
Murphy
& Harry White (Cork: Cork University Press, forthcoming [typescript])
*Duchesneau, Michel: L’avant-garde musicale à Paris de 1871 à 1939 (Sprimont: Pierre Mardaga, 1997), 15-30
Tombs, Robert: France 1814-1914 (London &New York: Longman, 1996), 312-20
Seminar 11 19 November Wagnerism
Wagner, who never had an operatic success in Paris during his lifetime, nevertheless became an icon after his death.
In this seminar we trace the history of Wagnerian (and anti-Wagnerian) activity during the period, focusing especially
on the 1880s, when Wagnerism was at its height.
*Turbow, Gerald D.: ‘Art and Politics: Wagnerism in France’, in Wagnerism in European Culture and Politics, ed.
David
Large and William Weber (Ithaca & London: Cornell University Press, 1984), 134-66.
*Huebner, Steven: French Opera at the fin de siècle: Wagnerism, Nationalism, and Style (Oxford & New York: Oxford
University Press, 1999), 1-21
Chimènes, Myriam: ‘Élites sociales et pratiques wagnériennes: de la propagande au snobisme’, in Vom Wagner zum
Wagnérisme: Musik, Literatur, Kunst, Politik (Leipzig: Leipziger Universitätsverlag, 1999), 155-97
Seminar 12 26 November Early Music, Heritage and Identity
This seminar discusses the return to early French music as a nationalist phenomenon which took place partly in
reaction to perceptions of German domination after 1870.
*Cannone, Belinda: ‘L’éclipse de la musique baroque au début du 19e siècle’, Dix-huitième siècle, no. 26 (1994), 523-
38
*Messing, Scott: Neoclassicism in Music: from the Genesis of the Concept through the Schoenberg/Stravinsky Polemic
(Ann Arbor,
1988/R Rochester, 1996), 1-24
Sabatier, François: Miroirs de la musique: la musique et ses correspondances avec la littérature et les beaux-arts. XIXeXXe siècles,
vol. 2 (Paris: Fayard, 1995), 179-214
Rohan-Csermak, Henri de: ‘La canonisation de Palestrina et la mutation de la musique sacrée en France au XIXe
siècle’, Ostinato rigore, 4 (1994), 199-214
Seminar 13 3 December Snapshot: c1900
This seminar examines the diversity of musical life around the year 1900 (when Paris staged another Exposition
Universelle). At this point in the course its role is to help illuminate the continuities and contrasts between musical
culture (and attitudes) of the 1830s and those of the fin de siècle.
*Whiting, Stephen Moore: Satie the Bohemian (Oxford & New York: Clarendon Press, 1999), 130-71
*Fulcher, Jane F.: French Cultural Politics & Music: from the Dreyfus Affair to the First World War (New York &
Oxford:
Oxford University Press, 1999), 24-48
Huebner, Steven: ‘Between Anarchism and the Box Office: Gustave Charpentier’s Louise’, 19th Century Music, 19
(1995-6), 136-60
Seminar 14 10 December Conclusion: explaining continuity and change, 1830-1900
Student position statements and general discussion. No required reading.
Select Bibliography
Secondary Sources (general)
Bongrain, Anne, & Yves Gérard (eds.): Le Conservatoire de Paris: des Menus-Plaisirs à la Cité de la Musique, 17951995
(Paris: Buchet-Chastel, 1996)
Cannone, Belinda: ‘L’éclipse de la musique baroque au début du 19e siècle’, Dix-huitième siècle, no. 26 (1994), 52338
Citron, Marcia J.: Gender and the Musical Canon (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993)
Hondré, Emmanuel (ed.): Le Conservatoire de Paris: regards sur une institution et son histoire (Paris: Assn du Bureau
des
Étudiants du CNSMDP, 1995)
Ehrlich, Cyril: The Piano: a History (revised edn, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1990)
Gerhard, Anselm: The Urbanization of Opera: Music Theater in Paris in the Nineteenth Century, trans. Mary Whittall
(Chicago: U. of Chicago Press, 1998)
Gumplowicz, Philippe: Les travaux d’Orphée: 150 ans de vie musicale amateur en France (Paris: Aubier, 1987)
Hemmings, F. W. J.: The Theatre Industry in Nineteenth-Century France (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
1993)
Leung-Wolf, Elaine: Women, Music and the Salon Tradition: its Cultural and Historical Significance in Parisian
Musical Society
(DMA Diss. New York: Julliard School, 1996)
Mussat, Marie-Claire, Jean Mongrédien & Jean-Michel Nectou (eds.): Échos de France & d’Italie: liber amicorum
Yves
Gérard, ed. (Paris: Buchet-Chastel, 1997)
Olsen, Donald: The City as a Work of Art: London, Paris, Vienna (New Haven & London: Yale University Press,
1986)
Sabatier, François: Miroirs de la musique: la musique et ses correspondances avec la littérature et les beaux-arts. XIXeXXe siècles,
vol. 2 (Paris: Fayard, 1995)
Schneider, Herbert, & Nicole Wild (eds.): Die Opera Comique und ihr Einfluss auf das Europaïsche Musiktheater im
19.
