Ninham Shand/Arcus Gibb
I W R P Study :
Background, Results and recommendations
18 July 2001
CITY OF CAPE TOWN, CMC ADMINISTRATION
INTEGRATED WATER RESOURCE PLANNING STUDY
BACKGROUND, RESULTS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
CONTENTS
Page No
List of Abbreviations
1.
INTRODUCTION
1
2.
WATER DEMAND AND SUPPLY
2
3.
OPTIONS INVESTIGATED
3
4.
DESCRIPTION OF OPTIONS INVESTIGATED
4
5
PUBLIC INVOLVEMENT
16
6
RESULTS OF THE MULTI-CRITERIA
DECISION ANALYSIS (MCDA) PROCESS
16
7
SELECTION OF OPTIONS TO BE IMPLEMENTED,
AND FINANCIAL IMPLICATIONS
8
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
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18 July 2001
List of Abbreviations
AADD
Annual Average daily demand
AFU
Automatic Flushing Urinal
CCT
City of Cape Town
CFA
Cape Flats Aquifer
CMA
Cape Metropolitan Area
CMC
Cape Metropolitan Council
DM
Demand Management
DMA
District Metered Area
DWAF
Department of Water Affairs and Forestry
EIA
Environmental Impact Assessment
I&AP
Interested and Affected Party
MCDA
Multi-Criteria Decision Analysis
MNF
Minimum Night Flow
PNE
Protected Natural Environment
UAW
Unaccounted For Water
URV
Unit Reference Value
WC
Water Conservation
WDM
Water Demand Management
WTW
Water Treatment Works
WWTW
WasteWater Treatment Works
Ninham Shand/Arcus Gibb
I W R P Study :
Background, Results and recommendations
18 July 2001
CITY OF CAPE TOWN, CMC ADMINISTRATION
INTEGRATED WATER RESOURCE PLANNING STUDY
BACKGROUND, RESULTS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
1.
INTRODUCTION
In recent years great concern has been expressed regarding the continuously growing
demand for water in the Cape Metropolitan Area (CMA) in the face of dwindling
remaining resources.
As a result, increasing emphasis is being placed on water
conservation and demand management.
In a Water Demand Management Strategy Report to the former Cape Metropolitan
Council (CMC), in December 1998, the former CMC publicly stated its intention to reduce
projected water demand in the CMA by 10% (or more) by the year 2010.
Following an internal report by the Department of Water Affairs and Forestry (DWAF)
on water demand management in the Western Cape (December, 1999), referred to as the
"Mini Study", a workshop was held on 3 March 2000 to debate the prospects of achieving
substantial reductions in demand in the CMA.
The workshop was attended by water
supply specialists from the DWAF, the former Cape Metropolitan Council (CMC),
Metropolitan Local Councils (MLC's) and consulting organisations.
potential water savings emerged:
Two estimates of
a low-savings scenario that suggested a potential
reduction in urban water demand of about 10%, and a high-savings scenario suggesting a
reduction of about 20%, by the year 2003. Participants favouring the first scenario felt
that financial and institutional obstacles were serious impediments to realising the
theoretically potential reduction of 20%.
The City of Cape Town (CCT) is responsible for supplying water to users in the CMA and
hence for water demand management in this area. The CCT is also responsible for the
planning and development of supplementary water supplies from certain sources within
the CMA.
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In October 1999, prior to the workshop referred to above, the former CMC invited
proposals for a preliminary investigation of the means and potential for reducing water
demand in the CMA, and for the development of local sources.
Consultants were
appointed in November 1999. The suite of reports on the study, referred to as the
Integrated Water Resource Planning Study, is presently being finalised. The main object
of the study was to determine the feasibility of various options, and identify issues that
might need to be addressed in a subsequent phase of investigation.
2.
WATER DEMAND AND SUPPLY
Figure 2.1 shows the total water demand on the system supplying the CMA from 1994 to
1999, and the projected growth in demand. The demand projections are based on three
scenarios. One is a growth pattern that is likely if Water Conservation (WC) and Demand
Management (DM) measures are not applied (ie "No savings"). The other two are based
on the "No-savings" projection of urban water demand being reduced by the 10% and
20% by the year 2003, as put forward at the March 2000 workshop, respectively. The
current assured supply (yield) available from the supply system is also shown.
The
Skuifraam Scheme, which has been approved by the national government, but not yet
authorised for construction, could not commence supplying water any sooner than 2007.
By that time, the overall water demand on the system, if unconstrained, will exceed the
assured supply by approximately 30%. The graph also shows that, even if reductions can
be achieved corresponding to the "high-savings" scenario, the need for urgent action to
address the growing shortfall in supply is clear.
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Figure 2.1 :
Total projected demands on the system supplying water to the Cape
Metropolitan Area
3.
OPTIONS INVESTIGATED
The first task of the study was to identify a range of options to be investigated. The
following were identified:
Water Demand Management Options:
Pressure Management
User Education
Elimination of Automatic Flushing Urinals
Leakage Repair
Tariffs, Metering and Credit Control
Introduction of Water Efficient Fittings
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Promotion of Private Boreholes
Promotion of Grey-water use
Supply Augmentation Options:
Treated Wastewater for Local Urban Irrigation and Industrial use
Lourens River Diversion
Eerste River Diversion
Cape Flats Aquifer
Treated Wastewater for Commercial Irrigation Farmers
Treated Wastewater Reclaimed to Potable Standard
In addition, the effect of Water Restrictions was briefly examined.
Each of the above options was studied to estimate the scope for reducing demand or
increasing the supply, the time needed to achieve results, the cost, the impact on the
social and economic environments, associated political and institutional considerations,
and the impacts on the natural environment. These disparate aspects were integrated by
a process known as Multi-Criteria Decision Analysis. In this process, specialists in the
various technical, social and environmental fields involved, discuss their opinions, and, by
a system of scoring and weighting each criterion, attempt to reach consensus as to the
relative merit of the various options.
More general detail of all of the above will be provided in the Main Report. Specific
further detail on each of the aspects investigated, including the options considered, will
be provided in the 12 detail reports, and the 6 supporting reports.
4.
DESCRIPTION OF OPTIONS INVESTIGATED
Each of the options investigated provide a benefit to the water supply system in the
form of additional yield supplied, or saving in demand. Each option also requires a certain
time to achieve its yield, and has an associated capital and operational cost, and a Unit
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Reference Value (URV). This information is provided at the end of this section in Table
4.1, "Main Features of Options".
4.1
Pressure Management
Most water distribution networks are designed to provide a minimum pressure during
periods of high demand, in the daytime.
The result of this design approach is that
significantly higher pressures are experienced during periods of low demand at night
time, when the majority of pipe bursts tend to occur.
Water losses within a distribution network, due to various leaks or taps left running, are
far greater at night time when higher pressures are experienced.
The basic philosophy of pressure management therefore, is to reduce the excess system
pressure during night time, in order to reduce leakage and the occurrence of pipe bursts.
Pressure reduction would be controlled to ensure that the pressure in the system does
not drop below the lowest value that it reaches in the high demand periods during the
daytime.
The level of service provided to the consumer would therefore not be
compromised.
This reduced pressure will reduce the occurrence of pipe bursts and
therefore also contributes to protection of the asset.
The first step in a pressure management programme is to develop knowledge of the
relevant characteristics of the distribution network. This requires dividing the network
into appropriate District Metered Areas (DMA’s) and providing suitable meters at the
entry points into these districts. The meters would need to be logged to determine the
flow during the “dead of night” period, termed the Minimum Night Flow (MNF).
Experience has shown that a well maintained district with a “normal” consumption pattern
would be expected to have an MNF of no more than about 15% of Annual Average Daily
Demand (AADD).
Areas experiencing higher MNF's are priority areas for Pressure
Management.
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For this study, use was made of actual loggings undertaken by the various
Administrations, where DMA’s do exist. The potential for the rest of the CMA was
based on considered extrapolation of this data, and experience gained on other networks.
A pilot installation in an area in Khayelitsha, with a particularly high MNF, has shown
promising results, as the MNF of 270 m3/h was reduced by approximately 100 m3/h to
170 m3/h.
4.2
User Education
A comprehensive user education/public awareness publicity campaign is regarded as
essential for the successful implementation of the WDM initiatives envisaged for the
CMA.
The main focus of such a programme would be to make users aware of their
responsibility to use water more efficiently in view of the limited natural water
resources available to the CMA, as well as the financial advantages of doing so. Users
should be presented with the necessary tools and guidelines, including an informative
billing system, which will enable them to achieve reduced water consumption without
necessarily impacting negatively on the quality of their life styles.
The bulk of the potential saving is estimated to be achievable via the elimination of the
wasteful use of water, eg the hosing down of paved surfaces, and by the promotion of
water-wise gardening. Water use for gardening purposes at private households, public
gardens and sports fields is estimated to represent approximately 20% of the total
annual water consumption in the CMA.
Uncertainties related to the potential annual saving and the timing thereof are related to
the following factors:

