MCHS Commission Report
American Interest Group Reform
(Study for the U.S. House of Representatives)
-History --Interest Groups: A Natural Phenonemon
-Purpose/Significance Why do Americans Join Interest
Groups?
-Types-Types of Interests Groups
-Influence-What Makes an Interest Group Powerful?
-Strategies/Techniques--Strategies
-Regulation-Regulating Lobbyists
-Examples/Case Studies (3)
Don't forget your 3 case studies.
-What?
-Agenda/Goals
-Political Influence
-Hot Button Issues
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After students have read and studied this chapter, they should be able to:
 Define interest groups and describe their functions.
 Give three reasons why people participate in interest groups.
 Identify the major categories of interest groups and name some representatives in the
business, agricultural, and labor sectors.
 Describe professional interest groups, public interest pressure groups, single-interest groups,
environmental groups, and how foreign governments act as interest groups.
 Specify some of the factors that make an interest group powerful.
 Identify the direct tactics used by interest groups, including lobbying, rating systems, building
alliances, and campaign assistance.
 Identify the indirect tactics used by interest groups, including public pressure and using
constituents as lobbyists.
 Describe benefits and drawbacks of tactics such as demonstrations and boycotts.
 Describe regulations on lobbyists in place today.
TOPICS FOR DISCUSSION
Interest groups are not new to American government, nor are they unique to American
government. Have students read Federalist #10? What did Madison advocate concerning
factions? What would Madison think about interest groups in modern society?
How have labor interest groups traditionally sought to influence policy?
Do your students see interest groups as a dark force in American government or simply
democracy in action?
Should foreign interest groups be banned from attempting to influence the course of American
government? Are foreign interests always opposed to the interests of U.S. companies and
citizens?
What kind of incentive would motivate you to participate in an interest group? Among people
you know who are active, what are their incentives?
BEYOND THE BOOK
For the 2006-2007 edition of this text, we have moved the material on interest group
contributions to political campaigns to Chapter 9, Campaigns, Nominations and Elections.
(The previous edition had campaign finance material in both chapters, which involved a
degree of redundancy.) If you believe, however, that the campaign finance issue is better
dealt with in conjunction with interest group activities in general, you can certainly assign the
relevant sections from Chapter 9 at the same time that you assign Chapter 7.
This chapter focuses strongly on how interest groups affect policy through lobbying. However,
the important role of the courts in the American system opens up other avenues for interest
groups, and it is worthwhile to point this out in your lecture. U.S. courts often rule on issues
that in other democratic countries would be handled by the legislature or bureaucracy.
Interest groups can therefore use lawsuits to achieve objectives that they cannot obtain
through legislative action. For example, in the early 1950s, court victories by the National
Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) and other African American
interest groups were the first steps to dismantling segregation. This happened at a time when
Congress, dominated by southern members, would not yet address this issue.
Have your students watch the 2006 film Thank You For Smoking. Aaron Eckhart’s portrayal of a
lobbyist for the tobacco industry reveals his character to be simultaneously brilliant and
manipulative. Ask your students if they see his character as admirable or detestable.
CHAPTER OUTLINE
An interest group is any organization whose members share common objectives and which
actively attempts to influence government policy. Unlike political parties, interest groups do not
attempt to gain control of the government; rather they attempt to influence governmental policies.
Often, interest groups employ lobbyists, who attempt to influence policy by communication with
policymakers.
I. Interest Groups: A Natural Phenomenon.
In his famous book, Democracy in America, Alexis de Tocqueville wrote “in no country of
the world has the principle of association been more successfully used or applied to a
greater multitude of objectives than in America.” If he was amazed at how associations had
flourished in the United States in 1834, he would be astounded at the number of
associations today. Why have interest groups been so successful in the United States? The
American structure of government has lent itself to reinforcing the formation of interest
groups.
A. Interest Groups and Social Movements. Mass movements for social change are one
source of interest groups. Initiatives such as the civil rights movement and the
women’s movement have resulted in a variety of established organizations.
B. Why So Many? The formation of many interest groups is encouraged by our civil
liberties, and also by our federal system with its checks and balances. Many pressure
points exist at which interest groups can make their influence known.
II. Why Do Americans Join Interest Groups?
Key concept: the free rider problem. This is the difficulty interest groups face in recruiting
members when the benefits they achieve can be gained without joining the group. Many
persons who may support the goals of an interest group will not take the trouble to join it.
