WH1: The Rise of Rome 4: Expansionism Beyond Italy—
The Punic Wars
After their victory in the 2nd Punic War, Rome remained enraged at Carthage since
Carthage had almost destroyed them. Cato, one of Rome’s great statesman, is recorded as
ending all his speeches, regardless of their subject, by stating "I also think that Carthage
should be destroyed."
Now, we will trace the steps by which Rome extended
beyond ITALY and became a world superpower.
1) The first challenge was CARTHAGE, called PUNICUS
by the Romans. It was founded by the PHOENICIANS
from TYRE in the 9th century BCE and was located on
the NORTH coast of Africa and was a TRADING POST
with commerce from the backcountry of Africa
(“Carthage” means NEW CITY in Phoenician). Carthage
became a REPUBLIC in the 6th century BCE and in time
dominated the African coast and the Mediterranean west
of SICILY, held outposts on the European coast, with
colonies in SPAIN and SICILY. This growth of the
Carthaginian Empire occurred while Rome was
CONSOLIDATING its control over the Italian peninsula.
2) Ando so, when Rome finished consolidating its control
over the Italian peninsula, the CARTHAGINIAN
EMPIRE already encompassed the North African coast
from the Strait of Gibraltar to western Libya. Likewise,
their control extended to EUROPE (southern Spain) and,
in the Mediterranean, CORSICA and SARDINIA. These
holdings gave Carthage control over most of the
Mediterranean’s COMMERCIAL TRADE. Further,
peoples from all over the empire sent soldiers and
provisions---all this was supplemented by SILVER and
GOLD from Spanish mines.
3) Carthage was vastly SUPERIOR to Rome in civilization
yet they had extremely primitive RELIGIOUS
PRACTICES that were enforced even among
CONQUERED PEOPLES. For example, they demanded
that the eldest child in a family be sacrificed, usually by
being BURNED ALIVE, on the arms of the idol
MOLOCH. Conquered people were treated with
ARROGANCE and BRUTALITY even when they
cooperated, and INHUMAN FEROCITY when they
rebelled.
4) Like ATHENS, Carthage had a much more reliable and
strong NAVY than ARMY. It was said by a Carthaginian
Admiral “no one could wash his hands in the
Mediterranean without the consent of Carthage.”
Carthage also had civil and military engineers that could
out-do the Romans in civil and military construction.
With rich trade, customs duties, and TRIBUTES from
subjects, Carthage was one of the wealthiest cities in the
world.
5) Until the conquest of TARENTUM, whose citizens were
long-time enemies of Carthage, Rome had no desire to
compete with CARTHAGE in sea commerce. But now,
Rome became the champion of ITALIAN GREEKS vs.
CARTHAGE, who were their competitors. Rome could
not accept the closed sea policy of Carthage nor could
they accept Carthaginian domination of the straits below
ITALY and SICILY. When a group of Sicilians appealed
to Rome for aid, the SENATE first rejected the plea, but
the POPULAR ASSEMBLY, encouraged by reports of
new lands and looting, vowed to intervene. It was in the
national interest to hold the straits, but it was a fateful
step, the first for ROME beyond ITALY, and would
mean another 60 years of WAR and CRISIS.
6) And so, in the middle of the third century BCE, conflict
was inevitable since Rome's power now extended to
Italy’s southern tip. Here, virtually within swimming
distance, is SICILY, the WESTERN HALF of which was
controlled by Carthage. It was the Sicilian city of
MESSANA which revolted against the Carthaginians,
leading to Roman intervention and the first of three Punic
Wars which were DISASTROUS for the Carthaginians.
7) First PUNIC WAR (c. 265-241 BCE): The chief source of
history for this war was POLYBIUS, a Greek who had
access to the records of leaders on both sides but was
NOT an eye-witness to the conflict—he wrote about ONE
CENTURY after the event.
8) Rome won early victories on land in SICILY, but to win
the war—to defeat Carthage—they had to face them on
the SEA. Rome had a navy, but it was very SMALL.
Carthage had 180 QUINQUEREMES, or battleships of
the highest class. In 260 BC, Rome built 100 of the same
class in TWO MONTHS. Legend: Rome used a captured
Punic keel as a model and built all 100 essentially at one
time. “Land Lubber” crews were taught to row in
wooden frames on shore. A consul, DUILIUS, who
probably never was on a ship before, was made admiral.