scope and effectiveness of a user education programme;
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
sustainability of a user education programme and of the behavioural changes of
users with respect to the wasteful usage of water; and,

the level of buy-in of consumers.
A possible institutional constraint might be the lack of staff to run and co-ordinate a
comprehensive ongoing user education programme, including a consumer advisory service
(“hot-line”) to address enquiries and complaints on WDM issues by the public.
An
alternative would be to appoint consultants to fulfil this function.
4.3
Elimination of Automatic Flushing Urinals
Automatic Flushing Urinals (AFU’s), by their very nature of operation, are a wasteful use
of water. This situation is exacerbated by poor maintenance and management practices,
as these devices often malfunction (continuously running) or typically operate too
frequently. They also operate during the night, and over weekends and public holidays,
when most buildings are unoccupied. A single AFU could use as much as 6,3 k/day, i.e.
196 k/month or 2,3 M/annum.
AFU’s are typically installed in schools, tertiary institutions, pubs, restaurants, hotels,
government buildings, public toilets, factories and sport complexes/stadiums.
The most common and generally cheapest retrofitting option entails the removal of the
auto cistern and the installation of a user activated push-button flush valve.
An
alternative, but more expensive, option is the installation of waterless urinals.
The total number of AFU’s installed in the CMA was estimated at more than 5000. In
terms of the former CCT’s by-laws, all existing AFU’s in the CMA are to be retrofitted,
and the installation of AFU’s in new buildings is prohibited. These by-laws need to be
revived and promulgated for the whole CMA.
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4.4
Leakage Repair
The potential saving by repairing leakage within a specific area is linked to the
unaccounted-for-water (UAW) in that area, which is the difference between the total
water supplied into the area, and the water consumption in the area. UAW is due to:

water losses through bursts and leakage;

inaccurate meters;

