Introduction to Anatomy and Physiology I:
1) Define the terms anatomy and physiology. What are the root words and their
meaning for each?
2) What is the difference between gross and micro anatomy?
3) What are the levels of organization in the human body? Provide a definition for
each level (i.e. define atom and so on).
4) Name and define the seven life process. Why must be able to complete these life
processes?
5) Define homeostasis. What are the 4 steps involved in maintaining homeostasis?
What happens if we are unable to maintain homeostasis?
6) What is a negative feedback mechanism? Give an example. What is a positive
feedback mechanism? Give an example.
Anatomical Terminology Review:
1) Why is it important that we use specific regional and directional terms when
discussing anatomy and physiology?
2) Be able to define and use the following directional terminology.
a. Inferior
b. Superior
c. Lateral
d. Intermediate
e. Medial
f. Distal
g. Proximal
h. Anterior (ventral)
i. Posterior (dorsal)
3) When discussing a patient, which side is the left and which side is the right?
4) Be able to locate the following body regions and the sub regions of each (p.13
text)
a. Cephalic
b. Cervical
c. Upper limb
d. Thoratic
e. Dorsal
f. Abdominal
g. Pelvic
h. Pubic
i. Manus
j. Lower limb
k. Pedal
5) Be able to identify the body planes (frontal, transverse, sagittal, oblique).
6) Name and locate the body cavities of the human body.
7) What are the names and locations of the regions with in abdominopelvic cavity?
What organs are found in each region?
8) What organs are found in each cavity?
9) What cavities are membrane bound? What type of membrane?
10) Describe the importance of serous membranes. Where are the serous membranes
found in the human body?
11) What types of body symmetry are found in the animal kingdom? What type do
chordates have?
12) What is the difference between a protostome and a deuterostome? What type are
humans?
Histology Review:
1) What is histology?
2) What are the four types of tissues in the human body?
3) What are common characteristics epithelia? What are the two classes of
epithelial?
4) Be able to identify the various subtypes of epithelia as well as state each types
main function(s) and at least one location that they are found in the human body.
5) What are the types of glandular epithelia? Where can each type be found in the
body? What are the types of exocrine ducts? Where can they be found in the
human body?
6) Name the types of membranes made up of epithelia. Where is each type found?
7) What are common characteristics of connective tissue? Provide an overview of
the parts of all connective tissue (ground substance, connective tissue fibers and
cells).
8) Be able to identify the various subtypes of connective tissue as well as state each
types main function(s) and at least one location that they are found in the human
body.
9) Where in the body can membranes made of connective tissue be found?
10) What is the cell type of nervous tissue called? Be able to describe the basic
structure of these cells.
11) What are the three types of muscle tissue found in the human body? What are the
common characteristics of these muscle tissues?
12) Be able to identify the various subtypes of muscle tissue as well as state each
types main function(s) and at least one location that they are found in the human
body.
Integumentary System Review:
1) What are the three parts of the integumentary system?
2) What are main functions of the integumentary system?
3) Be able to identify the 4 layers of the epidermis (5 if thick skin). What types
of cells are found in each layer? What are the functions of each layer?
4) Be able to identify the 2 layers of the dermis. What types of cells are found in
each layer? What is the function of each layer?
5) What is another name for the hypodermis? What types of tissues make up the
hypodermis? What is the hypodermis function?
6) What are the 5 skin appendages discussed in this course?
7) How many “sweat” glands does the average person have? What are the 2
types of human sweat glands and what are the differences between them?
Where is each type found? Which type has 2 subtypes and what is the function
of each subtype?
8) What is the scientific name for “oil” glands? What do these types of glands
secrete? Why does the human body have oil glands? What type of glands are
these? Where won’t you find these glands on the human skin?
9) Be able to draw and label a cross section of a strand of hair. What makes hair
so strong? What determines if hair is curly, wavy or straight?
10) What pigments determine hair color? Which of these must be present if an
individual is to have a shade or red hair? Which determines how light or dark
a person hair will be?
11) Be able to identify a hair follicle. In what layer are hair follicles imbedded in
the skin?
12) What is the function of the arrector pili? Describe why the simple contraction
of these small muscles are able is so important.
13) What are the structures of the human nail? What functions do nails serve?
What causes do nails grow?
14) What types of sensory neurons are found in the skin? Why is it important to
have nerve endings that are able to sense a variety of stimuli?