So why do so many people join?
A. Solidary Incentives. These are those incentives associated with social benefits derived
from joining a group. Examples of solidary incentives might include a person who
joins the Sierra Club because they enjoy Saturday morning hikes with club members,
or club-sponsored camping trips. For those active in politics, solidary incentives might
include enjoying being recognized by important people, getting invitations to social
events, and meeting other politically active people.
B. Material Incentives. These come from the economic benefits or opportunities derived
from participating. Business people might join their local chamber of commerce to
“network” and to try to lobby local leaders for business-friendly policies. Others might
become active in an interest group in the hopes of gaining employment or business
opportunities.
C. Purposive Incentives. These come from personal beliefs and commitments to an issue.
Purposive incentives can be issue-oriented and/or ideological. Examples might include
gay rights activists, environmental activists and civil libertarians.
III. Types of Interest Groups
There are thousands of interest groups in the United States. Some are active at the national
level, others at the state level, some at the local level, and some at all levels of government.
A. Economic Interest Groups.
1. Business interest groups are those economic interest groups whose purpose is to
influence policy in a direction favorable to the business community. While there
are numerous specific organizations, an example of a business interest group is
The National Association of Manufacturers (NAM), which has a staff of more than
60 people. It is a proponent of the interests of large corporations, with a focus on
labor laws, minimum wage rates, corporate taxes, and trade regulations. A second
example of a business interest group is the U.S. Chamber of Commerce, a national
organization for local chambers of commerce. It represents the interests of over
3,500 local chambers and over 200,000 businesses.
2. Agricultural Interest Groups. These are economic interest groups whose purpose is
to influence policy in a direction favorable to farmers or agricultural-related
businesses. Examples include the American Farm Bureau Federation (with a focus
on large-scale agriculture) and the National Farmers’ Union (with a focus on the
problems of smaller farmers).
3. Labor interest groups are economic interest groups whose purpose is to influence
policy in a direction favorable to organized labor. Millions of workers belong to
various labor unions that support specific labor interest groups. The American
Federation of Labor and the Congress of Industrial Organizations (AFL-CIO) is
the largest labor organization in the United States. It is a federation of numerous,
diverse labor organizations, like the American Federation of Teachers, the
Teamsters, and the United Automobile Workers. Its focus is on labor standards,
benefits, wages, housing, and foreign trade. The political arm of the AFL-CIO is
called COPE, or the Committee on Political Education. The number of workers
represented by unions in the private sector has fallen in recent decades, which has
reduced labor’s strength. Another factor that may reduce labor’s strength was the
split in the AFL-CIO occurring in 2005, as four key unions left the federation and
formed the Change to Win Coalition. This new coalition represents about onethird of the 13 million workers that formerly belonged to the AFL-CIO.
4. Public Employee Unions. Public employee pressure groups are relatively new in
the arena of interest groups. These organizations represent workers employed by
governments. Many employees of fire departments, police departments, sanitation
departments, and public schools are union members or represented by a union.
Examples of public employee unions include AFSCME, the American Federation
of State, County and Municipal Employees, and the NEA, the National Education
Association. These organizations attempt to influence policy locally and nationally
concerning working conditions, wages, benefits, and long-term public policy
related to these areas.
5. Interest Groups of Professionals. Professional interest groups represent individuals
with specific credentials. These interest groups attempt to influence policies that
have an impact on the members of the profession. Examples are the American Bar
Association (attorneys) and the American Medical Association (physicians).
6. The Unorganized Poor. In general, persons in poverty lack the time and money
needed to join interest groups. To the extent that such persons are represented at
all, they are represented by others, such as social workers’ groups, public-interest
groups, churches, charities, and liberal organizations.
B. Environmental Groups. Environmental interest groups are concerned with policy
affecting the environment. Environmental groups are concerned with global issues as
well as national or state issues. The goal of most interest groups in this category is the
preservation of resources, land, and wildlife. Examples include the Sierra Club and
Greenpeace.
C. Public-Interest Groups. Public-interest groups are often consumer groups. The goal of
such groups is to influence policy that affects consumers. In the past, consumer interest
groups have lobbied to have rear shoulder harnesses installed in all new vehicles, and
have succeeded in requiring automobile manufacturers to put eye-level brake lights in
cars’ rear windshields.
