Inuktitut and the Nunasoft Portal- A Mixed Methods Approach to Web-Based Strategies for Preserving Aboriginal and Minority Languages
Timothy James Pasch
University of Washington
Department of Communication
Abstract:
The Inuit language, Inuktitut, is one of many aboriginal languages under threat of disappearance due to globalization, English-based Internet use, and international media conglomeration. A review of relevant literature suggests a growing consensus that language is a valuable global commodity and merits preservation. In contrast to the creation of static digital archives, this article proposes an exploration of the effectiveness of web-based language tools produced for the Inuit and designed to facilitate native language acquisition and retention. Through the use of an online survey and analysis software designed by the
Internet Research Group at the University of Washington, Seattle, the potential for the increased use of Inuktitut online is assessed. A critical epistemological framework, recommendations for future research and the potential for similar applications in alternate minority language situations is discussed.
Introduction
“The political domination that is endlessly reproduced by institutions capable of imposing universal recognition of the dominant language, is the condition for the establishment of relations of linguistic domination” (Bourdieu and Thompson 1991).
The first contact between Westerners and the Inuit occurred in the mid-sixteenth century when explorers looking for a north-west passage to Asia arrived from Europe. The discovery of a wealth of natural resources attracted whalers to the region, closely followed by the rise of the fur trade and the Hudson’s Bay Company in southern Canada. The Inuit were generally aloof from such activities, and it was not until the Second World War that the socalled “esquimaux” (a term which is no longer considered politically correct), began to feel the impact of the concentrated presence of the qalunaat (white man). Canadian and
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American military bases such as those at Frobisher Bay (now Iqaluit) and Goose Bay were a major encroachment on traditional nomadic hunting grounds, and the catalyzing force for development in the region (Eno 2002). The rise of the Cold War saw continued Arctic development in the form of DEW line watch stations against potential Russian attacks, further encroaching on Inuit culture. Since the cold war, the traditional nomadic way of life of the Inuit has been replaced by government housing and traditional static architecture. The rise of radio, television, and now the completion of broadband Internet networks have firmly propelled the Inuit onto the global stage; yet at a potentially high cost to the preservation of traditional forms of communication.
The two governing bodies of the Inuit, the Makivik Corporation and Kativik
Regional Government have invested over $10 million dollars (CAN) 1 in the deployment of
Internet infrastructure in Nunavik in the hopes that its development will spur economic growth in the region, assist in interpersonal communication between outlying sectors, facilitate electronic distribution of services such as governmental e-health 2 , create jobs, and spur artistic and entrepreneurial activity. These goals are undoubtedly extremely positive. At the same time, a review of relevant literature reveals that the Internet can be a polarizing engine detrimental to minority culture, linguistic integrity and cultural diversity. (Kampf
2004), (Landzelius 2003), (Savard 1998).
Language Loss and Global Response.
Globalization is replacing minority languages with English, the lingua franca of the
Internet (Norris 2001). Many world aboriginal languages are now maintained solely by the
1 http://www.nunatsiaq.com/archives/51118/news/nunavut/51118_15.html retrieved 05/29/2006.
2 http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/ retrieved 04/14/2006.
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eldest members of the community, and will cease to be spoken once those elders pass away
(Krauss 1992), (Villa 2002). At least half of the approximately 7,000 languages in the world 3 are estimated to become extinct within the next century. (Bernard 1992). Although Inuktitut is more vibrant than some other minority languages, with over 25,000 people now speaking the language as their mother tongue, in the most recent survey (2001), completed by
Statistics Canada concerning its relative strength, we note that “Inuktitut is not as strong nor as widely spoken as it was as recently as five years ago 4 ”. This decline in language use is reflected to an even greater degree in other, more southern Canadian aboriginal languages:
“In general, many of the Aboriginal languages spoken by North American Indian and Métis in non-reserve areas are on unsteady ground” (Statistics Canada, 2001) 5 . The emergence of the Internet has served to increase this disparity, and even when minority language content is available on the Internet, software and hardware interfaces written in non-localized languages hinder the use and retention of mother-tongues. (Cunliffe 2005). Many minority language users feel that “people have to use English too often on the Internet” (Wei 2005).
The amalgamation of media into oligopolistic power structures (McChesney,
Newman, and Scott 2005) serves to concentrate and focus language, flattening the international cultural and communicative landscape. Statistics from the United Nations
Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (retrieved 04/29/2006) 6 , show a linguistic disparity between mean and median size of languages similar to world economic disparity:
5% of world’s languages account for 95% of the population. Bernard (2002) writes: “95% of
3 www.ethnologue.com/ethno_docs/distribution.asp?by=size retrieved 05/12/2006.