15) Describe how pigment is produced in the skin. What cells are involved?
Where are melanocytes found in the skin?
16) Discuss the four phases of tissue repair. When does each phase take place?
What types of cells are involved and how at each phase?
17) What is the diffence between first, second and third degree burns? How many
people die each year due to burns? What are the two main reasons individuals
die of burns? Discuss the rule of 9 used by doctors. What makes a burn minor
or severe? How do you treat a minor burn? When is it time to see a doctor?
What are autografts, allografts and xenografts? What is the advantage of and
disadvantages of each?
18) How many Americans suffer from psoriasis? What causes this disease? Is
there a cure and if so what is it? How may the different severities of the
disease be treated?
19) What layer of the skin does the scabies mite live in? How is scabies
contracted? What are the treatment options?
Reproductive System Review:
1) What are the structures and functions of the male reproductive system?
2) Why does the scrotum hang below the abdominal pelvic cavity? What muscles
control lifting the scrotum?
3) Where is sperm produced? What is this process know as?
4) Be able to the list the portions of the male duct system and the order through
which sperm passes to reach the outside of the human body.
5) What are the erectile tissues on the penis? How is erection possible?
6) Discuss the structures and functions within the testes.
7) What are the phases of meiosis? How does meiosis differ from mitosis?
8) How many sperm are produced a day? Discuss the process of spermatogensis.
What role do the sertoli cells play? What role do that lydig cells play?
9) What is the structure of a sperm cell? Why do sperm have this structure?
10) There are two negative feedback systems involved in regulation the male
reproductive system, discuss each of these.
11) What are the phases of the male sexual response? What occurs at each phase?
12) What are the causes of an enlarged prostate? How common is it? What group of
men does not seem to suffer from enlarged prostate? What does this tell us about
the cause? If symptoms exist, what may they include? Describe any treatment
options.
13) What is erectile dysfunction? What are some common causes of this disease?
How can it be treated?
14) What are the structures and functions of the female reproductive system?
15) What are the three phases of ovulation? What occurs in each stage and at what
day of the cycle?
16) Be able to recognize how the various hormones involved in the menstrual cycle
fluctuate during the month and how these fluctuations affect the developing
follicle and endometrium.
17) What type of glands are mammary glands. What structures can be seen in the
female breast tissue and what functions do these structures have?
18) What feedback systems are involved in the regulation of the female reproductive
system?
19) What are the phases of the female sexual response? What occurs at each phase?
20) How many women worldwide suffer from endometriosis? What causes the
symptoms of endometriosis? What are those symptoms? What are treatment
options?
21) What is the difference between PMS and PMDD? What does each stand for? How
many women are affected? What are some risk factors associated with PMS?
What are some treatment options?
Pregnancy Review:
1) Discuss the events involved in fertilization of ovum.
2) Discuss events involved in the combining of DNA from sperm and ovum.
3) How does the oocyte move through the fallopian tube? What is happening to the
oocyte on each day as it moves towards the uterus? When and where does the
blastocyst hatch?
4) Discuss the steps involved in the implantation of the blastocyst in the uterine wall.
Be able to identify the various structures of the blastocyst at this point and as it
changes throughout implantation.
5) What events take place during the third week after fertilization?
6) What are the three cell types that develop from gastrulation? What do each of
these cell types differentiate into?
7) How long does the embryonic stage last? What are some major milestones during
this stage?
8) What are the major structures of the placenta? How are nutrients, oxygen and
wastes passed between the embryo and mother?
9) How long does the fetal stage last? What are some major millstones during this
stage?
10) At what point does the embryo begin sexual differentiation? What is the process
of sexual differentiation? How is the Y chromosome responsible for this?
11) What hormones are involved with maintaining pregnancy? Where are these
hormones secreted from? What does each hormone do to maintain pregnancy?
12) What is a scientific term for birth? What are the hormone mechanisms involved in
this process? Discuss how this is an example of positive feedback?
13) What are the hormones involved with lactogenesis? Describe the process of
lactation.
14) What is a kayrotype? What does the term diploid mean? What cells are diploid?
What does haploid mean? what cells are haploid?
15) What does it mean to heterozygous? What does it mean to be homozygous?
16) What is the difference between genotype and phenotype?
17) Discuss the principle of independent assortment. How many various in humans
does this lead to alone?
18) What is crossing over? How does this lead to genetic variation?
