THE USE OF PROJECT MANAGEMENT TECHNIQUES IN THE
IMPLEMENTATION OF SAFETY AND HEALTH STANDARDS IN
CONSTRUCTION PROJECTS
Murray, Malcolm
School of Construction Economics and Management, University of the
Witwatersrand, South Africa
Introduction
The construction industry continues to be the industry in the majority of countries with the highest indices
of accidents leading to deaths and temporary or permanent disabilities. Governments in developed
countries attempt to address this by implementing legislation which punishes infracting companies or
persons, by the application of fines (New Civil Engineer International 2000a) and even prison sentences
(Engineering News Record 2001a). A complementary approach is to exhort the construction industry to
improve its safety record (Engineering News Record, 2001b).
In developing countries, appropriate legislation quite often exists but it is often not applied in the case of
infraction of laws, probably because construction workers are often migrant, low-paid, are not afforded
union-protection and are held in low esteem by the society in which they live. Another factor which
influences attitudes to safety and health is cost: a worker from a developing country who earns US$100
an hour and who dies in an accident at age 25 would be assessed for future loss of future earnings of
US$80.000, a US worker at least 20 times that amount.
At the same time, in the corporate world, in the author’s experience issues of safety and health are rarely
really seriously addressed by owners, engineers and contractors during the construction planning and
execution processes. The general approach seems to be top-down where head-office inspectors visit and
monitor sites or provide guidelines. Two examples of this are the approaches taken by AMEC (AMEC,
2000) and Skanska (Särkilahti, 2001). A more suitable approach would be the bottom-up one where
construction site managers automatically implement safety and health planning in their day-to-day
activities. For this to happen, these areas would probably need to receive additional exposure in
undergraduate construction management courses.
In the following the construction planning processes will be examined and the application of the Project
Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK) processes and areas of knowledge, suitably adapted to
include issues of safety, health and environment and social issues, will be described. The application of
PMBOK processes would include applying risk management techniques to the analysis of safety and
health and to do this it would be necessary to develop registers of indicators which would alert
management to the need for risk analysis. A project Plan of Action or Business Plan including the above
processes would assist Safety and Health officials and others in evaluating a contractor’s approach to
safety and health matters.
The Construction Planning Process
Call for tenders
Once an owner has decided to go ahead with a construction project, after carrying out feasibility studies,
he instructs his representative to prepare tender documents. These, among other things, may include
specifications which give guidance to the tendering contractors on the quality of the finished product
expected from the contractor eventually chosen to carry out the project. Sometimes the Bill of Quantities
includes items to be priced dealing with environment or health and safety matters: the contractor may be
required to establish on site a first-aid station, for example. In some countries, local legislation may
require that sites employing more than 200 workers would require a medical doctor and a safety engineer
in attendance; in the author’s experience rarely does the tender documentation emphasise the need to
comply with this type of legislation or indeed, safety and health issues in general; if they are mentioned it
is in a token fashion.
Tender preparation
During the tender preparation process contractors usually focus on planning and scheduling (or
programming) to achieve a competitive price, given that contract awards are still frequently based on
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lowest-price criteria. The contractor will usually examine the specifications with care to ensure that his
tender includes sufficient money to produce a product to the required quality. Sums will be included in
the preliminary and general sections of the budget to cover such safety and health requirements as a first
aid station and safety equipment for the workers.
Construction planning
On award of the contract the tender plan is usually detailed and developed into a construction plan, or
Programme of Action, which is used as a guide during actual construction.
The Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK), which has been progressively developed since
the 1970’s, includes the basic planning processes described above but has also developed complementary
processes which will be described in the next section.
The PMBOK Processes and Knowledge Areas
Processes
The 2000 edition of the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK, 2000) describes the five
groups of processes which are followed during the carrying out of a project; these comprise the initiation,
planning, execution, control and closing process groups. Figure 1 provides an indication of the groups
and of the linkages between them.
Initiating
Processes
Planning
Processes
Controlling
Processes
(arrows represent
flow of information)
Executing
Processes
Closing
Processes
Figure 1
Process Groups and their links
Source: PMBOK 2000
These processes would be followed during each phase of a number of phases of which a project could
consist.