4 http://www.statcan.ca/english/freepub/89-589-XIE/language.htm
5 retrieved 04/2006 http://www.statcan.ca/english/freepub/89-589-XIE/language.htm
retrieved 03/2006
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the cultural heterogeneity of the planet-95% of the differences in ways of seeing the world-
(are) vested in under 5% of the population”.
Various international organizations have reacted strongly to the threat of language loss. The UNESCO conference entitled the Safeguarding of the Endangered Languages (UNESCO
Paris, March 10-12 2003) was inspired by the Universal Declaration on Cultural Diversity
(2001), the first assembly after the September 11 th bombings in New York. In the wake of this tragedy, it was felt that “the best, and indeed the only way to strive for peace was continued intercultural dialogue rather than the belief that intercultural clash was inevitable”.
(Bensalah 2003). Several articles in the UNESCO declaration explicitly mention language preservation as a key component of diversity.
Article 1: Cultural diversity: the common heritage of humanity. “Culture takes diverse forms across time and space….all persons have therefore the right to express themselves and to create and disseminate their work in the language of their choice, and particularly in their mother tongue”.
Additionally, article 10 of the Declaration specifically mentions “digital literacy” and linguistic diversity as a UNESCO goal:
Article 10: Promoting linguistic diversity in cyberspace and encouraging universal access through the global network to all information in the public domain.
Finally, the articles reiterate the importance of traditional knowledge and their potential impact on resource management and the co-existence of technologies and the natural world:
Article 14: Respecting and protecting traditional knowledge, in particular that of indigenous peoples; recognizing
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the contribution of traditional knowledge, particularly with regard to environmental protection and the management of natural resources, and fostering synergies between modern science and local knowledge.
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American and Canadian Federal Initiatives to Stem Language Loss
In December 2002, the Canadian Government announced that it would contribute
172.5M (CAN) over 11 years to the Task Force on Aboriginal Languages and Cultures.
8 In May of
2005 in the United States, National Science Foundation director Arden L. Bement, Jr. wrote that "Endangered languages are an irreplaceable source of linguistic and cognitive information”.
9 At this time, the National Science Foundation and the National Endowment for the Humanities announced the Documenting Endangered Languages Project with a total funding of 4.4 million dollars. Both governments have as a priority the creation of digital archives preserving the cultures and languages of endangered communities. While digital archives are valuable resources, it is important to distinguish in the literature between
“archiving (or documenting), and vitalizing activities” (Bernard 1992).
An alternative or complementary element to the digital archiving of languages is the concept of webtools. Linguistic webtools can be used to encourage and facilitate the use of native languages through bypassing the traditional dominant language interfaces. Examples include Marco Fonseca’s thesis at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (Fonseca 2002)
7 Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights: Universal Declaration on
Cultural Diversity. 2 November, 2001. http://www.ohchr.org/english/law/diversity.htm.
Retrieved 05/12/2006.
8 From the Aboriginal Canada Portal, Aboriginal Affairs, Canadian Heritage Division. http://www.aboriginalcanada.gc.ca retrieved 05/25/2006.
9 http://www.nsf.gov/news/news_summ.jsp?cntn_id=104138&org=BCS&from=news retrieved 05/29/06.
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and Cunliffe et al.’s exploration of Welsh language online communities (Cunliffe 2005). The idea that interactive webtools may be useful in the preservation of language lead to the research question of this study: Do Inuktitut Internet webtools affect language choice in email and forum communication for Inuit in Nunavik?
A Critical Epistemological Framework
In Nunavik, the whiteness of snow is matched by that of Internet Explorer’s main page as it boots up. In this default whiteness (Nakamura 2002), the lingua franca of communication is English. For those who have the cultural capital to take advantage of this opportunity, the whiteness of the browser can signify a privileged future, elite membership and hierarchical advantage. For other subaltern societies and tribes, the whiteness of the
English-based browser proposes a loss of culture, land and communicative ability: a linguistic and cultural whiteout.