1. Nader Organizations. The public-interest movement has been headed by consumer
advocate Ralph Nader, who also ran for president of the United States in 2000 and
2004. Nader was responsible for founding hundreds of such groups.
2. Other Public-Interest Groups. Other such groups include Common Cause and the
League of Women Voters. Conservative public-interest groups have also sprung up
to fight consumer and environmental groups in court.
D. Other Interest Groups. Many special interest groups focus on a single issue. These are
narrowly focused groups that may avoid involvement with policies that do not directly
affect the major issue of the organization. Examples include interest groups concerned
with abortion or gun control. The AARP, formerly the American Association of
Retired People, could be put in this class. It is one of the most powerful interest groups
of all, along with the National Rifle Association.
E. Foreign Governments. Foreign governments also act to promote the goals of their
businesses and interests of their nations by influencing policy decisions adopted by the
government of the United States.
IV. What Makes an Interest Group Powerful?
A. Size and Resources. The size of a group’s membership and the extent of its financial
resources are important indicators of the importance of an interest group. Groups such
as the AARP have huge memberships. Groups such as the pharmaceutical lobby have
few members but vast financial resources.
B. Leadership. Individual leaders with power and charisma are another determinant of a
group’s power. An example is the extraordinary leadership of the American Israel
Public Affairs Committee, which has been instrumental in fostering a positive
relationship between the United States and Israel.
C. Cohesiveness. This refers to how strongly the members of the group believe in their
cause and how hard they are willing to work for that issue.
V. Interest Group Strategies
For an interest group to be successful, it must be able to influence officials who are
responsible for making public policy. There are two primary methods used to influence
officials of the government: direct action to influence the official, and indirect action, an
attempt to have others influence the official.
A. Direct techniques
1. Lobbying. This can include direct discussion with policymakers concerning the
views of the interest group. This is usually thought of as occurring with members
of the legislature, although members of the executive branch are also frequent
targets of lobbyists. Effective lobbyists will use all of the following techniques to
present information to policy makers:
 private meetings with public officials.
 testifying before congressional committees.
 testifying before executive rule-making agencies.
 submitting proposed legislation to members of the legislature for
introduction.
 arranging social gatherings for informal discussions.
 providing information to legislators.
2. The Ratings Game. This involves interest groups publishing the voting records of
members of the legislature. A higher rating means support on issues important to
the group. A lower rating means opposition on issues important to the interest
group.
3. Building Alliances. This is an effort to unite groups that have common goals. The
tactic is useful in projecting a positive image to the public and to the policy makers
and in avoiding duplication. A recent example of this would be the K Street
Project.
4. Campaign Assistance. This includes endorsements for election, unpaid volunteers
who work for the election of the candidate, and publicizing the candidate to the
group’s own members.
B. Indirect Techniques
1. Generating Public Pressure. This can be done by informing the public about a
specific issue, often by advertising in newspapers, radio, and television. Climate
control is the use of public relations techniques to create favorable public opinion
toward an interest group, industry or corporation.
2. Using Constituents as Lobbyists. This requires the interest group to convince its
members to contact a member of the legislature by mail or phone about a specific
legislative proposal. The Internet has proved a valuable tool for interest groups,
who can use new technologies to easily connect to thousands of members, and
facilitate their contact of government officials. This use of large numbers of
constituents is sometimes known as the “shotgun” approach. In the “rifle”
technique (the “Utah plant manager theory”), the interest group relies on lobbying
by a constituent who is of local importance.
3. Unconventional Forms of Pressure. These include marches, rallies, and
demonstrations, which have often been used by organizations seeking social
change. Violent demonstrations, however, can backfire by alienating the public.
The boycott is another technique. It involves widespread refusal to buy a good or
service in order to place pressure on the provider. Boycotts were used to
desegregate buses in Montgomery, Alabama and by Mexican American farm
workers seeking to organize a union.
VI. Regulating Lobbyists
The Federal Regulation of Lobbying Act (1946) required that individuals or organizations
that receive money for the purpose of influencing national legislation register as a lobbyist
or lobbying organization, and registered lobbyists were required to make public quarterly
reports about all lobbying activity. The Federal Regulation of Lobbying Act was
challenged in United States v. Harriss (1954). The Supreme Court ruled that the law did
not violate due process, freedom of speech, freedom of the press or the freedom to petition.
A. The Results of the 1946 Act. The act was not very effective, however. Only full-time
lobbyists had to register, allowing many who were engaged in lobbying activities to go
unregulated.