Areas of knowledge
The carrying out of the processes involves the application of so-called areas of knowledge which
comprise the management of project: integration, scope, time, cost, quality, human resources,
procurement, communications and risk. The areas of knowledge are given equal weighting by PMBOK,
as it has been developed as a guide and is not industry-specific. In the author’s experience, however, in
the construction industry the following priority ranking is often given to the management of the areas, as
mentioned earlier:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
scope, time and cost
procurement
human resources
quality
integration and communication
risk
The reason for this is probably because construction managers mainly have an engineering background
and are more concerned with numerical, measurable issues than with human-related matters. It will not
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escape notice that, with the exception of risk management, the above listing shows a gradation of priority
from ‘hard’ to ‘soft’ management topics.
In PMBOK 2000, compliance with health and safety regulations is listed under project human resources
management, together with other topics concerned with dealing with people. This area comprises the
following major processes: organisational planning, staff acquisition and team development. Project
Quality Management, however, is considered to be an area of knowledge in its own right, consisting of
quality planning, assurance and control. Similarly, project risk management is also considered to be
another knowledge area and consists of the following major processes: risk management planning, risk
identification, qualitative analysis, quantitative analysis, response planning and monitoring and control.
Generic framework
Finally, it should be remembered that the Project Management Body of Knowledge is only a guide, or
generic framework, which can and should be adapted for use in a variety of project scenarios, which
include the development of products such as software, of the implementation of information and
communication technology (ICT) in industry, and the carrying out of projects in the aerospace,
aeronautical and construction industries. Evidently the application of PMBOK should be tailored to meet
the particular needs and peculiarities of each industry. Its application in the construction industry will be
discussed in the next section.
Application of PMBOK to the International Construction Industry
International construction industry
As is known the construction industry differs from other industries in a number of ways, although it does
share the characteristic of being project-based with an increasing number of areas of industry and
commerce.
The larger companies of the construction industry work internationally and may work in an ever-changing
number of countries which are often of the type characterised as ‘developing’, possessing diverse
cultures, populations with different levels of education and safety and health legislation of varying
quality. (Murray and Zagaretos 2001)
The traditional way of carrying out business in a developing countries was for the contractor to mobilise,
carry out the contract and, unless they obtained further work, to demobilise. Responsible contractors
complied with local legislation but there was no overwhelming pressure for them to do so.
However, society now increasingly expects that businesses act in an ethical manner towards their
shareholders and towards the society in which they operate. This means that contractors, whether they
are operating in their home country or abroad, can and should be expected to manage environmental and
social issues in a responsible manner. The social issues, of course, include the management of the safety
and health of their workforce. Environmental issues include the responsible management of the
contractor’s operations to prevent pollution of water, ground and air in the region in which they are
working, as well as to ensure the protection of flora and fauna.
Finally, it is expected that the contractor interacts with local communities in such a way that they benefit
from the presence of the intruders (by being given, for example, employment preference and training) and
are not adversely affected by the presence of the contractor, culturally or socially. An example of this
negative impact would be the spread of HIV/Aids by migrant workers.
An example of how companies working internationally are being held to their social responsibilities is the
ruling handed down by the House of Lords in July 2000 holding that a group of South African asbestosis
and mesothelioma sufferers could sue Cape plc, a British company which had previously worked in South
Africa through a subsidiary, in England, for compensation as a result of exposure to asbestos and related
products arising from Cape plc’s earlier operations in South Africa. (Stein 2001)
Companies will also be held to their safety responsibilities and their financial consequences (New Civil
Engineer International 2000b).
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It is becoming increasingly clear that, as globalisation develops, construction companies will be obliged
to carry out their business following first-world criteria, independently of whichever part of the
developing world they are working.
Extension of Areas of Knowledge
It would therefore make sense to have the areas of knowledge of the PMBOK, when applied to the
construction industry, extended to include items dealing with the issues described above. A revised list of
knowledge items would consists of the management, throughout the duration of the project, of:













integration
scope of work
time i.e. planning and scheduling (or programming)
costs and budgets
quality
human resources
procurement
safety
health
community impacts
environmental impacts
risk
communication
Table 1 shows the mapping of the project management processes to the process groups and knowledge
areas, adapted for use by international contractors. The added areas of knowledge are shaded.