19) Be able to complete a punette square describing a dominant-recessive gene. Why
are disorders caused by recessive genes seen more commonly, while there are few
dominate genes that cause disorders or disease? Why are X linked genes usually
expressed in men?
20) Why do we use pedigrees to trace genes in humans?
21) Be able to complete a punette square describing an incomplete dominate gene. Be
able to tell what the phenotype of each offspring would be.
22) What are polygenetic traits?
Respiratory System Review:
1) What is the function of the respiratory system?
2) What is respiration? What are the four processes involved in respiration? What is
occurring during each process?
3) Be able to identify the structures of the external nose. What type of tissue is each
structure composed of?
4) Name the functions of the nasal cavity. What portion of the nasal cavity is lined
with skin?
5) What two types of mucosa are found in the nasal cavity? What is the function
each and where is each located?
6) What are the functions of the nasal conchae?
7) What is the function of the paranasal sinuses? Where is each located?
8) What is the function of the pharynx? What are the three subdivision of the
pharynx and where is each located anatomically? What type of tissue is each
composed of?
9) Where are the three sets of tonsils located?
10) What are the functions of the larynx? What type of tissue are the cartilages of the
larynx composed of (include epiglottis)? Why are the rings of cartilage only
semicircular?
11) What are the vocal folds? What type of tissue are they composed of? What is the
glottis? How is voice produced?
12) What three layers surround the trachea? What type of tissues is found in the
trachea? Why is the trachea lined with semicircular rings of cartilage? Name the
last tracheal cartilage. What is the muscle that separates the trachea from the
esophagus? Why is it important to have a muscle in this location?
13) Describe the cough and sneeze reflex? How are they similar? How are they
different?
14) Why is the left lung smaller then the right lung? Why are objects more likely to
become lodged in the right lung then the left? How many times do the bronchi
branch? What happens to the cell as you move from main bronchi to terminal
bronchioles?
15) Name the three layers of the pleurae.
16) What are the functions of the alveoli? What type of tissue are alveoli composed
of? What other cell types are found in the alveoli and what are their functions?
17) Dalton’s law of partial pressures. Why is this important in understanding the
respiratory system? What values do we use to describe the pressure of air at sea
level on Earth (in both atmospheres and mm Hg)? How are atmospheres and mm
Hg related?
18) What is the composition of atmospheric air (in both percent and partial pressure)?
What is the composition of air in our alveoli (in both percent and partial
pressure)? Why does the composition of air change why entering our respiratory
system?
19) What is the partial pressure of O2 in the blood as it enters the lungs? What is the
partial pressure of O2 in the blood as it leaves the lungs? How long does it take
for the blood to become saturated with O2? Why does blood stay near the alveoli
longer then it takes for O2 to diffuse in? What is the partial pressure of CO2 in the
blood as it enters the lungs? What is the partial pressure of CO2 in the blood as it
leaves the lungs?
20) Describe the idea of ventilation-profusion match (V/Q). If the V/Q heads towards
zero, is that indicative of a disruption with ventilation or profusion? What if the
V/Q heads towards ∞?
21) Describe the structure of the respiratory membrane. Why is this important to gas
exchange?
22) Describe how O2 is transported in the blood. How much O2 is move by the blood
every minute? Describe the oxygen-hemoglobin dissociation curve. At what
partial pressure is hemoglobin saturated with O2? At what partial pressure of O2
are the tissues typically found at rest? How many O2 are bound to hemoglobin at
that partial pressure? What about exercising tissues?
23) Describe the Bohr Effect. How do temperature and pH change oxygenhemoglobin dissociation?
24) Describe how CO2 is transported in the blood. What enzyme acts to change CO2
in to bicarbonate in red blood cells? What is chloride shift? How much CO2 is
moved each minute by the blood?
25) What is asthma? What is pneumonia? What is sickle cell anemia? What is cystic
fibrosis? What is lung cancer? What is COPD?
26) Describe Boyle’s Law. How does it pertain to the respiratory system?
27) What is intrapulmonary pressure? What is transpleural pressure? What is
transpulmonary pressure? Why must the transpulmonary pressure always remain
negative?
28) Describe how inhalation occurs. What muscles are involved? What changes in
pressure and volume are seen?
29) Describe how exhalation occurs? What muscles are involved? What changes in
pressure and volume are seen?
30) What tree factors limit pulmonary ventilation? What is resistance? Where is
resistance the highest and why? What factors I most important in determining the
amount of resistance in laminar flow? What is surface tension? How do we over
come surface tension in the alveoli? What is lung compliance?