unmetered municipal water use; and,

non-physical losses (e.g. meter reading errors).
The potential savings for leakage repair is based on a UAW of 15% of the AADD as being
acceptable and assuming that the balance can be saved. This potential saving will be
reduced by the implementation of Pressure Management.
4.5
Tariffs, Metering and Credit Control
Adjustment of water tariffs
Increased water tariffs can play a major role in moderating water demand.
A new standardised five-step escalating block-rate tariff structure for domestic
consumers in the CMA was implemented on 1 July 2001 and incorporates the funding of
the free water allocation of 6 kilolitres per month via a temporary 7% cross subsidy from
commercial and industrial consumers. Separate flat rates apply for non-domestic water
consumption.
Application of a multiple-block rising-scale tariff to the non-domestic
sectors would provide an incentive for them to reduce their water consumption.
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Due to the significant changes in the domestic tariffs and tariff steps in the CMA in the
last year or two, and the unpredictability of consumer behaviour arising from the new
tariff increases, it is extremely difficult to predict the water savings achievable in the
CMA by means of increased water tariffs. Ideally, successive new revised water tariff
structures should be implemented gradually to allow for periodic evaluations of their
effectiveness in terms of reduced water consumption and of the revenue to the CCT.
Metering
Universal metering, ie the installation of a water meter on all connections, is essential in
order to restrict and control consumption, as well as to ensure an equitable distribution
of the costs involved in providing the supply.
A significant number of unmetered connections still occur in the CMA. The quantum of
savings attributable to the provision of metering is difficult to determine. In Israel it
has been shown that metering of individual apartments can reduce consumption by up to
20% compared with those which only have one meter per block.
The types of meters used and the management practices employed can have a significant
effect upon the revenue collected and the reduction of UAW. For these reasons it is
important to review the types of meters available for both “domestic” and “bulk”
purposes, as well as the practices adopted for their management. An audit should be
undertaken throughout the CMA to establish the accuracy and reliability of the whole
metering process, and to identify potential for improvements.
Credit control
The application of effective credit control and strict debt management, supported by an
extensive user education strategy, is fundamental to sound financial management
practice.
Ninham Shand/Arcus Gibb
It is also necessary as a support function to accurate metering and the
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application of tariffs. If the public perceives that there is a universally applied and fair
procedure to ensure payment for water used, they will tend to be more careful with their
water use practices leading to generally lower consumption.
In a recent study undertaken for the CCT, improved credit control and cash collection, as
well as improved billing, were ranked as the top two priorities to be addressed by the
CCT.
Public acceptance of universal metering, credit control and increased water tariffs, can,
to a large extent, be regarded as being dependent on the effectiveness of a public
awareness and consumer education programme.
4.6
Introduction of Water Efficient Fittings
Items investigated for retrofitting with water efficient fittings in private households,
and at commercial, institutional and industrial buildings in the CMA, included retention
and displacement devices for toilet cisterns (e.g. “Hippo”-bags, toilet tank dams and
displacement bags), the replacement of existing toilet cisterns with smaller cisterns, the
installation of dual-flush and multi-flush toilets, the adjustment of the flush times of
toilet and urinal flush valves, the replacement of flush valve urinals with waterless
urinals, the replacement of high-flow showerheads with high-efficiency low-flow
showerheads, and the fitting of flow controllers/aerators/sprays and flow restrictors, to
basin taps and mixers.
To date, retrofitting with water efficient fittings in the Cape Metropolitan and
surrounding areas has only been implemented to a limited extent. In general, planned
maintenance programmes for plumbing systems and water fittings at non-residential
organisations, appear to be lacking.
Vandalism of water fittings installed at public
buildings has been noted as a problem.
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Apart from the mandatory replacement of AFU’s, no legislation or municipal by-laws exist
to enforce the usage of water efficient fittings in the CMA, neither for new installations
nor pertaining to retrofitting with water efficient fittings.
4.7
Promotion of Private Boreholes
Much of the CMA is underlain by aquifers. Exploitation of these aquifers by means of
private boreholes and wellpoints, for garden-watering purposes and the irrigation of
sportsfields, during the dry summer months, was investigated.
Aquifers favourable for the installation of wellpoints cover approximately 48% of the
CMA extent with the main area being the Cape Flats, extending to the NNW to Atlantis
and beyond. There is also limited potential for wellpointing on the west coast of the
Peninsula in the Noordhoek and Hout Bay areas. For groundwater to be abstracted from
outside these areas, borehole drilling would be required. With respect to salinity levels
most of the CMA underlain by the CFA, as well as the Atlantis area, is suitable for
wellpoint/borehole development intended for garden watering. In some areas of the CMA
there is dissolved iron in the groundwater that will cause staining of walls when this
water sprays onto walls.
Wellpoint yields are sufficient for the watering of small to medium sized gardens. The
installation of boreholes for irrigation purposes, in areas of the CMA which are
unsuitable for the installation of wellpoints, is likely to only be considered for grassed
sportsfields, parks, golf courses and high-income households with large and well-watered
gardens, in suburbs like Pinelands and Tokai. The installation of monitoring boreholes in
the CMA should be considered, if extensive groundwater abstraction by means of private
boreholes and wellpoints occurs.
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4.8
Promotion of Grey-water use
Grey-water is defined as wastewater discharged by baths, showers and hand basins in a
domestic household. Wastewater discharged by kitchen sinks and washing machines is
excluded due to the high solids content and the negative impact of softeners and other
undesirable chemicals on the environment.
While grey-water can be used directly for low-grade uses such as toilet flushing and
garden watering applications, a serious constraint is the health hazard due to the high
concentrations of faecal coliforms in the source water. The long-term impact on the
environment is also a concern as the effect of soaps on certain plants is unknown.
Rainwater tanks
The use of rainwater tanks for toilet flushing was also considered. However, this use has
in fact been prohibited since 1927 but the desirability thereof will need to be revisited.
Rainwater tanks for gardening are not practical in the Western Cape as it is a winter
rainfall area.
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4.9
Treated Wastewater for Local Urban Irrigation and Industrial use
The potential for the re-use of treated wastewater depends on the water quality
necessary for the specific re-use application, as different applications require different
water quality. The most economical re-use opportunities would be those for which the
treated wastewater can be re-used directly.
Treated wastewater from a number of WWTW's is already used within the CMA for
irrigation of sportsfields, golf courses and public open spaces, and for industrial use.
Industrial areas with a high demand, located in the vicinity of existing WWTW's, were
investigated for potential for the use of treated wastewater.
Potential local urban
irrigation areas, in the vicinity of the proposed infrastructure for the industrial areas,
were also considered.
It would be important to produce water of a consistent quality for industrial processes
and for health reasons. At industries where a strong likelihood of direct human contact
is possible, special measures would have to be taken by those industries in the form of an
on-site tertiary treatment plant (for disinfection) and / or the wearing of protective
clothing.
4.10 Lourens River Diversion
The proposed Lourens River Diversion Scheme entails the diversion of surplus winter
water from the Lourens River at the existing Melcksloot diversion off-take located south
of the National Route N2, whilst allowing for the riverine environmental flow
requirements.
The proposed Scheme comprises:

a concrete diversion weir with a diversion capacity of 4 m3/s;
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
upgrading of the existing Melcksloot earth canal to a capacity of 4 m3/s;

excavation in the existing Paardevlei Dam on AECI's land;

a delivery pumpstation with a pump capacity of 2 m3/s, adjacent to the Paardevlei
Dam; and,