B. The Reforms of 1995. In 1995, Congress overhauled the lobbying legislation. The new
legislation included the following provisions.
 A lobbyist is a person who spends 20 percent of the time or more lobbying
Congress or the executive branch.
 Lobbyists who earn $5,000 or more must register within 45 days of making
contact with a member of Congress.
 Detailed reports must disclose the nature of the lobbying business twice a year.
 Subsidiaries of foreign companies based in the United States must register as
lobbyists.
 Tax-exempt organizations and religious organizations are exempt from these
requirements.
C. Recent Lobbying Scandals. Demonstrating that no amount of reform can completely
solve a problem, a scandal erupted involving lobbyist Jack Abramoff, members of
Congress and accusations of fraud and corruption.
VII. Interest Groups and Representative Democracy
A. Interest Groups: Elitist or Pluralist? The existence of interest groups would appear to be
an argument in favor of pluralism. However, interest groups are often led by upperclass individuals, which argues for elite theory.
B. Interest Group Influence. Even the most powerful groups do not always succeed in
their demands.
VIII. Features
A. What If . . . Retired Government Employees Could Not Work for Interest Groups?
If interest groups could not hire former members of Congress or former regulatory
bureaucrats as lobbyists, some of them would find it harder to succeed. Economic
interest groups might find it harder to obtain self-serving legislation. Interest groups
with large, cohesive memberships, like the NRA, would probably not be greatly
affected.
B. Which Side Are You On? Should the Internet Be Taxed?
State governments are an interest group that has a strong interest in collecting “use
taxes,” which are equivalent to sales taxes, but are imposed on out-of-state purchases.
Use taxes are currently virtually uncollectable, but the Supreme Court has stated that
Congress could establish a system to collect them. Large retailers like Wal-Mart and
Costco also support legislation to make use taxes collectable. Almost every interest
with a connection to the Internet, however, is opposed to making use taxes collectable.
C. Beyond Our Borders: Lobbying and Foreign Interests
Given the world-wide impact of policy decisions made by the United States
government, it is hardly surprising that foreign corporations and other nations attempt
to influence governmental decisions. In an effort to make their voices heard
successfully, many of these foreign interests employ former members of Congress to
lobby on their behalf, although violations of laws and ethical standards are an everpresent danger.
D. Politics and Interest Groups: Social Security Reform
President Bush was given a lesson in the power and influence of interest groups when
he attempted to reform Social Security with his plan to partially privatize the program.
The AARP, in combination with other groups, led a public relations blitz against the
president and influenced a substantial portion of the American people to oppose Bush’s
plan.
IRON TRIANGLE
CONGRESS
BUREAUCRATS
INTEREST GROUPS
∆
A. CONGRESS: House/Senate Committees
B. BUREAUCRATS: Department of Agriculture
C. INTEREST GROUPS:
American Farm Bureau Federation
National Cattleman’s Association
Corn Grower’s Association
=All of the following work together to shape
agriculture policy
Burns:
Ch.6 Interest Groups: The Politics of Influence
Republicans for Clean Air ran ads attacking the environmental record of Arizona
Senator John McCain at a cost of approximately $2 million.
--In time it was discovered that Sam Wyly, Texas businessman, who brother was a major
contributor to George W. Bush, admitted he sponsored the ads.
Keep it Flying PAC sent out 200,000 to voters shortly before the South Carolina
Republican primary incorrectly claiming McCain opposed flying the Confederate flag
over the South Carolina state capitol. The letter quoted Laura Bush, making positive
remarks supporting the flag. Richard Towell Hines, native South Carolinian whose major
client is the Cambodian government.
The Christian Coalition, American Federation of Labor-Congress of Industrial
Organizations AFL-CIO, National Education Association, National Abortion and
Reproductive Rights Action League NARAL, National Right to Life, the Sierra Club.
All interest groups dedicated to advancing specific interests through the political process
–have run ads on TV and radio and mounted telephone or mail campaign efforts in recent
election cycles.
Issue advocacy—groups that do not use words like vote for or vote against, the Supreme
Court defines it. They are not subject to the same disclosure requirements or contribution
limitations as contributions to candidates. Unlimited and undisclosed spending by an
individual or group and this activity is actually about electing or defeating candidates.