31) Describe the pulmonary volumes and the pulmonary capacities. What groups will
have higher than average pulmonary volumes and capacities? What groups will
have smaller than average volumes and capacities?
Urinary System Review
1) What is excretion? What systems make up the excretory system and how do they
help maintain homeostasis through excretion?
2) What are the four main structures of the urinary system? Where is each structure
located? What type of tissues are each composed of?
3) How much plasma is filtered from the body each day by the kidneys? How much
is that per minute?
4) What are the structures of the kidney that can be seen in frontal cross section of
the kidney?
5) Name the blood vessels that blood flows through as it enters and leaves the
kidneys (from abdominal aorta to inferior vena cava)? How long does it take the
kidneys to filter all the blood in the body?
6) What are the four main areas of the nephron? How many nephrons does a healthy
adult have?
a. Describe how the filtration membrane in the renal corpuscle of the
nephron is designed to allow for fluid to be filtered out of blood. What is
left behind in blood as it leaves the glomerulus?
b. What are the 2 types of nephrons and how do they differ?
c. Describe the epithelium of the renal tubule from the bowman’s capsule to
the collecting duct.
d. What structures are a part of the juxtaglomerular apparatus?
7) What is the function of the ureter? What are the three layers of the ureter
composed of?
8) What is the name of the muscularis layer of the urinary bladder? What portion of
the bladder does not have fibrous CT as its adventitia? What are rugae and why
are they important in the urinary bladder? How much urine can the bladder hold?
9) What two types of tissue are the internal and external urinary sphincters
composed of? Why is this important?
10) What are the three steps in formation of urine? What is the largest a substance can
be to filtered out of a healthy glomerulus?
11) What is osmolality? What happens to cells in a hypotonic solution? What will
happen in a hypertonic solution? How does osmolality cause osmotic pressure?
12) What are the three components that contribute to Net Filtration Rate (NFR)? What
are the typical values for those three components in a healthy individual? Why
don’t we have a value for capsular osmotic pressure?
13) What three factors influence Glomerular Filtration Rate (GFR)? Why is NFR the
most important factor in healthy individuals? What is a typical GFR? How does
renal clearance help us determine GFR?
14) Describe reabsorption in the PCT.
15) Describe reabsorption in the Loop of Henle. How does the countercurrent
multiplier contribute to reabsorption in the Loop of Henle? What is the purpose in
the vasa recta in this situation?
16) Describe reabsorption in the DCT and collecting duct. How does ADH increase
the concentration of urine? What factors lead to the release of ADH? What does
ADH stand for?
17) Where does renal secretion take place? What is the purpose of renal secretion?
18) Describe the inputs that lead to and stop micturition from occurring.
19) What factors contribute to fluid balance? Why must we maintain a certain level of
fluid in our body? What happens if we become dehydrated? What happens if we
become overly hydrated? What are the compartments in our body where you will
find water? Are they related in any way?
20) What are the common electrolytes found in the human body? Why is important
that they are conserved?
21) Describe the rennin-angiotensin-alderston system (RAAS). What are the overall
target structures and what the effects that are seen?
22) What are the effects of ANP on the body? How does this affect the urine
produced?
23) What are the effects of Parathyroid Hormone? How does this affect the urine
produced?
24) What is pH a description of? What is the pH scale? What is the most important
buffer system of the blood? Why is it important that we maintain a fairly constant
blood pH?
25) How does the respiratory system help maintain a constant blood pH? How does
the urinary system help maintain a constant blood pH?
26) What are the differences between metabolic acidosis and respiratory acidosis?
What are the differences between metabolic alkalosis and respiratory alkalosis?
How are each of these situations resolved?
27) Describe how the diuretics introduced in class affect the function of the urinary
system.
Digestive System Review:
1) Name the two functions of the GI and define both terms. What does GI stand for?
2) Name the organs of the alimentary canal. Name all the accessory organs
associated with the digestive system.
3) What are the 6 major processes that contribute to digestion? Where does each take
place?
4) What is the name of the circulation to the lower digestive tract? Why is there such
a rich blood supply to this region of the body?
5) Describe the generalized histology of the alimentary canal. How does each layer
change from organ to organ as you move through the alimentary canal?
6) What are the two parts of the enteric nervous system?