Alice Crawford, in her piece entitled The Myth of the Unmarked Net Speaker, deconstructs the fallacy that the Internet is a “medium that will break down barriers of social and cultural inequality, flatten hierarchies…and bring about a world in which…’there is no race, there is no age, there are no infirmities’”(Elmer 2002). Crawford applies Bourdieu’s concepts of habitus and cultural capital to the Internet, and shows that “The language of the powerful, installed as legitimate, perpetuates the legitimacy of those who use it”. A comprehensive analysis of more than one billion unique Web pages by the Inktomi search engine found that 87 percent of all documents were in English, a language understood by an estimated one in ten people worldwide (Norris: 59). This study of the implications of the rise of the Internet in the Canadian Arctic is a means of generating and exploring theories concerning aboriginal language use online, and a sounding of the dangers and possibilities
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inherent in engaging in a dialogue wherein minority voices are marginalized by the very nature of the communicative medium.
The Pidginization and Fragmentation of Inuktitut
In order to type in Inuktitut, fonts were developed to properly reproduce the syllabic language of the Inuit. The fonts, however, do not bring the Inuit closer together, but rather served to further the discursive fragmentation of their language. As Taamusi Qumaq writes in the introduction to his dictionary in syllabic:
“The typewriters and computers don’t carry the first column of our writing system anymore and I had to conform to their programs. It is unfortunate that our traditional way of writing had to disappear. How I wish it could be retrieved.”(Qumaq Allatangit, Inuksiutiit katimajiit., and Avataq Cultural
Institute. 1991)
IBM, in its efforts to market its typewriters to the region in the 1970s, developed a typesetting ball for its Selectric line of typewriters. This ball was designed for the English language, and the shape was specified for twenty-six letters. During the attempt to compress the Inuktitut written language onto a machine, several key syllabic sounds were consciously left out of the typewriters in Nunavut. The fact that the mechanically transmitted medium was therefore altered from the spoken language caused a gradual shift in the nature of written communication between two major regions in the Canadian Arctic, and a breakdown in communication in some areas.
French Canadians of Québec are acutely aware of the fact that their language is tied into the health of their culture. It is for this reason that the Provincial Government of
Québec has established a series of checks and balances to ensure the predominance of
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French within their borders through the office Québécoise de la langue française.
10 The Inuit in
Nunavik, however, are living in a territory where the amount of money spent on French and
English materials for Inuit people far outweighs the funds allocated for Inuktitut. Published in the Montréal Gazette in 2005, is the fact that under the Official Languages act, that the
Canadian Government is obliged to provide translations of laws and documents in both official languages (English and French) everywhere in Canada. Last year, the federal government spent $1.45 million providing such services to Nunavut's four hundred ten francophones. A recent survey done for the territory showed that 42 per cent of Inuit had trouble getting service in Inuktitut from the federal government. Louis Chagnon of
Canadian Heritage said that Nunavut has slipped through a hole in the Official Languages
Act. "It kind of falls between the cracks," he said from Winnipeg (Weber 2005). For this reason, gauging the effectiveness of technologies such as webtools is important in order to properly allocate federal, provincial and territorial funds, and most effectively target the most cost-effective manners of preserving aboriginal language in the Arctic.
Methods
*This study consists of an analysis of web behavior for Native Inuit ATTENTION using webtools on the aboriginal portal www.nunasoft.com
. As this study consists of
International research and analysis of information obtained from human subjects, approval from both the University of Washington’s Human Subjects Division 11 /Institutional Review
Board and the National Research Council Canada Research Ethics Boards 12 is required by law. Although exemption is expected, for the time being the subsequent Methodology and
10 http://www.oqlf.gouv.qc.ca/
11 http://www.washington.edu/research/hsd/index.php
12 http://www.nrc-cnrc.gc.ca/randd/ethics/human_e.html
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Results sections are theoretical design exercises only, and all data is created for simulation.
The methodology section is written in the past tense for study and stylistic purposes. Once approved by the appropriate boards, the actual tests will be run and the final data written.
Based on observations of the web communities at www.nunasoft.ca
, it is expected that actual data will be very similar to that postulated here.
Subjects*.
Subjects were randomly selected using Atlas.ti
13 random frequency generation from a pool of Internet-using native Inuit. The pool of subjects was developed using an anonymous list of email addresses taken from the databases at www.nunasoft.com
, a firm specializing in aboriginal web-tools. Further email addresses were supplied by the Makivik Corporation
( www.makivik,.org
) and by the Inuit Tapiriit Kanatami. ( www.itk.ca
). Names and addresses were not associated with the provided email addresses, and the anonymity of all information gathered and the privacy of subjects was stressed at all times.
There was no upper age limit filter on participation, however participant data under
18 years old was removed due to legal concerns regarding Canadian and American age of majority. In this case another subject was chosen from the pool of addresses. The subjects were all native Inuit, and all participants in the study spoke and wrote Inuktitut.