Factions---interest groups today were refer to as factions by James Madison and other
founders of this country to refer to political parties as well as what we now call special
interests or interest groups. The founders feared the tyranny and dominance of a single
dominant interests. Federalist #10
Interest Groups-- a collection of people who share some common interest or attitude
and seek to influence government and employ tactics such as lobbying to achieve their
goals (Groups based on issues like gun control or tax reduction) Sometimes referred to
as special interest groups, some claim to speak for the public interest,
Social Movements
Movement—a large body of people interested in a common issue, idea, or concern that is
of continuing significance and who are willing to take action on that issue. Movements
seek to change attitudes or institutions, not only policies. Examples: abolitionist,
temperance, civil rights, environmental, antitax, animal rights, and women’s rights
movement. Each group represents groups who have felt “left out” of government and
such movements have considerable room to operate within constitutional system.
Types of Interest Groups
a. Economic
-- Businesses/Large corporation General Motors, AT&T,
Microsoft, Coca Cola, McDonalds, Amazon, so on –exercise considerable
political influence.
-- Trade and other associations Conference Board, the National Association for
the Self Employed, the Business Higher Education Forum and the Chamber of
Commerce. Businesses with similar interests in government regulations join
together despite their broad and different types of business. The Chamber of
Commerce of the United States, organized in 1912 this is an organization of
several thousand local Chambers of Commerce representing tens of thousands of
business firms
--Labor --workers’ associations have a range of interests, from professional
standards to wages and working conditions. Labor unions are one of the most
important groups representing workers. See Figure 6-1 US work force is the least
unionized of the most industrialized nations. Farmers, Knights of Labor,
American Federation of Labor, Congress of Industrial Organization (last two
reunited in 1955), and others have been effective in communicating with their
members and organizing them for political purposes. For example they have
invested heavily in the fight against North American Free Trade Agreement
(NAFTA), claiming it would cost jobs. Unions have been quite effective in
communicating with their members and organizing them for political purposes.
Union membership is optional in states whose laws permit the open shop—
members cannot be required as a condition of employment. Closed shop union
membership may be required as a condition of employment if most employees so
vote. Free rider an individual who does not join an interest group representing
his or her interests, yet receives the benefit of the influence the group achieves.
Traditionally identified with the Democratic Party, unions have not enjoyed a
close relationship with Republican administrations
--Professional Associations National Education Association, the American
Federation of Teachers, the American Association of University Professors, so on.
Some professions are regulated by the state ie Lawyers and state bar. Also pursue
their agenda through the courts. Table 6-1 Among the largest donors to political
campaigns are those representing professional associations.
b. ideological or single issue -- They are not necessarily driven by a desire to
make money. Single issue groups are often highly motivated and seeing primarily
as a means to pursue their one issue. They are adamant about their position and
unwilling to negotiate compromises. Right –to- life and pro-Choice groups on
abortion, National Rifle Association,. Groups organized around specific issues:
civil liberties, environmental protection, nuclear energy, and nuclear
disarmament. One of the best known: American Civil Liberties Union ACLU.
Ideological religious groups are thriving in the otherwise pragmatic, pluralistic
politics—Christian Coalition distributes Voter Guides the Sunday before the
election
c. Public interest -- The 1960s created a climate that produced a number of groups
that claimed to promote the public interest. Common Cause founded in 1970
campaigns, oversees state chapters, issues a flood of research reports and press
releases on current issues, and lobbies on Capitol Hill and in major government
departments. Ralph Nader started a conglomerate of consumer organizations that
investigates and reports on governmental and corporate action or inaction relating
to consumer interests. Public Interest Research Groups (PIRGs) founded by
Nader are major players in on Capitol Hill and state legislatures, promoting
environmental issues, safe energy, consumer protection, and good government.
Nader was the Green Party’s candidate in 2000 and received 3% of the popular
vote. Tax – exempt public charity, another public interest group, (e.g. American
Heart Association, the Girl Scouts, and the American Cancer Society). They all
must meet certain conditions, such as educational or philanthropic objectives to
qualify for this preferred status. There are tax exempt, but donations are tax
deductible, and are not required to disclose information about their donors
publicly. These organizations cannot participate in elections or support
candidates, nor can they benefit an individual or small group. They are, however,
very active in voter registration and advertising campaigns designed to influence
public opinion.
d. Foreign policy - More and more groups are organizing to promote or oppose
certain foreign policies. For example, Council on Foreign Relations in New York
City. Such groups exert pressure on members of Congress and the president to
enact specific policies. For example, interest groups put pressure politicians to
change US policy toward South Africa and played a role in ending apartheid.