a delivery pipeline from the pumpstation to the existing Steenbras-to-Faure
pipeline.
In 1997 the entire Lourens River was declared a Protected Natural Environment (PNE).
The implications of this, as well as several other issues and public concerns, including
existing and proposed future developments on the AECI property, would need to be
addressed as part of an Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA).
4.11 Eerste River Diversion
The Eerste River Diversion makes use of surplus winter water in the river, which would
be diverted at Kompagniesdrift. This was reputedly part of an old wagon trail and would
be inundated due the diversion weir. Diversion would take place at a rate of 4 m 3/s into a
balancing dam of 300 000 m3 capacity, and then delivered at a rate of 3 m3/s to the
existing Faure Water Treatment Works.
The existing water quality in the Eerste River is poor due to effluent from the
Stellenbosch Waste Water Treatment Works (WWTW), but this would be by-passed
around the diversion point. In addition, the river water is polluted by domestic waste
from an informal settlement, and also by industrial waste.
The river and estuary are regarded as having a low conservation value. It is likely that
the reduction in winter flows, and the presence of the diversion and delivery
infrastructure associated with the proposed scheme, would have little impact on the
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ecological functioning of the system, provided that the ecological flow requirements of
the river and estuary are met.
4.12 Cape Flats Aquifer
The Cape Flats Aquifer (CFA) has, on numerous occasions, been identified as a viable
source of water supply for the CMA.
The proposed 18-million m3/a wellfield has to take into account possible pollution threats
such as the Swartklip Waste Disposal Site and the Mitchell’s Plain Wastewater
Treatment Works. A comprehensive monitoring programme would need to be established
to monitor possible pollution, as well as possible seawater intrusion. The wellfield design
should also ensure that the impact on indigenous vegetation and any seasonal wetlands in
the area is minimised.
Various water treatment options have been considered, to ensure that the quality of the
CFA water would be improved to a level comparable with the present potable supply. An
on-site lime softening plant seems to be the most economically viable treatment. The
treated CFA water would be fed into the local distribution network.
The public concerns, that would need to be addressed as part of the required EIA, would
be the possibility of land subsidence, the effect of the CFA scheme on the Philippi
farmers, and the impact of construction on the Mitchell’s Plain community.
4.13 Treated Wastewater for Commercial Irrigation Farmers
The Helderberg and Stellenbosch farm irrigation schemes, located to the east and north
of the Cape Flats, in the direction of Stellenbosch, currently enjoy an allocation of 20
million m3/a of fresh (untreated) water from the Riviersonderend-Berg River Government
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Water Scheme. This option deals with the possibility of exchanging up to 5 million m3/a
of fresh water currently allocated to the farmers, with treated wastewater.
Water would be pumped from the Zandvliet and Macassar WWTW to a small balancing
dam (0,5 million m3 capacity) near the exit of the Stellenboschberg Tunnel, during the
five summer months. From here some of the existing irrigation scheme infrastructure
could probably be utilised.
A number of obstacles to using treated wastewater for commercial irrigation include:

current guidelines from the Department of Health which advise against the use of
treated wastewater for crops that are eaten raw;

deleterious effects of nutrients in the treated wastewater on certain crops at
certain times;

the salinity of treated wastewater compared with the raw water presently
available and the possible effect this would have on the soils and crops; and,

a concern about international perceptions of this practice, which could result in
reduced marketability of the produce, and consequent lower prices.
Implementation of this scheme would require the commitment of the farmers, and an
EIA process to address the above obstacles.
4.14 Treated Wastewater Reclaimed to Potable Standard
Reclamation of treated wastewater to suitable quality for general potable purposes would
provide a substantial additional water supply into the system all year round.
The treated wastewater would be supplied to the Faure Water Treatment Works (WTW)
by a pipeline linking the various WWTW's along the coast (Cape Flats, Mitchell’s Plain,
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Zandvliet and Macassar WWTW), with a pumpstation at each works delivering treated
wastewater into the pipeline.
Guidelines from the Department of Health indicate that if treated wastewater does not
pass through the expensive reverse osmosis process, but is to be reclaimed and blended
with freshwater to produce potable water, then a blending ratio of 1:4 should not be
exceeded.
Although this guideline limits the potential yield to 46 million m3/a for
blending at the Faure WTW, this option would make a large contribution to the supply.
The major social constraint is that some people still have an aversion to the notion of
drinking treated wastewater. There may also be objections to certain practices on the
basis of religion. User Education and the public participation process with regard to this
option would be very important.
4.15 Water Restrictions
Water restrictions are, in general, an effective way to achieve reduced water
consumption during times of critical water shortages and, furthermore, present an
opportunity to increase public awareness of the need to use water more efficiently.
The existing low-level water restrictions, aimed at a 10% reduction in both urban and
agricultural demands in the CMA, were introduced on 1 November 2000.
An actual
average monthly saving of 16,3% for the urban demand was achieved for the 7 months
from November 2000 to May 2001. Although the need for the existing water
restrictions, and the progress with the implementation of water demand management
initiatives, will be reassessed in November 2001, it is possible that the current low-level
restrictions, which were primarily imposed to minimize the inefficient use of water, will
continue to be imposed until at least 2006/7, when the proposed Skuifraam Scheme is
expected to be completed.
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The effective implementation of water restrictions has a negative financial impact on the
revenue of the water services provider in the short term. The new standardised fivestep escalating block-rate tariff structure for the CMA, implemented on 1 July 2001,
caters, inter-alia, for the loss in revenue associated with the continued imposition of
water restrictions during the 2001/2002 financial year. It will be difficult to establish
to what extent future monthly water savings were to be attributable to the impact of
the CCT’s new standardised water tariff structure, or the water restrictions,
respectively.
The medium to long-term successful implementation of the WDM initiatives investigated
for this study, including the eradication of the unlawful and wasteful use of water, will
reduce the scope for continued water savings via low-level water restrictions.
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Table 4.1 : Main Features of Options
YIELD
TIME TO
OPTION
Million
50% OF
3
YIELD
m /a
Years
Pressure Management
17
3
CAPITAL
COST
R million
ANNUAL COST
R million/a
55
URV
COMMENTS
R/ m3
MCDA
OVERALL
SCORE *
2
0,23
82
Yield reasonable and cost low, quick to implement, and
environmentally and socially acceptable
Yield low to reasonable, cost low, quick to implement, and
environmentally and socially acceptable
Yield low, cost low, quick to implement, and environmentally
and socially acceptable
Yield reasonable and cost low, quick to implement.
Environmentally acceptable. Might have some consumer
problems.
Yield reasonable, cost low, quick to implement.
No
environmental implications. Will have consumer resistance.
Needs audit of metering and credit control.
Yield reasonable, cost low.
Quick to implement.
Environmentally acceptable. Might have some consumer
problems.
Yield low, cost low, quick to implement.
Could have
environmental impact. Socially acceptable.
Yield and cost low, quick to implement. Has health and
environmental impact. Not likely socially acceptable.
Yield reasonable, cost high, moderately quick to implement.
Some environmental implications and health risk. Might
have some consumer resistance.
Yield reasonable and cost low, very long to implement.
Potentially major environmental implications.
Probable
social resistance.
Yield reasonable to low, cost high, very long to implement.
Pollution of source water a major problem. Environmental
and social implications moderate.
Yield reasonable, cost high, moderately quick to implement.
Potential environmental and social concerns.
Yield low, cost very high, and very long to implement. Some
environmental implications and health risk. Might have
some resistance from farmers.
Yield very high, cost very high, very long to implement.
Some environmental, social and health concerns.
User Education
10
3
5
5
0,50
81
Elimination of Automatic
Flushing Urinals
Leakage Repair
4
2
0
0
0,15
77
16
3
45
1
0,19
73
Tariffs, Metering and
Credit Control
10
1
0
0
0,00
71
Introduction of Water
Efficient Fittings
10
3
50
1
0,31
66
Promotion of Private
Boreholes
Promotion of Grey-water
use
Treated Wastewater for
Local Urban Irrigation
and Industrial use
Lourens River Diversion
3
2
0
0
63
1
2
0
0
11
4
96
1
–1,45 to
0,04
0,02
to 2,37
0,80
19
6
35
7
0,46
72
Eerste River Diversion
8
5
77
4
1,06
66
Cape Flats Aquifer
18
4
162
10
1,13
66
Treated Wastewater for
Commercial Irrigation
Farmers
Treated Wastewater to
Potable Standard
5
6
96
2
1,62
52
46
7
864
71
3,10
44
* Refer to
Table 6.1 for the full MCDA scoring
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74
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5
PUBLIC INVOLVEMENT
The key steps in the public participation process included:

