Concept of leadership
Several viewpoints have been advanced regarding leadership. For
instance, former U.S. President Eisenhower viewed leadership as “ability to get
people to do what you want because they want to do it”. Other authors said that it
is a “process whereby an individual directs, guides. Influences or control the
thoughts, feelings or behavior of other human beings”; any contribution to the
establishment and attainment of the purposes of the group which is exercised by
the leader who becomes the center of living of the group as a result of his
demonstrated mastery of the social relationship in the group”, “a quality
possessed to some degree by a member of the group regardless of his formally
designated office or position”; and the discipline which deliberately exerting
special influence within a group to bring it towards goals that fulfill the group’s
real needs.
Leadership is the relationship between an individual and a group built
around some common interest and behaving in a manner directed or determined
by him; a leader who moves in a particular direction and succeed in inducing
others to follow him; and one acts in a group having common interest, purpose
and goals and influences the effort of the group towards achievement of the goal
(Gibson and Hunt, 1965).
Leadership is the art and process of influencing people so that they will
strive willingly and enthusiastically towards the achievement of group goal; an
influential increment over and above mechanical compliance with the routine
directives of the organization (Zulueta, et. Al, 1999); and an impressive leader
earns client respect, cooperation, praise, and support by performing
responsibility and eliciting obedience from the members (Lupdag, 1984).
From these different views, leadership can be concretely defined as the
influencing actions, behavior, beliefs and goals of a member in an organization
by another member with the willing cooperation of the member being influenced.
Elements of Leadership
As regards to elements of leaderships, (Zulueta, et. Al, 1999), elucidated
that skill in leadership includes four major elements in terms of (i) ability to use
power effectively and in a responsible manner, (ii) the ability to comprehend that
human beings have different motivation forces at different times and different
situations; (iii) the ability to inspire, and (iv) the ability to act in a manner that will
develop a climate conducive to responding to and arousing motivation.
The first element of leadership is power. Power is differentiated by
authority. Power is the ability of an individual to induce or influence the beliefs,
action of other persons or group of persons; and authority is the right in a position
of the person to exercise discretion in making decision affecting others.
The second element of leadership is basically understanding of people.
The manager should know the motivation theory and is able to relate it into
meaningful practice.
The third element is the ability to inspire followers to apply their full
capabilities to an undertaking. Inspiration emanates from group head that may
give rise to devotion, commitment and loyalty, and in effect of a strong desire on
the subordinates to promote what they want the leaders to accomplish for the
organization. A clear example of inspirational leadership comes from a hopeless
situation when a defeated leader is undeserved by faithful followers.
The fourth element of leadership is the style of the leader and the climate
he develops. The strength of motivation to a large extent depend on
expectancies, perceived reward, the amount of effort necessary for the tasks to
be done and other factors that are part of the environment and the organization
climate. The fundamental principle of leadership is that people tend to follow
those who in their mind offer them a means of satisfying their own personal goals.
The manager should understand what motivates their subordinates and how the
motivations operate and that they reflect this understanding in carrying out their
managerial action in their managerial actions.
Styles and Types of Leadership
Types of Leadership
The two types of leadership mentioned by Aquino, (1985) can be stated
as the status leadership and the emergent leadership.
Status leadership is associated with a particular position such as (I)
university/college president, (ii) school superintendent, (iii) principal, (iv) head
teacher, and so on. A person assigned to a given position is referred to as one
occupying a position of leadership, this means that leadership is associated with
and expected from the person who occupies a certain position.
Emergent leadership is often exercised by a person who holds no
particular position. Such position emerges in relation to a particular problem is
called emergent leadership. In any group when one helps the group to formulate
plan or solve problem or if he expresses a useful idea and make useful
suggestion to a status leader, his acts may constitute highly important leadership
behavior.
Leadership Styles
These leadership styles based on the use of authority can be cited as (i)
autocratic leader, (ii) democrative or participative leader, (iii) benevolent-autocrat,
(iv) liberal or free-rein leader, (v) laissez-fare and (vi) manipulative inspirational
(Zulueta, et. al, 1999).