e. Government-- Many cities and states retain Washington lobbyists to represent
them in DC and state legislatures. Governors formed the National Governors
Associations, cities the National League of Cities, and counties the National
Association of Counties. Government employees form large and well-organized
group. The National Education Association NEA boasts of over 2.3 members
* Other Interest Groups: veterans groups such as American Legion, Veterans of Foreign
Wars, also German, Irish, Hispanic, and Korean and religious Knights of Columbus,
B’nai B’rith. Over 150 organizations are based on nation origin alone. Environmental
groups are growing at a trememdous rate.
AARP American Association of Retired Person older citizens interests serves paying
members’ and elderly in general interest
AAA American Automobile Association serves paying members’ and motorists’ interest
Characteristics and Power of interest groups
-Size and Resources
an organization of 5 million voters has more influence than one speaking for five
thousand . Size and strength is critical in shaping public policy. Resources included
money, volunteers, expertise, and reputation
-Cohesiveness
leaders, active members, inactive members; organizational structure—well organized
groups are more effective
-Leadership
a good leader knows how to lead followers and when to follow theme
-Techniques: A variety of political weapons and targets Publicity, mass media appeals,
mass mailing, influence on rule making
(Federal Register—this official document, published every weekday, list new and
proposed regulations of executive departments and regulatory agencies.) Litigation,
election activities, forming a political party, cooperative lobbying
The Influence of Lobbyists
The terms lobbyist and lobbying have their root in the word lobby or hallway outside
House and Senate chambers in the US Congress. A Senator may be accosted coming out
of his/her chambers. To lobby is to seek to influence legislators and government
officials.
Lobbying Activities aimed at influencing public officials, especially legislators, and the
policies they enact.
Lobbyist a person who is employed by and acts for an organized interest group or
corporation to try to influence policy decisions and positions in the executive and
legislative branches.
Who are the lobbyists? What do lobbyists do?
The typical lobbist has a combination of knowledge, persuasiveness, personal influence,
charm, and money to influence legislators and bureaucrats.
Lobbyist represent people/groups on the basis of money and interests, the play a role in
campaigns and elections supporting candidates and opposing the opposition. They also
provide information regarding who supports or opposes legislation and technical
assistance on drafting bills and amendments
Revolving door the employment cycle in which individuals work, in turn for
government agencies regulating interests and then for the interest groups or businesses
with the same policy concern
Iron triangle a mutually supporting relationship among interest groups, congressional
committees and subcommittees, and government agencies that share a common policy
concern.
Political action committee PAC the political arm of an interest group that is legally
entitled to raise funds on a voluntary basis from members, stockholders, or employees in
order to contribute funds to favored candidates or political parties
PACs give money and other political aid to politicians and persuade officeholders to act
or vote “the right way” on issues. PACs are the means by which interest groups seek to
influence which legislature.
They emerged in the 1930s when the United Mine Workers set up the political arm of the
CIO, by the 1970s a near revolution in the role and influence of PACs took place from
about 150 to nearly 4000 today. PACs give to the most influential incumbents, to
committee chairs, party leaders and whips, and the Speaker. They are limited by law in
the amount of money they can contribute to any single candidate in an election cycle.
The Federal Election Campaign Act 1971 limits PACs to $5000 per election or $10000
per election cycle (primary and general elections). Individuals have a limit of $2000 per
candidate by election cycle.
PACs have ways around the limit: the can host fund raisers attended by several persons
and give it to the candidate as a bundle.
Bundling a tactic of political action committees whereby they collect contributions from
like minded individuals (each limited them to candidate or political party as a “bundle”
thus increasing their influence.
The tendency of giving to incumbents has meant that challengers face real difficulties in
getting their campaigns funded. They can help incumbents by giving soft money.
Soft money Unlimited contributions to a state or local political party for party building
purposes
What’s Wrong with Factions? P. 136
Federal and State Regulation
Federal Election Campaign Act 1971 (has been amended 3 times) establishes reporting
or disclosure requirements for all candidates for the House, Senate, and presidency as
well as their political parties and campaign committees. Its also requires disclosure of the
amounts spent to influence federal elections by others, including individuals and political
action committees. Also there is public financing for presidential candidates, financing by
voluntary check off on income tax forms. Spending by candidates is not limited but
contributions are limited.