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Process Groups
Initiating
Planning
Executing
Controlling
Project Plan Development
Project Plan Execution
Integrated
Change Control
Closing
Knowledge Area
Project Integration
Management
Project Scope
Management
Initiation
Scope Planning
Scope Definition
Scope
Verification
Scope Change
Control
Project Time
Management
Activity Definition
Activity Sequencing
Activity Duration Estimating
Schedule Development
Schedule
Control
Project Cost
Management
Resource Planning
Cost Estimating
Cost Budgeting
Cost Control
Project Quality
Management
Quality Planning
Quality Assurance
Project Human
Resource Management
Organisational Planning
Staff Acquisition
Team Development
Project Procurement
Management
Procurement Planning
Solicitation Planning
Solicitation
Source Selection
Contract Administration
Project Safety
Management
Safety Management Planning
Safety Risk Identification
Safety Risk Response
Safety Plan Execution
Safety Risk
Monitoring and
Control
Project Health
Management
Health Management Planning
Health Risk Identification
Health Risk Response
Health Plan Execution
Health Risk
Monitoring and
Control
Project Community
Management
Community Management Planning
Community Impact Identification
Community Impact Response
Community Management Plan
Execution
Community
Impact
Monitoring and
Control
Project Environment
Management
Environment Management Planning
Environment Impact Identification
Environment Impact Response
Environment Management Plan
Execution
Environment
Impact
Monitoring and
Control
Project Risk
Management
Risk Management Planning
Risk Identification
Qualitative Risk Analysis
Quantitative Risk Analysis
Risk Response Planning
Project
Communications
Management
Communication Planning
Quality Control
Contract Closure
Risk Monitoring
and Control
Information Distribution
Performance
Reporting
Administrative Closure
Table 1
Mapping of Project Management processes to the Process Groups and Knowledge Areas,
revised for use by international construction contractors.
Source: Adapted from PMBOK 2000
The management of the environment and community issues would be carried out by using techniques
similar to those used for Environmental Impact Assessments which involve identification of impacts and
their subsequent mitigation and control.
Similarly, safety and health issues would be managed by identifying the areas of risk, planning for risk
mitigation and then controlling operations to make sure that the safety and health plans are executed
correctly. Areas of risk would be identified by examining safety and health indicators which are
discussed in the next section.
Safety and Health Indicators
It is well known that there are areas of operation where safety risks or health risks can be inherently high.
In the area of safety, for example, trenching or the use of tower cranes should immediately lead to
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preventative safety planning and operation monitoring to guarantee that accidents do not happen. These
mitigative activities should include, in the case of tower cranes, examination of erection procedures,
operations procedures, training of operators and signallers and monitoring of operations by a qualified
and experienced construction engineer (who may not necessarily be the safety engineer).
In the health management area, winning of a contract in sub-Saharan Africa would immediately alert the
responsible contractor to the need to plan for, monitor and control HIV/Aids, TB and malarial infections
(Murray and Appiah-Baiden, 2002).
Using published information, lists of safety and health indicators can be drawn up. In the case of safety,
operations or activities would be classified on a scale of 1 to 5, one indicating a fairly safe operation, five
a dangerous operation. In the case of health, countries or regions of countries would be classified using a
similar scale, the level of health danger would be indicated, and the source of that danger identified.
Operations of danger to health would be similarly classified. For example, the existence, or possible
existence, of asbestos in a building being renovated would merit an indicator of 5.
Engineering News Record has published the top ten causes of deaths in the US construction industry in
1999 (Engineering News Record 2001c). Table 2 lists the causes; in 1999 23,8% are fall-related and
15,3% are due to being run-over by equipment or a vehicle.