Jahrhundert (Hildesheim, Zürich & New York: Georg Olms, 1997)
Siegel, Jerrold: Bohemian Paris: Culture, Politics and the Boundaries of Bourgeois Life, 1830-1930 (New York:
Penguin
Books, 1986)
Swart, Koenraad W.: The Sense of Decadence in Nineteenth-Century France (The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff, 1964)
Tombs, Robert: France 1814-1914 (London & New York: Longman, 1996)
Turbow, Gerald D.: ‘Art and Politics: Wagnerism in France’, in Wagnerism in European Culture and Politics, ed.
David
Large and William Weber (Ithaca & London: Cornell University Press, 1984), 134-66.
Wild, Nicole: Dictionnaire des théâtres parisiens au XIXe siècle (Paris: Aux Amateurs de Livres, 1989
Williams, Adrian: Portrait of Liszt by Himself and his Contemporaries (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1990)
Zeldin, Théodore: A History of French Passions ii: Intellect, Taste and Anxiety (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1973)
Secondary Sources (1830-1870)
Atwood, William G.: The Parisian Worlds of Frédéric Chopin (New Haven & London: Yale University Press, 1999 [to
be
used extra sceptically]
Bailbé, J.-M. et al (eds.), La musique en France à l’époque romantique (1830-1870) (Paris: Flammarion, 1991)
Barbier, Patrick: Opera in Paris, 1800-1850: a Lively History, trans. Robert G. Luoma (Portland, OR: Amadeus Press,
1995)
Bloom, Peter (ed.): Music in Paris in the 1830s (Stuyvesant: Pendragon, 1987)
Bloom, Peter (ed.): The Cambridge Companion to Berlioz (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999)
Campos, Rémy: La renaissance introuvable? Entre curiosité et militantisme: la Société des concerts de musique vocale
religieuse et
classique du prince de la Moskowa (1843-1846) (Paris: Klincksieck, 2000)
Cooper, Jeffrey: The Rise of Instrumental Music and Concert Series in Paris, 1828-71 (Ann Arbor: UMI Research
Press,
1983)
Dale, Catherine: ‘The Mirror of Romanticism: Images of Music, Religion, and Art Criticism in George Sand’s
Eleventh Lettre d’un voyageur to Giacomo Meyerbeer’, Music Review, 54 (1993), 198-226
Donakowski, Conrad: A Muse for the Masses: Ritual and Music in an Age of Democratic Revolution, 1770-1870
(Chicago &
London: University of Chicago Press, 1972)
Ellis, Katharine: Music Criticism in Nineteenth-Century France: ‘La revue et gazette musicale de Paris’ 1834-1880
(Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 1995)
Ellis, Katharine: ‘Female Pianists and their Male Critics in Nineteenth-Century Paris’, Journal of the American
Musicological Society, 50 (1997), 353-85
Ellis, Katharine: ‘The Fair Sax: Women, Brass-Playing and the Instrument Trade in 1860s Paris’, Journal of the Royal
Musical Association, 124 (1999), 221-54
Ellis, Katharine: ‘Wagnerism and Anti-Wagnerism in the Paris Periodical Press, 1852-70', in Von Wagner zum
Wagnérisme: Musik, Literatur, Kunst, Politik, ed. Annegret Fauser & Manuela Schwartz (Leipzig
Universitätsverlag, 1999), 51-83
Friedland, Bea: Louise Farrenc (1804-1875): Composer, Performer, Scholar (Ann Arbor: UMI Research Press, 1980)
Fulcher, Jane: ‘The Orphéon Societies: “Music for the Workers” in Second-Empire France’, International Review of
the
Aesthetics and Sociology of Music, 1 (1979), 47-56.