The study announcement in the Argus, Cape Times and Die Burger on 24 June
2000;

a comprehensive Background Information Document, distributed by post to the
over 350 stakeholders (Interested and Affected Parties (I&AP's));

one-on-one meetings held with selected key stakeholders and organisations; and,

two identical public meetings at different venues were held to introduce the study
to the public and to obtain their initial comments on issues and concerns.
It is intended that a final public meeting be held at the conclusion of the studies.
6
RESULTS OF THE MULTI-CRITERIA DECISION ANALYSIS (MCDA) PROCESS
A summary of the individual criterion and overall scores, for each option, is given in Table
6.1 below.
Table 6.1 : Summary of individual and overall MCDA scores
Option
Yield
Financial
79
Socioeconomic
62
Acceptabili
ty
95
Environmenta
l
91
Overal
l score
82
Pressure
Management
78
User Education
77
76
68
91
91
81
Elimination
of
Automatic Flushing
Urinals
Treated
Wastewater
for
Local Urban and
Industrial use
Leakage Repair
60
72
59
94
91
77
71
73
37
85
96
74
64
62
77
80
91
73
Lourens
River
Diversion
Tariffs,
Metering
and Credit Control
Introduction
of
Water
Efficient
Fittings
86
82
66
74
39
72
79
88
69
29
91
71
61
57
60
70
91
66
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Eerste
Diversion
River
77
72
54
78
40
66
Cape Flats Aquifer
77
65
58
75
55
66
Promotion of Private
Boreholes
Promotion of Greywater use
Treated
Wastewater
for
Commercial
Irrigation Farmers
Treated
Wastewater
Reclaimed
to
Potable Standard
59
56
57
91
47
63
45
59
13
91
77
61
62
58
15
46
80
52
75
10
71
37,5
96
44
The above should not be considered as a priority list, as there are close links between
certain options.
7
SELECTION
OF
OPTIONS
TO
BE
IMPLEMENTED,
AND
FINANCIAL
IMPLICATIONS
The options that were investigated can be divided into three main categories, namely:

water demand management options to be implemented by CCT;

water demand management options to be implemented by individual consumers;
and,

supply augmentation options to be implemented by CCT.
A workshop, attended by the DWAF, various CCT Administrations, Ninham Shand and
Arcus Gibb, was held on 20 June 2001 to discuss possible grouping of options into logical
packages that can be implemented in phases. In view of the urgent need to achieve
results, it was agreed that prime attention should be given to options that:

can be implemented quickly and achieve significant benefits in a short time;

do not entail large capital investments;

score relatively well in the MCDA process, as indicated in Table 6.1; and,

would be supported by the public.
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On the above basis Package 1 was assembled consisting of the following options:

Pressure Management;

User Education;

Elimination of Automatic Flushing Urinals;