9) The ROMANS were no match for the Carthaginian
crews. So, Duilius suspended a light drawbridge from the
mast, with an IRON SPIKE on the bottom. When the
Carthaginian ships approached to ram, the drawbridge
dropped to its deck, and the spike held it close. The
Roman soldiers stormed on board, and MASSACRED
the unarmed Carthaginian oarsmen. In 241, the Roman
Fleet destroyed the Carthaginian Fleet, and the war
ENDED. It was the first time since the rise of the
Carthaginian empire that they were no longer the
masters of the SEA.
10)
The terms that Rome imposed on CARTHAGE
were very harsh. Carthage had to (1) evacuate Sicily,
which now became part of the ROMAN EMPIRE; (2) pay
an indemnity of 3200 talents (3-5 million $$$) and stay
away from Roman waters. Despite the high cost of the
war for Rome (23 years, 200,000 men, 500 ships, loss in
trade, and loss of 1/6 of the citizens of Rome) she won and
could dictate the terms of PEACE. Internal dissent within
Carthage allowed Rome to also annex CORSICA and
SARDINIA.
11)
The acquisition of CORSICA, SICILY, and
SARDINIA allowed ROME to take the first step in
becoming a WORLD EMPIRE. Now the most critical
question: should the overseas peoples be incorporated into
the Empire as allies, or should they be given subject status?
A few towns were given ALLY status, but most were
treated as SUBJECTS, and were forced to pay TRIBUTE
to Rome. So, the Republic DID NOT extend the generous
policy followed in ITALY. And, during all this time,
Carthage was planning REVENGE, especially for Rome’s
seizure of Corsica. Carthage began concentrating on
creating colonies and alliances on the strategically located
IBERIAN peninsula and recruiting armies in preparation
for a new assault. It was this expansionism into Spain that
would provide Carthage with the resources and strategic
positioning that it would need to fight the SECOND
PUNIC WAR.
12)
The FIRST PUNIC WAR ended only in a
TEMPORARY TRUCE; the second, or HANNIBALIC
WAR, was decisive. It ended FOREVER the IMPERIAL
power of Carthage and left Rome in control of the
WESTERN Mediterranean.
13)
HANNIBAL, at age 26, became the ruler of
CARTHAGE in 226 BC. He had been taught from
boyhood that his task was to defeat the ROMANS, and
was a military GENIUS. He would use the resources that
Carthage had amassed in Spain to wage a war of
ATTRITION against Rome that would last many years.
14)
As Rome watched with trepidation the increased
Carthaginian influence and presence in IBERIA
following the First Punic War, an opportunity emerged
that would create a Roman presence in Carthaginian
territory. SAGUNTUM, a Spanish city, made overtures to
Rome for alliance and protection. When Hannibal came
to power, he initially didn’t provoke this alliance since the
time was not yet right for conflict with Rome. However,
Saguntum began trying to influence other Spanish cities,
and so Hannibal attacked and conquered it despite
WARNINGS from Rome.
15)
Rome initially tried to resolve the problem using
DIPLOMACY; it demanded that Carthage relieve
Hannibal and relinquish him to Roman authority.
Carthage refused, and so the Second Punic War began c.
218 BCE. However, Rome would now face a VASTLY
SUPERIOR force in the form of an ARMY than it did
during the First Punic War.
16)
Hannibal’s army marched from Spain, and, in
September 218 BCE, crossed the ALPS and invaded
ITALY. He chose this route to get around the ROMAN
control of the sea. The entourage included 40,000 foot
soldiers, 8,000 cavalry, and 25 elephant. HANNIBAL
reached Italy in 218 BCE and DEFEATED the Romans
at TREBIA RIVER. On the shores of Lake Trasimene in
the spring of 217, only 10,000 of the 40,000 Romans
escaped. Within TWO MONTHS he had conquered much
of northern Italy.
17)
HANNIBAL’S strategy was clear. He would not
attack the city of Rome, but would instead cast himself as
the deliverer of the Italian people from Roman Rule. But
here was Hannibal’s only MISTAKE. The alliances that
Rome built held, thus turning the 2nd Punic (or
HANNIBALIC) war into a war of ATTRITION.
Hannibal was in Italy for 14 years. Let’s examine how
this happened.
18)
It was unclear to the Romans whether they could
effectively engage Hannibal in open-field warfare.