Autocratic Leader. The autocratic leader commands and expects
compliance, dogmatic and positive; and leads by ability to withhold or give
rewards and punishments. It is one-man rule type. The leader in the authority
does not delegate; tell people what to do; one feels he is indispensable, and he
determines all policies.
Democratic or participative leader. The leader consults with
subordinates on proposal actions and decisions and encourages participation
from them; the leader does not take action without subordinates concurrence; the
leader is there to assist, suggest, communicate and being aware of problems for
solution; involves subordinates in decision-making so that they feel jointly
responsible for the goals purposes and projects.
Benevolent Autocrat. The leader is a father figures who wants everyone
to feel good. The emphasis is on keeping everyone happy and satisfied. He
listens to his subordinates’ opinions but he make decisions as his own. The
father-figure is admired and respected, but makes people dependent and weak.
When he dies, the organization may also die.
Liberal leader or free-rein leader. This type of leader uses his power
very rarely, if at all giving subordinates a high degree of independence in their
operation. Leader depends largely on subordinates to set their own goals and the
means of achieving them; and he sees his role as one aiding the operation of the
followers by furnishing them with needed data/ information, and he acts primarily
as contact with the group’ external environment.
Laissez-faire. This means letting people do as they choose. It allows
everything to run it’s own course. Minimum and maximum freedom is allowed for
the group to make decision. The leader retreats into the background, let
members work out details of how the organization is to function. Practically the
leader provides no leadership at all.
Manipulative-inspirational. This style of leadership is usually hard to
find. The leader or group leaders set the rules and interpret as they see it fit. High
pressure tactic or emotionalism is used to make the people to follow direction set
by the leader.
Three Types of Power
There are reasons why followers are varied and complex. These reasons
can be examined from different perspective and each of them have different
motivational and psychological roots. These type of power can be cited as (i)
coercive power, (ii) utility power, (iii) principle-centered power (Zulueta, et. al,
1999).
Coercive power. The leader in this case has created a fear in the
subordinates that either something bad is going to happen to them or something
good will be taken away if they do not comply out of fear of potentially adverse
consequences. Followers acquiesce and get along by going along or by giving lip
service loyalty, but their commitment is superficial and their energy can quickly
turn to sabotage and destruction where no one is looking or when the threat is no
longer present. The leader who control, tear via fear will find the control reactive
and temporary. It is gone when he leader or controlling system is gone. It
encourages suspicion, deceit, dishonest, and in the long run, dissolution.
Utility power. Subordinates follows because of the benefits that come to
them if they do. The power relationship is based on the useful exchange of good
and services. Utility power is based on equity and fairness. As long as the
followers feel that they are receiving fairly for what they are giving the
relationship will be sustained.
Principle-Centered power. Leaders are followed because others want to
follow them, want to believe in them and their cause; want to do what the leaders
want. It is a relationship of power that is based on honor and trust; and with the
leader honoring the follower and the follower choosing to contribute because the
leader is also honored.
Principle-centered power occurs when the cause purpose or goal is
believed in as deeply as the followers as by the leader.
Power Process
You
Leadership
Choice
Utility power
Coercive
power
Honor
Fairness
Fair
Sustained
Proactive
Influecnce
Functional
Reactive
Influence
Temporary
Control
Principle-Center
Power
(Source:Zulueta,et. al, 1999)
Leadership Traits
As a change agent, a leader is one who elicits respect, cooperation,
praise, and support by performing responsibility from the members. He is looked
upon as a model, even venerated in the heart of members and is proud of him.
(Lupdag, 1984).
A leader envisions the future and inspires members to chart the course of
the organization. Some of these important quality traits of a leader can be cited
as follows (Zulueta, et. al, 1999):
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
vi.
vii.
viii.
ix.
x.
xi.
xii.
xiii.
xiv.
xv.
xvi.
xvii.
xviii.
xix.
Knowledge or thorough knowledge of the capabilities and limitation of his
subordinates and enhanced with superior intelligence and with superior
intelligence and with professional know-how of the job.
Bearing or being dignified in appearance and in behavior to earn respect.
Courage on the physical and mental ability to act decisively with fortitude
and tenacity in spite of danger and hardship.
Endurance on the physical and mental to continue relentlessly in pursuing
the goals and objectives of the organization for a common good.
Enthusiasm on a high degree of interest and sensitivity in responding to
the need of the organization.