Leakage repair; and

Tariffs, Metering and Credit Control.
These are water demand management options to be implemented by CCT.
The combined effect of the implementation of the Package 1 options, on the projected
future urban water demand and on the overall projected water demand, is shown in
Figures 7.1 and 7.2 respectively. This is based on the assumption that the decision to
proceed with the Package 1 options will be taken before January 2002. The available
current yield, plus what will be provided by the Skuifraam scheme, is also shown in Figure
7.2.
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Figure 7.1
Urban water demand - Package 1
500
Million m3/a
450
400
350
300
250
1994
1996
1998
2000
2002
2004
2006
2008
2010
2008
2010
Year
No savings
Package 1
Figure 7.1 : Impact of Package 1 on urban water demand
Figure 7.2
Overall water demand - Package 1
650
600
Million m3/a
550
500
450
400
350
1994
1996
1998
2000
2002
2004
2006
Year
No savings
Package 1
Yield
Figure 7.2 : Impact of Package 1 on overall water demand
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The estimated cashflow for Package 1 is shown in Table 7.1 below.
Table 7.1 : Cashflow projections for Package 1. Figures in R million.
Year
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
Capital
10
30
30
15
0
0
0
0
0
Operati
5
5
5
8
8
8
8
8
8
15
35
35
23
8
8
8
8
8
ng
Total
As part of a second package, Package 2, the CCT should refine and develop the
information on the value of well points and boreholes for private properties and
sportsfields.
They should then consider whether assistance in any form (incentive
scheme) should be given to users to install well points or boreholes. CCT should also
encourage consumers to replace plumbing fittings in existing houses with water efficient
fittings, and consider an incentive scheme for this as well. While it is considered that
the use of grey-water is problematic, and the potential yield very small, the option is
nevertheless included in this package.
Package 2 therefore comprises:

Promotion of Private Boreholes;

Introduction of Water Efficient Fittings; and,

Promotion of Grey-water use
The above options would be promoted through the User Education programme by the
CCT.
The combined effect of the implementation of the Package 2 options (in addition to the
Package 1 options) on the projected future urban water demand, and the overall
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projected water demand, is shown in Figures 7.3 and 7.4 respectively. This is based on
the assumption that the decision to proceed with this package of options is taken before
January 2002. The available current yield, plus what will be provided by the Skuifraam
scheme, is also shown in Figure 7.4.
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Figure 7.3
Urban water demand - Packages 1+2
500
Million m3/a
450
400
350
300
250
1994
1996
1998
2000
2002
2004
2006
2008
2010
Year
No savings
Packages 1+2
Figure 7.3 : Impact of Packages 1 & 2 on urban water demand
Figure 7.4
Overall water demand - Packages 1+2
650
600
Million m3/a
550
500
450
400
350
1994
1996
1998
2000
2002
2004
2006
2008
Year
No savings
Packages 1+2
Yield
Figure 7.4 : Impact of Packages 1 & 2 on overall water demand
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The estimated cashflow for Package 2, including subsidized retrofitting of water
efficient fittings, is shown in Table 7.2 below.
Table 7.2 : Cashflow projections for Package 2. Figures in R million.
Year
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
Capital
10
15
15
10
0
0
0
0
0
Total
10
15
15
10
0
0
0
0
0
Despite the effects of the implementation of the water demand management options
(Packages 1 and 2), and the provision of the Skuifraam scheme, an additional supply
source will be required (Package 3) to be able to meet the increasing demand into the
future. With regard to the supply augmentation options, the most attractive conventional
option appears to be the Lourens River Diversion scheme.
Package 3.
This would therefore be
A decision to proceed with its implementation is necessary as soon as
possible, as it is estimated that it would take about 5 years before any yield would be
available.
The effect of the implementation of Package 3 on the overall demand / supply is shown in
Figure 7.5.
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Figure 7.5
Overall water demand - Packages 1+2+3
650
600
Million m3/a
550
500
450
400
350
1994
1996
1998
2000
2002
2004
2006
2008
Year
No savings
Packages 1+2+3
Yield
Figure 7.5 : Impact of Packages 1, 2 & 3 on overall water demand/supply
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The estimated cashflow for Package 3 is shown in Table 7.3 below.
Table 7.3 : Cashflow projections for Package 3. Figures in R million.
Year
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
Capital
0
2
3
15
15
0
0
0
0
Operati
0
0
0
0
0
7
7
7
7
0
2
3
15
15
7
7
7
7
ng
Total
Further Packages in Future
As can be seen from Figure 7.6, in order to achieve the objective of the available yield
always exceeding the demand, further packages will be required in the future.
Figure 7.6
Overall water demand forecast to 2020
850
800
750
Million m3/a
700
650
600
550
500
450
400
350
1994
1996
1998
2000
2002
2004
2006
2008
2010
2012
2014
2016
2018
Year
No savings
Packages 1+2+3
Yield
Figure 7.6 : Overall water demand forecast to 2020
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26
Of the remaining options, the following comments are offered:

use of Treated Wastewater for Local Urban Irrigation and Industrial use has
merit, but requires investigation of individual cases, including comparison, where
appropriate, with the use of wellpoints.

the Cape Flats Aquifer option is possibly less attractive financially than other
supply options being considered, and presents possible social difficulties.

the Eerste River Diversion option should not be implemented before pollution in
the river is brought under control. In any case the yield is small and the URV not
particularly attractive.

use of Treated Wastewater for Commercial Irrigation Farmers would be difficult
to implement under present conditions and is relatively expensive unless a high
portion of the total allocated fresh water irrigation supply to farmers can be
exchanged.

Treated Wastewater Reclaimed to Potable Standard is very expensive, and would
likely have social objections. It should therefore not be considered at present,
but will probably become justified in time.
The combined effect of the implementation of the above further options (in addition to
the Package 1, 2 and 3 options, and Skuifraam) on the overall system yield, is shown in
Figure 7.7. For consistency with earlier figures above, this is based on a hypothetical
decision to proceed with all of these options being taken before January 2002.
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Figure 7.7
Overall water demand and supply if all options investigated were implemented
850
800
750
Million m3/a
700
650
600
550
500
450
400
350
1994
1996
1998
2000
2002
2004
2006
2008
2010
2012
2014
2016
2018
2020
Year
No savings
.
All WDM options
Yield for all supply options
Figure 7.7 : Overall water demand and supply if all options investigated were implemented
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Additional supply options being investigated as part of a further study include:

the Voëlvlei Augmentation Scheme;