Hannibal was absolutely certain that Rome’s ALLIES
would defect and join him, but the alliances HELD
(remember the strategy of offering Roman citizenship
instead of treating conquered peoples as SLAVES?).
19)
And so, instead of INVADING Rome, Hannibal
headed SOUTH. To counter their losses, the Romans
made QUINTUS FABIUS MAXIMUS their DICTATOR.
His strategy was to AVOID open warfare with the
stronger Carthaginian army in favor of a GUERILLA
campaign until Hannibal was weakened sufficiently to be
fought using CONVENTIONAL TACTICS. But the
Romans lost patience with this strategy; they began
calling him “THE DELAYER” and he eventually LOST
POWER. He was replaced by two inexperienced
CONSULS.
20)
Hannibal continued his march into southern Italy,
ravaging the countryside as he moved forward. Now
opting for a FRONTAL ASSAULT, 80,000 Roman troops
were sent against him at CANNAE—a force that greatly
outnumbered the Carthaginians. In the greatest DEFEAT
in Roman history, the army was completely
DESTROYED, thus showing that FABIUS’ strategy was
CORRECT.
21)
The situation worsened for Rome. In southern Italy,
Roman allies flocked to Hannibal’s side. PHILIP V, the
king of MACEDON who also controlled HELLADIC
Greece, became Hannibal’s ally as did all of SICILY. Yet-and this is CRITICAL—Rome’s CENTRAL ITALIAN
allies did not DEFECT to Hannibal.
22)
Hannibal’s army continued to devastate the Italian
countryside. However, he lacked the troop NUMBERS
and the necessary SUPPLIES to lay siege to Rome. In
fact, in 211 BCE, Hannibal led his forces to the walls of
Rome but could not attack it because of his own
weakened state. The Romans were aware of Hannibal’s
weakened state—and became so confident that they
auctioned the land that Hannibal occupied—and it sold at
FULL PRICE!
23)
The key problem for Hannibal is that he was heavily
dependent on SPAIN for reinforcements. And so, if Spain
could be conquered, then Hannibal would be cut off.
24)
Rome turned the SUBJUGATION of Carthaginian
Spain over to PUBLIUS CORNELIUS SCIPIO, who
would later be called SCIPIO AFRICANUS because of
his defeat of Carthage in Africa. By 206 BCE Scipio had
conquered Spain for Rome. Hannibal was now cut off.
25)
With Spain now securely under Roman control,
SCIPIO invaded AFRICA in 204 BCE and forced
Carthage to sue for peace. As a condition of the treaty,
Hannibal was forced to retreat from Italy—he had WON
every major yet LOST the war! Having returned to
Carthage, in 202 BCE Hannibal lost his final battle
against the Romans under Scipio.
26)
The victory in the second Punic War was a
DEFINING MOMENT in the creation/consolidation of
the ROMAN EMPIRE. Except for the relatively remote
SOUTH, Rome’s alliances HELD FIRM–this led to
Rome’s ability to PROSECUTE the war against
overwhelming odds and desperate circumstances.
27)
As a result of the Second Punic War, Rome was
vaulted from a REGIONAL to an INTERNATIONAL
empire. Rome now controlled NORTH AFRICA, SPAIN,
and the most important islands (Corsica and Sardinia) in
the WESTERN MEDITERRANEAN SEA. Further, since
Philip V had allied himself with Hannibal, Rome now
began turning its attention towards the conquest of the
HELLENISTIC kingdoms.
28)
Throughout the first half of the 2nd century BCE (c.
200-150 BCE) CARTHAGE began regaining its
COMMERCIAL prosperity; this aroused Roman
suspicion. Fearing a resurrected Carthage, Rome
demanded that the Carthaginians abandon their city and
move inland into NORTH AFRICA. When the
Carthaginians REFUSED, the Roman SENATE declared
war. And so began the Third Punic War (149-146 BCE).
29)
The 3rd Punic War resulted in the end of Carthage.
Rome laid siege to Carthage itself, executing even NONCOMBATANTS and selling the survivors into
SLAVERY. Carthage’s harbor and the city itself were
DESTROYED, and the countryside sown with SALT to
make it uninhabitable.
Independent Scholarship Challenge: Read Appian’s account of
the Hannibalic Wars. Note that the Greek transliteration is
present in parallel. Summarize Appian’s account in a brief
report. Using the Greek lexicon, can you identify any Greek
words that correspond to their English counterparts?