Participants (n=50) were randomly selected from the initial list of email addresses.
13 http://www.atlasti.com
. Atlas.ti is software designed to assist in qualitative research.
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Materials and Instrumentation
After the pool of subjects was confirmed, a survey was sent by email to the randomly chosen email addresses, consisting of a series of questions pertaining to websites used, language use online (English, French, or Inuktitut), and preference for websites. The survey was hosted on the nunasoft site, and responses were tallied electronically. Additionally, participants were asked for their permission to participate in a web-based experiment concerning their Internet language preferences.
Each subject was then given access to a different section of the Nunasoft portal. The group was divided, without being aware of the distinction, into two distinct groups: half of the subjects (n=25) were allowed access to Inuktitut webtools, and the other half (n=25) were not permitted links to this section of the site. Nunasoft aboriginal technology offers a variety of tools designed to encourage and facilitate Inuktitut use, such as the Inuktiboard, an Inuktitut syllabic keyboard 14 , Inuktichat, an online forum, and Inukticode, with online language
Each subject was allowed unlimited access to the sites, yet was advised to access
Nunasoft at least once each day. Subjects were not required to access the sites from central computers; rather, they were told to access the sites from their homes, or a place of their choosing. This policy was implemented in order to avoid skewing data, and is in accordance with the goals of the University of Washington Internet Research group (UWIR) 15
14 http://www.nunasoft.com/inuktitut_keyboard.php?language=en there are on-screen Inuktiboards and dedicated off-screen Inuktiboards available at Nunasoft to encourage Inuit language immersion.
15 http://depts.washington.edu/intres/mission.shtml
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Using the statistical analysis toolkit developed by UWIR, tools were placed on the site which enabled researchers to see the various behaviors of online users. Initially, the site from which visitors arrived was recorded, if any. Next, the site to which visitors departed to and whether, and which language tools were activated was noted. Additional information captured was the location where the mouse hovered, and for how long, and which languages and scripts/fonts were used for the email and chat communications available on the site.
Statistical Methods
This study measured the usage of tools on www.nunasoft.com
and attempted to determine whether accessing said tools would affect the choice of language and script used in Internet communication originating from the site. A two-way Pearson Chi-Square analysis was conducted with an alpha level of 0.05. The null (presumed true until statistical evidence indicates otherwise) hypothesis was that the use of language tools would have no effect on language and script choice. The independent variable was the presence or absence of webtools, and the dependant variables being language choice. Additional variables calculated were frequency of tool use, and script (Inuktitut syllabics/English) choice.
The Chi-Square statistic allows us to determine if what we observe in the distribution of language choice/tool frequencies would be what could be expected due to chance
(Salkind 2007). Multiple combinations were tested in order to gauge effect or relationship.
Results
Of the 50 participants in the study, half were offered the use of tools, and half were not. Of the non-tool using group, 56% used English in their site-outbound communication,
28% used French, and only 16% used Inuktitut. Conversely, of those who used language
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webtools, 88% used Inuktitut and only 4% used English. These results were significant for
Inuktitut use with a 2 sided asymptomatic p value of 0.0.
Next, the relationship between tool use and language was displayed , showing a marked difference between tools used.
In figure 1, the users who did not use tools were listed along the left side, and those who did use tools are listed on the right. They are divided into languages used.
The use of Inuktitut was significantly greater (p=.008) when tools were available to the Inuit test subjects than when tools were not available. X 2
(2)
26.506, p=<.05.
3 0
2 0
1 0
0
No
TOOL
Ye s
LANGUAGE
En g lis h
Fre nc h
In u kt i t u t
Figure 1-Language use in terms of E-tool presence/absence
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When the use of Inuktitut syllabic scripting was compared with the use of English and French roman script, the tool using group used syllabics significantly more (p=0.00) than the group who had no access to the Inuktiboard. (X 2
(1)
=42.593, p<.05)
3 0
2 0
1 0
0
SCRIPT
We st er n Sc rip t
In u kt i t u t Sylla b ics
No Ye s
TOOL
Figure 2-Syllabic Script use in relation to Webtool presence/absence
Finally, the research team cross referenced the amount of times the site was accessed with the language used online. A significant (p=.008) correlation was revealed between
Inuktitut users and the number of times the web based linguistic tools were accessed (x2
(27)=
48.000, p<.05.