Fulcher, Jane: The Nation’s Image: French Grand Opera as Politics and Politicized Art (Cambridge: Cambridge
University
Press, 1987)
Girard, Louis: La Deuxième République et le Second Empire (‘La Nouvelle Histoire de Paris’) (Paris: Hachette, 1981)
Haar, James: ‘Berlioz and the “First Opera”’, 19th Century Music, 3 (1979-80)
Huebner, Steven: ‘Opera Audiences in Paris, 1830-1870', Music & Letters, 70 (1989), 206-25
Johnson, James: Listening in Paris: a Cultural History (Berkeley, Los Angeles & London: University of California
Press,
1995)
Kallberg, Jeffrey: Chopin at the Boundaries: Sex, History, and Musical Genre (Cambridge, MA, & London: Harvard
University Press, 1996)
Lacombe, Hervé: The Keys to French Opera, trans. Edouard Schneider (Berkeley, Los Angeles & London: U. of
California Press, 2001)
Locke, Ralph P.: Music, Musicans and the Saint-Simonians (Chicago & London: University of Chicago Press, 1986)
Miner, Margaret: ‘Phantoms of Genius: Women and the Fantastic in the Opera-House Mystery’, 19th Century Music,
18 (1994-5), 121-35
Murphy, Kerry: ‘Joseph Mainzer’s “sacred and beautiful mission”: an Aspect of Parisian Musical Life of the 1830s’,
Music & Letters 75 (1994), 116-29
Pistone, Danièle: ‘Réflexions sur l’évolution du public musical parisien’, Romantisme, 38 (1982), 17-23
Ringer, Alexander L. (ed.): The Early Romantic Era. Between Revolutions: 1789 and 1848 (‘Music & Society’)
(Englewood
Cliffs: Prentice Hall, 1990)
Rohan-Csermak, Henri de: ‘La canonisation de Palestrina et la mutation de la musique sacrée en France au XIXe
siècle’, Ostinato rigore, 4 (1994), 199-214
Vigier, Philippe: Paris pendant la Monarchie de Juillet (1830-1848) (‘Nouvelle Histoire de Paris’) (Paris: Hachette,
1991)
Weber, William: Music and the Middle Class. The Social Structure of Concert Life in London, Paris and Vienna, 183048
(London: Croom Helm, 1975)
Secondary Sources (post-1870)
Brody, Elaine: Paris: the Musical Kaleidoscope, 1870-1925 (London: Robson Books, 1988)
Duchesneau, Michel: L’avant-garde musicale à Paris de 1871 à 1939 (Sprimont: Pierre Mardaga, 1997)
Fauser, Annegret, & Manuela Schwartz (eds.): Von Wagner zum Wagnérisme: Musik, Literatur, Kunst, Politik
(Leipzig:
Leipziger Universitätsverlag, 1999)
Fauser, Annegret: ‘Gendering the Nations: the Ideologies of French Discourse on Music (1870-1914), in Music and
Nationalism: Re-evaluations of the History and Ideology of European Musical Culture, 1830-1945, ed. Michael
Murphy
& Harry White (Cork: Cork University Press, forthcoming [typescript])
Fulcher, Jane F.: French Cultural Politics & Music: from the Dreyfus Affair to the First World War (New York &
Oxford:
Oxford University Press, 1999)
Goubault, Christian: La critique musicale dans la presse française de 1870 à 1914 (Geneva & Paris: Slatkine, 1984)
Huebner, Steven: ‘Between Anarchism and the Box Office: Gustave Charpentier’s Louise’, 19th Century Music, 19
(1995-6), 136-60
Huebner, Steven: French Opera at the fin de siècle: Wagnerism, Nationalism, and Style (Oxford & New York: Oxford
University Press, 1999)
Messing, Scott: Neoclassicism in Music: from the Genesis of the Concept through the Schoenberg/Stravinsky Polemic
(Ann Arbor,
1988/R Rochester, 1996)
Pasler, Jann: ‘The Ironies of Gender, or, Virility and Politics in the Music of Augusta Holmès’, Women and Music, 2
(1998), 1-25
Patureau, Frédérique: La palais Garnier dans la société parisienne, 1875-1914 (Sprimont: Pierre Mardaga, 1991)
Rearick, Charles: Pleasures of the Belle Epoque: Entertainment and Festivity in turn-of-the-century Paris (New Haven
&
London, 1985).
Samson, Jim (ed.): The Late Romantic Era: from the mid-19th Century to World War I (‘Music & Society’)
(Basingstoke:
Macmillan, 1991)
Spies, André Michael: Opera, State and Society in the Third Republic, 1875-1914 (New York: Peter Lang, 1998)
Thompson, Andrew: Vincent d'Indy and his World (Oxford, 1996).
Wright, Lesley: ‘Bias, Influence, and Bizet’s Prix de Rome’, 19th Century Music, 15 (1991-2), 215-28