Integrity or good moral character and an impeccable integrity.
Decisiveness or the ability to decide promptly and correctly at the proper
time.
Dependability or high degree of initiative in the performance of duty.
Humility or state of being reasonably modest, not proud, unassuming, not
arrogant and not boastful.
Humorous or have a good sense of humor, a disposition to appreciate
and narrate amusing incident of everyday in a comical way.
Forceful or efficacious power within the bounds of law to compel
obedience among subordinates.
Initiative or ability to start on idea or work concept leading to action when
others are absent or passive.
Judgment or rendering judgment which conforms to principle of reasons
to generally accepted standards of right and wrong and to the stated
terms of laws, policies, and rules.
Loyalty or sincere and faithful to the ideas of the organization.
Sympathy or to understand and to share the feelings of others especially
in time of sorrow or adversity.
Empathy or showing some intellectual and emotional identification with
feelings, thoughts and attitudes to employees affected by pain because of
misfortune.
Tact or prudence to avoid giving offence… a keen feeling and a sense of
what is appropriate, tasteful and aesthetically pleasing.
Unselfishness or a degree of magnanimous to subordinate without
prejudicing the interest of others who are in need of help.
With or a keen perception and appropriate expression of amusing words
and ideas which awaken amusement and pleasure.
Most authors seem to agree that leadership is not coercion but promotion
of followers and that it promotes changes but may also resist changes to
maintain the institution social system from forces from both within and external to
the system which are pressing for undesirable change.
Furthermore, some identifiable qualities which are seemed essential for a
person occupying a position of leadership are (i) intelligence, (ii) scholarship, (iii)
responsible, (iv) activity and social participation, (v) socio-economic status, (vi)
respect, (vii) sociability,(viii) persistence, (ix) self-confidence, (x) knowledge to
get things done, (xi) adaptability, (xii) cooperatives, (xiii) verbal ability, and (xiv)
popularity.
Theories on Leadership
Some of the important theories regarding leadership can be cited as (i)
trait theory, (ii) environment theory, (iii) personal-environment theory, (iv)
exchange theory, (v) humanistic theory, (vi) exceptional theory, (vii) contingency
theory, (viii) path-goal theory.
i.
Trait theory. The leader in this theory is conceived to be great
man whose superior endowment involves others to follow him.
ii.
Environment theory. This theories explains leadership on the
basis of situation and crisis that provides opportunity for people to
propose solutions or exhibit heroic that place them in the position
of leadership.
iii.
Personal-environment theory. This theory maintains that
characteristics of a leader, the followers and the situations that
interact determine who will be the leader.
iv.
Exchange theory. This theory suggests that group interactions
represents and exchange process in which leadership is centered
upon members for their effort on behalf of the group.
v.
Humanistic theory. This theory suggests that group will be
effective and members will be more satisfied when the leader
shows freedom to satisfy their needs for achievement and selfactualization.
vi.
Exceptional theory. This theory maintains that leadership is most
likely to be achieved by the members who succeed in initiating
and reinforcing the expectations that will maintain the role
structure and goal directions of the group.
vii.
Contingency theory. This theory proposes that a given pattern of
leadership behavior will lead to effective group performance in
some circumstances and ineffective in some cases.
viii.
Path-goal theory. This theory suggests that certain pattern of
leader behavior s facilitate the classification of the group goals
while other patterns of behavior stimulate effective instruments
and responses on the follower groups.
Schools of Thought on Leadership
This school of thought in leadership can be identified as the (i) trait
approach (ii) behavior approach, and (iii) situational approach.
i.
Trait Approach. This approach has the object of research by
Stogdills (1948), categorizing leader characteristics as being
either personal traits (integrity, assertiveness), task-related
characteristics (responsible, high needs for achievements, and
task-orientation), and social characteristics (cooperative, active,
good personal skills).
Furthermore, Maccohy (1981) revealed that leaders shared basic
personality traits such as intelligence, ambition, optimism,
competitiveness and sense of humor. Lupdag (1981) partly
confirmed the positive relationship between leadership and
abilities and personality characteristics and academic
performance.
In the light of this trait approach is studying the physical,
intellectual and personality characteristics of leaders and
comparing and contrasting these with the traits of their followers.
ii.