Lobbying Disclosure Act of 1995 first major overhaul of lobbying laws since 1946, the
definition of lobbyist was expanding and the number grew significantly and included
specific disclosure requirements and information requirements.
Six months before leaving office Clinton signed into law legislation that required Interest
groups to reveal/disclose information regarding the ads they run.
Big Contributors p. 139
Their existence and rights are protected by the First Amendment.
Reforms are based on regulations that seek fairness, disclosure, and balance between
interest groups.
Chapter 6 Interest Groups: The Politics of Influence
1. Explain Madison’s analysis of the problems of faction and possible solutions.
Examine reasons for concerns regarding factions.
Factions---interest groups today were refer to as factions by James Madison and other
founders of this country to refer to political parties as well as what we now call special
interests or interest groups. The founders feared the tyranny and dominance of a single
dominant interests. Federalist #10
2. Discuss why American’s organize and join groups so readily.
Interest Groups-- a collection of people who share some common interest or attitude and
seek to influence government and employ tactics such as lobbying to achieve their goals
(Groups based on issues like gun control or tax reduction) Sometimes referred to as
special interest groups, some claim to speak for the public interest.
See addition.
3. How did anonymous ads affect Senator McCain’s presidential candidacy?
Republicans for Clean Air ran ads attacking the environmental record of Arizona Senator
John McCain at a cost of approximately $2 million.
--In time it was discovered that Sam Wyly, Texas businessman, who brother was a major
contributor to George W. Bush, admitted he sponsored the ads.
Keep it Flying PAC sent out 200,000 to voters shortly before the South Carolina
Republican primary incorrectly claiming McCain opposed flying the Confederate flag
over the South Carolina state capitol. The letter quoted Laura Bush, making positive
remarks supporting the flag. Richard Towell Hines, native South Carolinian whose major
client is the Cambodian government.
4. Indicate the most influential economic interest groups, and their primary concerns
relative to government.
Economic
-- Businesses/Large corporation General Motors, AT&T, Microsoft,
Coca Cola, McDonalds, Amazon, so on –exercise considerable political influence.
-- Trade and other associations Conference Board, the National Association for the Self
Employed, the Business Higher Education Forum and the Chamber of Commerce.
Businesses with similar interests in government regulations join together despite their
broad and different types of business. The Chamber of Commerce of the United States,
organized in 1912 this is an organization of several thousand local Chambers of
Commerce representing tens of thousands of business firms
5. Provide examples of foreign policy interest groups.
Foreign policy - More and more groups are organizing to promote or oppose certain
foreign policies. For example, Council on Foreign Relations in New York City. Such
groups exert pressure on members of Congress and the president to enact specific
policies. For example, interest groups put pressure politicians to change US policy
toward South Africa and played a role in ending apartheid.
6. Discuss the factors the make an interest group politically potent.
-Size and Resources
an organization of 5 million voters has more influence than one speaking for five
thousand . Size and strength is critical in shaping public policy. Resources included
money, volunteers, expertise, and reputation
-Cohesiveness
leaders, active members, inactive members; organizational structure—well organized
groups are more effective
-Leadership
a good leader knows how to lead followers and when to follow theme
-Techniques: A variety of political weapons and targets Publicity, mass media appeals,
mass mailing, influence on rule making
(Federal Register—this official document, published every weekday, list new and
proposed regulations of executive departments and regulatory agencies.) Litigation,
election activities, forming a political party, cooperative lobbying
7. Summarize the major techniques of interest groups, including e-mail and
litigation.
A variety of political weapons and targets Publicity and mass media appeals: television,
radio, newspapers, leaflets, signs, direct mail, and word of mouth to influence voters
during elections and to motivate constituents to contact their representatives between
elections, mass mailing: telephone directories and other sources, lists of people to
contact, and managing these were time consuming before computers. But today
computers permit easy data storage and efficient management of mailing lists and
produce personalized letters targeted to specific groups; influence on rule making—
organized groups have ready access to the executive and regulatory agencies that write
the rules implementing laws passed by Congress. (Federal Register—this official
document, published every weekday, list new and proposed regulations of executive
departments and regulatory agencies.), write letters responses to proposed rules, draft
alternative rules, and appear at the hearings to make their case. These lobbyists seek to
be on good terms with the staff of the agencies, and they seek to modify the rules.