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3 0
2 0
1 0
0
En g lis h
LANGUAGE
Fre nc h
Me an
T OOL
In ukt i t u t
FREQ_
Figure 3-Language use and Site Access Frequency
Discussion
Based on the analysis conducted, it became clear that presence of webtools had a significant positive effect on Inuktitut language use online. The group who had access to tools (M=.5, SD=.5) consistently used Inuktitut more frequently than the control group, and were significantly more likely to use syllabic scripting. This increased interest level, as expressed through the frequency of times the tools and site were accessed, translates into increased use of Inuktitut, stimulating the language.
Additionally, those users who had access to Web Tools were encouraged by the process to visit the site more frequently, increasing dialogue with other speakers of Inuktitut and promoting the language. Symbolic scripting tools facilitated the use of script and the inclusion of all characters restored those which were lost with the IBM Inuktitut typewriter.
Tool users were less likely to use English in their email correspondance and more likely to engage in Inuktichat with other members of the community. This cohesion which was
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created between members can work towards building meaningful relationships between minority language speakers in local communities and in more extended locales.
As the examination of the relevant literature demonstrated, the preservation of aboriginal languages and world heritage diversity is of value in order to prevent the loss of accumulated wisdom and experience through media consolidation and the marginalization of non-hegemonic consumers.
Suggestions for Future Research
Perhaps one of the most important aspects of research involving technologies used to empower languages is that they can effectively be applied to other cultures. Numerous studies have been conducted involving aboriginal culture and language preservation, and the institution of webtools language preservation technologies at www.nunasoft.com
is a logical continuation of archival and community building projects such as those conducted in
Uzbekistan (Wei, Kolko, 2005), Wales (Cunliffe, Haeeirs, 2005), Hawaiian (Fonseca 2002),
Taiwan, (Rau 2005). Nunasoft technologies has developed a keyboard for several aboriginal languages, including keyboards for the Cree, Dene, Blackfoot and Cherokee tribes. Further
Inuktitut tools are also in development. Alternate interfaces and nurturing technologies may be what is required in order to shield minority communities from the mainstream languages and preserve traditional ways. Browsers in native languages will further assist in navigating from a ‘home base’.
Additional research is needed and a larger qualititative survey and case study will offer further insight into alternate technologies for preserving minority language and cultural capital.
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Possible futures
“What does all this have to do with power?” Who are the most marginalized and disempowered by these trends? Often women, ethnic minorities, and the poor. We need to pay special attention to the political economy of ICTs and to the capitalist, patriarchal, and ethnocentric tendencies and structures that regulate ICTs and net practices today” (Escobar 2004).
Returning to Bourdieu, we can see that the main issue related to the survival of
Inuktitut is in avoiding the unimpeded dispersion of the language in English media, culture and symbolic instruments of power. A new, web-based interface to the world is proposed, incorporating Inuktitut hardware (keyboards) software (virtual communities) and tools to empower the vibrancy of the language.. Rather than using a font created by any external coder or operating system, the font will be a universal Inuktitut font, accessed directly in the
Inuit web-browser. This design will resurrect the lost Inuit characters from the IBM typewriter and begin the restoration of Nunavik/Nunavut linguistic and cultural divergence.
Additionally, the birth of the triple concepts of InuktiChat™ the first pure-Inuktitut chat environment; 
 InuktiBoard™ the first keyboard specifically engineered for the Inuit language; and InuktiCode™ the first universal tool for Inuktitut conversion and transliteration, will work to offset the triple symbolic instruments of domination. These products developed by Nunasoft will work positively to preserve Inuit culture and language from loss and degradation. The fact that programs can be coded in Inuktitut, that online content can be generated directly in the language of origin, and that words and concepts can be entered into the system using the aboriginal keystrokes, bode well for the creation of spaces where the Inuit culture can thrive between hegemony.
In order for Inuktitut (and other minority and aboriginal languages) to remain vibrant,
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a proactive approach must be taken. Technologies cannot simply be passively received, but must rather be adapted to most optimally promote the retention and encouragement of traditional forms of communication. Webtools such as those on www.nunasoft.com
offer an alternative interface which can help to create interstitial spaces and communities. As opposed to mere archiving, webtools are vibrancy enhancing technologies that can encourage users to participate more actively in their linguistic communities and enhance cultural exchange. Considering the amounts of funding that the Canadian and American governments are investing in the preservation and digital archival of aboriginal and minority languages, a more thorough investigation into the efficacy and feasibility of instituting webtools to promote linguistic vibrancy and diversity on a wider scale is warranted.
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