Behavioral Approach. This approach underscores the effect of
leader’s behavior on the followers and vice versa. It argued that
behavior can be learned, thus, an embodied trained in appropriate
leadership behavior is believed to lead more effectively, in these
two aspects, namely leadership functions and leadership styles.
iii.
Situational Approach. This approach focuses its attention on the
study of the situation and the beliefs that leaders are products of
different situations. The premise is that leadership strongly
affected by the situation from which the leader emerges and in
which he operates.
Ten Tools of Leadership
The ten power tools of leadership help increase the leader’s power and
respect for his subordinate in terms of (i) persuasion, (ii) patience, (iii) gentleness,
(iv) teachable, (v) acceptance, (vi) kindness, (vii) openness, (viii) compassionate
confrontation, (ix) consistency, and (x) integrity (Zulueta, et. al, 1999).
i.
Persuasion. This includes sharing reasons and rationale, making
a strong case for one’s position or desire while maintain genuine
respect for follower’s ideas and perspective; commits to stay in the
communication process until mutually beneficial and satisfying
outcomes are reached.
ii.
Patience. In spite of failings, shortcomings, and inconvenience
created by followers and one’s own impatience and anticipation
for achieving goals, maintain along term perspective and stay
committed to goals in the face of the short term obstacle and
resistance.
iii.
Gentleness. No harshness, hardness or show of forcefulness
when dealing with vulnerabilities, disclosures, and feelings
followers might express.
iv.
Teachable. It is operating in the assumptions that one does not
have all the answers, all the insight and valuing the different
viewpoints, judgement and experiences followers might have.
v.
Acceptance. It is giving the benefit of the doubts requiring no
evidence of specific performance as a condition of sustaining high
self-worth making them one’s agenda.
vi.
Kindness. It is showing care, thought and remembering the little
things in relationship.
vii.
Openness. It is getting accurate information and perspective
about followers as they can while giving worthy of respect for what
they are now, regardless of what they control or do giving full
consideration to their intention, desires, values, and goals rather
than focusing on their behavior.
viii.
Compassionate Confrontation. it is acknowledging error,
mistakes and the need to make course corrections in a context
genuine care, concern and warmth, making it safe for followers to
risk.
ix.
Consistency. This is being consistent in all a leader does as he
works with his follower, be in time of crises, challenge or feeling of
being trapped.
x.
Integrity. Honestly which is watched with words and feelings with
thought and actions with no other than the goals of others.
Behavioral Theories
Continuum of leadership style states that leadership behavior ranging
from leader-centered strategies to employee-centered strategies (Tannenbaum
and Schmit, 1950).
i.
Managerial grid. The leader’s concern for people and the leader’s
concern for output are two key factors in successful leadership
(Blake and Wanton, 1967).
ii.
Concept of consideration and structure. Two similar dimension
of leadership concern labeled consideration (concern for people)
and structure (concern for task), (Likart, 1976).
iii.
Functional leadership. A John Adams Approach to leadership
which indicates that to be effective a leader must ensure that the
three distinct areas of needs are satisfied with respect to (I) task
needs, (ii) term needs, and (iii) individual needs.
iv.
Theory X and Theory Y. the opinion leaders hold of their
employees determines the way they behave toward them and the
way they lead them (D. Mcgregor).
The Theory X states that worker, which have inherent dislike of
work, therefore, supervisors must keep tight control in them and
use threats of punishment in order to keep tight control in them
and use threats of punishment in order to keep them on line.
The Theory Y indicates that workers who see their work as being
as natural as the rest and play therefore require minimal
supervision.
v.
Task Readiness Theory. A theory by Hersey and Blowchard,
suggesting that a leader’s styles should vary according to each
employee’s task readiness level in terms of (i) task behavior or
degree of direction and supervision a leaders provides and (ii)
relationships behavior or degree of support and encouragement
provided.
Managerial Leadership
In this topic, the central focus of discussion is to substantiate managerial
leadership within the context of institution building. It is thus premised, that
discussion should orderly delve on (i) concept organization, (ii) elements of
organization, (iii) the management process with respect to the interplay of these
elements in an organization, role of leadership in the management process.