Table Mountain Deep Aquifer; and

Desalination.
The results of the investigations of these options will be combined with the present
study and may influence the choice of “further” packages.
It will be critical to continually monitor the whole water supply/demand situation with the
view to ensuring that:

for options that are to proceed, the target implementation dates/periods are
met; and,

the reduction in demand achieved is as predicted, and if not, the implementation
of the next scheme(s) or package(s) are rescheduled.
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8
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
8.1
Conclusions
Cape Town is in desperate need of alleviating the pressure on the currently available
water supply sources. The short-term measure to achieve this has been to impose water
restrictions, which have had some success. However, as the demand increases it will be
necessary to progressively increase the severity of water restrictions in order keep the
demand below the available system yield.
The most effective way to alleviate the
situation initially, is to implement water demand management options. However, further
supply augmentation options are also necessary, in order to meet the future demand (see
Figure 7.6). It is therefore essential in the first instance that the implementation of
the Skuifraam Scheme should commence as soon as possible.
8.2
Recommendations
In view of the above it is recommended that:
1.
The long-term planning and implementation of water demand management
initiatives and water supply schemes be based on achieving a balance between
the projected growths in water demands and the available supply, in order to
ensure a supply at a 98% level of assurance in the long term;
2.
The implementation of the options identified in Packages 1 and 2 (see below)
be initiated/accelerated in order to avoid having to re-introduce, and even impose
more severe, water restrictions prior to the construction of the Skuifraam Dam
Scheme.
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Pressure Management
The following recommendations are made with respect to Pressure Management:

Expedite the implementation of Pressure Management in areas already
identified to provide a high potential saving.

Decide on the approach for the implementation of Pressure Management
i.e. departmentally or by contract.

Prioritise the installation of District Metered Areas (DMAs).

Identify all further potential areas to be logged.

Implement a process to inform communities about pressure management.

Support staff should be allocated to carry out the abovementioned tasks.
User education
The following recommendations are made with respect to user education:
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
Take care in the choice of words and general terminology used for the
integrated user education and the increased public awareness campaign
(requires positive approach and terminology).

Increase publicity for existing and new Water Demand Management
(WDM) policies, municipal by-laws and regulations.

Train staff in-house and comply departmentally with regulations.

CCT to lead by example in the implementation of the WDM options
investigated in the Integrated Water Resource Planning Study and ensure
that they comply with all existing regulations on water-efficient use.

Identify a unique slogan and mascot for CCT's integrated WDM campaign.

Identify local "champions" to publically promote CCT's WDM campaign.

Continue and expand the successful media campaign launched by the City to
promote public

education and water restrictions.
Consider the production of a video on WDM initiatives and means to
achieve water-efficient use.

Build on the current hospitality information packages aimed at efficient
water use at hotels and other non-residential organisations.

Expand the CCT/CMC Administration's existing website.
The CCT's
website address should be shown on the monthly water bills of users.

Appoint publicity staff.

Establish an integrated consumer advisory service.

Target a specific month of the year (onset of summer, or the month
containing water week) for increasing participatory public awareness
campaigns.

Promote water-wise gardening and consider continuing to prohibit garden
watering between 10:00 and 16:00 as the water supply situation may
dictate.

Take cognisance of all WDM measures when drafting bulk supply
agreements with other Water Service Authorities.
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
Promote understanding of Water Demand Management tariff structures.

Prohibit the hosing down of paved areas (this should be included in the
proposed by-laws).

Continue and expand involvement of schools in the Cape Metropolitan Area
(CMA) in water conservation.

Recommend initiation of liaison and co-ordination with South African
Bureau of Standards (SABS), the local plumbing industry, and
manufactures and suppliers of water-saving devices to ensure that only
SABS approved plumbing devices are installed.

Increase co-ordination, possibly entailing lectures and workshops, with
architects, quantity surveyors and building industries, on water-efficient
fittings and water-efficient use.

Approach the Department of Education and Public Works to actively
participate in Water Demand Management Programmes.

Encourage the establishment of environmental training centres.

Encourage the training of community leaders.

Establish retrofitted buildings in strategic locations in the CMA.

Utilise libraries for long-term displays of information on water-efficient
use.

Incorporate WDM issues in the City-wide newsletter.

Monitor continuously the impact of WDM, and give feedback on user
education and the public awareness campaign.
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Elimination of Automatic Flushing Urinals (AFUs)
The following recommendations are made with respect to AFUs:

Promulgate and implement consolidated municipal by-laws requiring all
existing AFUs in the CMA to be retrofitted within a period of two years.
Furthermore, the installation of AFUs in new buildings should be
prohibited.

Encourage the replacement of AFUs prior to the expiry date of the twoyear period allowed in the proposed legislation.

Communicate the proposed by-laws as part of an integrated public
awareness campaign on water demand management issues, and provide
information on the potential benefits to water consumers with regard to
reduced water consumption and water bills were they to replace AFUs. For
the interim, include the switching off of AFUs during night times and over
weekends, when buildings are typically not occupied, in the by-laws.

Liaise with national and provincial government departments, in particular
the Department of Public Works and the Department of Education, to
expedite the replacement of AFUs in government buildings and public
schools.

Investigate the possibility of charging an interim tariff per AFU until
replaced.
Leakage repair
The following recommendations are made with respect to leakage repair:

Expedite the implementation of a leakage repair programme in areas
already identified with high unaccounted-for-water (UAW).

Obtain detailed information on the UAW in all the zones within
Oostenberg, South Peninsula and the Central Administration, to identify
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zones with the highest potential for the implementation of plumbing repair
programmes.

Decide on the approach for the implementation of leakage repair
programmes, i.e. departmentally or by contract and ensure that sufficient
staff are available.

Follow a comprehensive public education process in the area, to inform on
water wastage and procedures to be followed when household and
reticulation leaks occur.

Implement a programme to ensure that UAW of less than 15% is achieved
per zone. Define zones for each area based on the present UAW, the
number of public open spaces to be irrigated, etc.
Depending on the
geography and characteristics of an area, zones should follow SABS 0306
recommendations.
Tariffs, metering and credit control
The following recommendations are made with respect to tariffs, metering and
credit control:

Consider increasing the number of steps in the residential water tariff.
Additional steps will facilitate income management.

Consider changing the existing flat tariffs for the commercial and
industrial sectors, and other non-residential water uses, to alternative
rising block tariff structures to promote water demand management.