Litigation: Courts—NAACP legal defense and education initiated and won numerous
court cases in efforts to end racial segregation and discrimination, Urban interest
groups/environmental/Women’s/Religious groups have done the same. Also Amicus
curiae brief—friend of the court brief, this document is filed by an individual or
organization to present arguments in addition to those presented by the immediate parties
to case, election activities: Organizations and groups often say they are nonpartisan but
all are political in some way, Labor favors Democrats, AFL-CIO has supported
Democratic candidate, Business groups generally endorse the incumbent but favor
Republicans when no incumbent is running. Forming a political party: They don’t hope
to win, but to publicize a cause. The Free Soil was formed in the mid-1840s to work
against the spread of slavery into territories, the Prohibit party was organized to banned
the sale of liquor. Green party makes environment issues central to their platform,
cooperative lobbying—Leadership Conference on Civil Rights and the People for the
American way brought together many groups in the battle to defeat the nomination of
outspoken federal judge, Robert Bork. Consumer and ideological groups on the right
and left. Woman, Food Group 30yr informal conference group in Washington that has
represented more than 60 business and trade associations it spawned the truth in
packaging legislation.
8. Describe lobbyists explaining the functions include political/substantive
information.
Lobbyist a person who is employed by and acts for an organized interest group or
corporation to try to influence policy decisions and positions in the executive and
legislative branches.
Who are the lobbyists? What do lobbyists do?
The typical lobbist has a combination of knowledge, persuasiveness, personal influence,
charm, and money to influence legislators and bureaucrats.
Lobbyist represent people/groups on the basis of money and interests, the play a role in
campaigns and elections supporting candidates and opposing the opposition. They also
provide information regarding who supports or opposes legislation and technical
assistance on drafting bills and amendments
9. Explain the growth of PAC’s and their role and impact in American politics.
Political action committee PAC the political arm of an interest group that is legally
entitled to raise funds on a voluntary basis from members, stockholders, or employees in
order to contribute funds to favored candidates or political parties
PACs give money and other political aid to politicians and persuade officeholders to act
or vote “the right way” on issues. PACs are the means by which interest groups seek to
influence which legislature.
They emerged in the 1930s when the United Mine Workers set up the political arm of the
CIO, by the 1970s a near revolution in the role and influence of PACs took place from
about 150 to nearly 4000 today. PACs give to the most influential incumbents, to
committee chairs, party leaders and whips, and the Speaker. They are limited by law in
the amount of money they can contribute to any single candidate in an election cycle.
The Federal Election Campaign Act 1971 limits PACs to $5000 per election or $10000
per election cycle (primary and general elections). Individuals have a limit of $2000 per
candidate by election cycle.
PACs have ways around the limit: the can host fund raisers attended by several persons
and give it to the candidate as a bundle.
10. Evaluate the effects of campaign finance reforms on interest groups. Why is it
difficult to for Congress to pass campaign finance reform. Be sure to include the
impact of soft money.
Federal Election Campaign Act 1971 (has been amended 3 times) establishes reporting
or disclosure requirements for all candidates for the House, Senate, and presidency as
well as their political parties and campaign committees. Its also requires disclosure of the
amounts spent to influence federal elections by others, including individuals and political
action committees. Also there is public financing for presidential candidates, financing by
voluntary check off on income tax forms. Spending by candidates is not limited but
contributions are limited.
The tendency of giving to incumbents has meant that challengers face real difficulties in
getting their campaigns funded. They can help incumbents by giving soft money.
Soft money Unlimited contributions to a state or local political party for party building
purposes
Chapter 6 Interest Groups: The Politics of Influence
1. Explain Madison’s analysis of the problems of faction and possible solutions.
Examine reasons for concerns regarding factions.
2. Discuss why American’s organize and join groups so readily.
3. How did anonymous ads affect Senator McCain’s presidential candidacy?
4. Indicate the most influential economic interest groups, and their primary concerns
relative to government.
5.
Provide examples of foreign policy interest groups.
6. Discuss the factors the make an interest group politically potent.
7. Summarize the major techniques of interest groups, including e-mail and
litigation.
8. Describe lobbyists explaining the functions include political/substantive
information.
9. Explain the growth of PAC’s and their role and impact in American politics.
10. Evaluate the effects of campaign finance reforms on interest groups. Why is it
difficult to for Congress to pass campaign finance reform. Be sure to include the
impact of soft money.