INCIDENT TYPE
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Fall from/through roof
Non-operator run over by equipment
Fall from structure
Run over by highway vehicle
Operator crushed by equipment
Lifting operation accident
Equipment contacts power source
Fall from scaffold
Collapse of structure
Shock from equipment/tools
1991-98
[% of total]
11.2
7.8
7.6
3.8
5.2
5.4
8.4
2.9
4.3
4.1
1999
[% of total]
10.6
9.2
8.1
6.1
5.8
5.4
5.2
5.1
5.0
4.7
Table 2 Top 10 causes of death in1999
Source: ENR/OSHA
Table 3, from the same source, lists numbers of construction fatalities, again in the USA. In 2000 58 %
of fatal accidents happened to people working for speciality trades contractors, which tend to be smaller
organisations.
Total Construction Fatalities
General Building Contractors
Heavy Contractors
Speciality Trades
Contractors
Unidentified
19951999
Average
1,115
190
260
652
1999
2000
2000
%
1,191
183
280
710
1,154
175
284
672
100
15
25
58
13
18
23
2
Table 3 Construction fatalities
Source: ENR/U.S. Dept. of Labour, Bureau of Labour Statistics
Transport engineers use a similar technique of using safety indicators; one system is to assign a danger
index to accident black-spots which is based on the number of crashes resulting in claims by insurance
company policy-holders (Engineering News Record 2001d).
Following the identification of, and the indication of, the level of safety and health risks, a risk evaluation
exercise would be carried out where monetary values would be assigned to the costs and benefits of not
complying, or complying, with risk mitigation activities. Chapter 11 of PMBOK 2000 deals with risk
management in general and outlines suitable procedures to follow.
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Conclusions and Recommendations
Given the continuing high rate of accidents in the construction industry and the high risk of workers
contracting ailments and diseases, especially in developing countries, it is recommended that safety and
health management should be accorded the same level of importance as given to the more usually
considered areas of time and cost management. Indicators can be developed to alert construction
managers to the existence of dangerous or unhealthy operations on a contract-by-contract basis. Risk
management procedures could then be applied to the identified risky operations or unhealthy operations.
A similar approach could be taken to the management of the social impact and environmental impact of
construction operations on an existing society or environment. All of the above would be included in the
contracts’ Plan of Action or Business Plan. The presence, or otherwise, of a competent Business Plan,
developed at contract level, would help Health and Safety inspectors and others in evaluating the degree
of attention and care given by site management to safety, health and other issues.
Further research could be carried out in developing safety and health indicators which classify unsafe
construction activities and unhealthy operations in developed and developing countries respectively.
References
AMEC, 2000, www.amec.com: Safety, Health and Environment.
Engineering News Record, 2001a, Contractors face criminal charges in workers’ deaths. Engineering
News Record, USA, August 27, 2001. p. 7.
Engineering News Record, 2001b, Summit tackles work zone safety. Engineering News Record, USA,
July 23 2001, p. 10.
Engineering News Record, 2001c, Construction leads in deaths despite lower fatality rate. Engineering
News Record, USA, August 27, 2001. p. 12.
Engineering News Record, 2001d, State Farm (insurance company) pinpoints nation’s most dangerous
intersections. Engineering News Record, USA, July 9, 2001. p. 20.
Murray, M., 2001, The influence of cultural differences on the performance of international contractors.
Proceeding of the Seventeenth Annual Conference of ARCOM, Association of Researchers in
Construction Management (University of Salford, UK), Vol.1, pp. 101–110.
Murray. M, and Appiah-Baiden. J, 2002, The influence of the HIV/Aids pandemic on the construction
industry in sub-Saharan Africa. CIB W65 Symposium on Construction Innovation and Global
Competitiveness, USA, September 2002 (paper submitted).
New Civil Engineer International, 2000a, Heathrow Express report slates poor risk management. New
Civil Engineer International, London, August 2000. p. 5.
New Civil Engineer International, 2000b, Construction backs calls for EU-wide fine enforcement. New
Civil Engineer International, London, March 2000. p. 5.
PMBOK 2000, A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge, 2000 ed., (Project Management
Institute, USA).
Särkilahti, 2001, Skanska OY’s Integrated Management System. Proceedings of the International
Conference on Costs and Benefits Related to Quality and Safety and Health in Construction, Barcelona,
Spain, 2001-12-01.
Stein, R., 2001, Cape plc to cough up and pay. M.Sc Environmental Law Course, Part B. University of
the Witwatersrand, South Africa.
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