7) Name the structures of the lips. What are the functions of the lips? What is the
muscle the forms the lips? Why do the “lip” appear red in color? What structure
holds the lips to the gingival?
8) What is the main muscle that makes up the cheeks?
9) Describe the structure of our teeth. How many teeth do children develop? How
many teeth do we develop in adulthood? What are the 4 classes of teeth and how
do they differ?
10) What is the difference between the hard and soft palate?
11) What type of tissue is the tongue composed of? What are the functions of the
tongue? What is the purpose of the papillae of the tongue? Where does the oral
cavity end?
12) How many salivary glands do we have? What are their names and where are they
located? Where do their ducts empty into the oral cavity?
13) Describe the histology of the esophagus (question #5)
14) What is mechanical digestion? Where does it occur in our body?
15) What is the scientific name for swallowing? Describe the process of swallowing.
16) In what regions is the stomach located? What are the functions of the stomach?
What is the only one necessary for sustaining life?
17) Name the 4 regions of the stomach.
18) What is the pH inside the stomach? How does the stomach produce this pH?
How does the stomach protect itself from this pH level?
19) What are the four types of cells found in the gastric glands? What does each
secrete?
20) What is a zymogen? What zymogen is secreted in the stomach and how is it
converted? What does the active form do?
21) Describe the three phases of gastric secretion. How does each phase change the
secretions in the stomach?
22) Describe the process of gastric emptying. How long does this take after a normal
meal?
23) What structure marks the beginning of the small intestine? The end? What are the
three regions of the small intestine?
24) How is the small intestine especially adapted to nutrient absorption?
25) What types of cells make up the mucosa of the small intestine? Where are these
cells located?
26) Why do you only find Brunner’s glands in the duodenum? Why do you find an
increasing number of Peyer’s patches as you reach the distal region of the ileum?
27) How do the accessory organs aid in digestion? Describe the microscopic anatomy
of the liver. What is the function of the gallbladder? Describe the microscopic
anatomy of the pancreas.
28) What is bile composed of? Why is secreted into the small intestine? What makes
up pancreatic juice? Why are the proteases secreted as zymogens? How are they
converted into active form? What hormones control the release of bile and
pancreatic juice?
29) Describe segmentation in the small intestine.
30) What is the major chemical reaction that takes place to break foodstuff into
monomers? What are the monomers of the 4 major nutrients?
31) Describe the digestions and absorption of each of the 4 major nutrients.
32) How is vitamin B12 absorbed?
33) How is water absorbed?
34) What structure marks the beginning of the large intestine? Where does it end?
What are the major functions of the large intestine? What are the four major
regions of the large intestine? How are the four tunics of the GI different in the
large intestine?
35) Why do we maintain colonies of bacteria in our large intestine?
36) Describe the differences between haustral contractions and mass movements.
37) Describe the defecation reflex.
Metabolism Review:
1) Define metabolism. What are the 2 processes that make up metabolism?
2) How is each type of nutrient stored in the body?
3) What is a redox reaction? Why are coenzymes important to metabolism?
4) Describe glycolysis. Describe the Kreb’s Cycle. Describe the electron transport
chain. How much energy is derived from each phase. Which are anaerobic, which
are aerobic?
5) What molecule serves as energy in the human body? How much of this does the
body make from 1 molecule of glucose? How are the various nutrients used to
make energy and where do they enter one of the three cycles from question #4?
6) Describe the interconversion of nutrients how is this possible?
7) What is meant by the term absorptive state? What hormone controls this state?
What are the effects of this hormone?
8) What is meant by the term post-absorptive state? What controls this state? What
are the overall effects seen in the body?
9) What is cholesterol? Why does the body make cholesterol? Why do we not want
too much in our body?
10) What does BMR stand for? How is it found? How does it relate to energy
balance? What does BMI tell us?
Nutrition Review:
1) What is a nutrient? What is an essential nutrient? How are calories used describe
nutritional value?
2) What are the six food groups? Describe the food pyramid.
3) What are differences between simple and complex carbohydrates? How does the
body utilize carbohydrates?
4) How does the body use lipids? What are the differences between saturated,
unsaturated and trans fats? Which are best for healthy diet? Which are worst?
5) How does the body use proteins? What is the difference between essential and
non-essential amino acids?
6) What is difference between fat and water soluble vitamins? Name some important
vitamins and why they are needed in a healthy diet.
7) Name some important minerals and why they are needed in a healthy diet.