Continue monitoring price elasticities of users in the CMA.

Increase user education in respect of components of water tariffs.

Apply universal metering and billing.

Audit the metering, meter reading, and billing system annually to identify
areas for improvement.

Ninham Shand/Arcus Gibb
Apply verification, calibration and testing of all meters.
I W R P Study :
Background, Results and recommendations
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
Institute a planned meter maintenance/replacement programme for all
District Meter Areas and user meters.

Apply informative billing.

Improve credit control and debt management.

Consider restricting the water supply to non-paying users (this should be
carried out in terms of the requirements of the Water Services Act).

Charge a reconnection fee.

Practice consistency in the application of credit control and water cut-off
policies.

Promote a culture of payment.
Promotion of private boreholes

The following recommendations are made with respect to the use of private
boreholes:

Actively promote the use of private wellpoints and boreholes for the
purpose of garden watering in the CMA.

Where private wellpoints, boreholes or groundwater are used, the usage
should be indicated by a sign (e.g. borehole water), to be clearly visible
from the street.

The CCT should develop promotional material based on groundwater
surveys.
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Promotion of grey-water use

The following recommendations are made with respect to promoting greywater use :

No definite health regulations or water quality guidelines for gardening
water exist in South Africa. However, there is a current SABS project in
progress to produce a Code of Practice for Grey-water Usage (SABS 0323
: 200X). Therefore representations should be made to the relevant
authorities to ensure that these issues are dealt with in a conservative way
and in accordance with international practice.

Withhold the active promotion of grey-water use until the SABS standard
is published.
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Introduction of water-efficient fittings
The following recommendations are made with respect to the introduction of
water-efficient fittings:

Increase public awareness of the availability of water saving devices for
retrofitting and new installations at private households and non-residential
organisations.

Increase public awareness and availability of the DWAF publication titled
A to Z of Water Saving Devices, on performance standards for waterefficient fittings issued by the DWAF's National Water Conservation
Campaign.

Update the training course material used for the training of plumbers to
include aspects related to retrofitting and new installations with watersaving devices at private households and non-residential organisations
(water conservation plumbers) as well as an overview of the pros and cons
of alternative water-saving devices.

Consider municipal by-laws to control all new installations of water fittings
at residences and non-residential buildings.

Approach SABS to compile performance standards for water
devices/fittings/ appliances.

Request the Institute of Plumbers to compile an information booklet aimed
at maintenance managers and caretakers which contains guidelines on the
planning of a regular and effective maintenance programme for plumbing
fittings.

Establish an advice bureau to liaise with consumers. Maintain a direct
enquiry line to cater for enquiries from the public.

Expand selected plumbing repair projects, which could include the
retrofitting of toilets, taps and showerheads.
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
Lead by example and retrofit all CCT owned premises and encourage
retrofitting in rented premises.

Introduce a municipal by-law requiring flow controllers/aerators/sprays
with flow rates not exceeding 5/min to be fitted to all basin taps (handwash basins) in all public facilities and non-residential buildings.

Liaise with national and provincial departments, particularly the
Department of Public Works, to promote and advise on the implementation
of retrofitting at government and local authority buildings in the CMA.

Use trained personnel on plumbing repair projects to install, as opposed to
the mere distribution of, water-saving devices from depots to private
households. An opportunity should be afforded to select water-saving
devices, e.g. showerheads, from a range of acceptable high-efficiency lowflow showerheads to cater for personal preferences. Home owners would,
however, be expected to pay the incremental costs associated with more
expensive water-saving devices.

Investigate the feasibility of implementing subsidised/incentive schemes
for private households.

Consider the implementation of rebate programmes for the fitting of
water-saving devices aimed at both the private household, non-residential
organisations and retailers/plumbing companies.

Allow only products listed by the Joint Acceptance Scheme for Water
Installation Components.
Although the following two options do not form part of the recommended Packages 1
and 2, they are already being implemented in Cape Town and the following
recommendations are therefore made with respect to:
The use of treated wastewater for industrial use and local irrigation
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
Undertake a detailed survey of all the industries, and consumers with
potential local irrigation needs, whereafter this option should be reassessed.

Carry out a further study to assess the quality required by industries and
the quality produced at the WWTW.
Water restrictions

Consider the application of a separate water tariff, to be applied during
times of water restrictions.

Ensure the continued equitable, fair and consistent application and
monitoring of the existing water restrictions regulations.
3.
The planning and implementation of a supply scheme (other than the Skuifraam
Scheme) should proceed. The preferred supply scheme would be identified at the
completion of the study to investigate the Voëlvlei Augmentation Scheme, Table
Mountain Group Aquifer and Desalination. The possible development of any other
schemes by DWAF (or others) would need to be taken into account.
4.
The construction of the Skuifraam Scheme should urgently proceed in parallel
with the implementation of the water demand management and water supply
options identified, as a delay in the construction of the Skuifraam Scheme would
increase the risk of having to impose more severe water restrictions in the CMA.
5.
The situation be closely monitored and, as may be necessary, the planning and
implementation of one or more further supply schemes/packages, be initiated.
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Ninham Shand/Arcus Gibb
I W R P Study :
Background, Results and recommendations
18 July 2001
40
REFERENCES
City of Cape Town, CMC Administration. 2001. Integrated Water Resource Planning Study. Report 2 of
12 : Eerste River Diversion. Prepared by Ninham Shand in association with Arcus Gibb.
City of Cape Town, CMC Administration. 2001. Integrated Water Resource Planning Study. Report 3 of
12 : Lourens River Diversion. Prepared by Arcus Gibb in association with Ninham Shand.
City of Cape Town, CMC Administration. 2001. Integrated Water Resource Planning Study. Report 4 of
12 : Cape Flats Aquifer. Prepared by Ninham Shand in association with Arcus Gibb.
City of Cape Town, CMC Administration. 2001. Integrated Water Resource Planning Study. Report 5 of
12 : Potential savings through pressure management. Prepared by Ninham Shand in association with Arcus
Gibb.
City of Cape Town, CMC Administration. 2001. Integrated Water Resource Planning Study. Report 6 of
12 : Potential savings through leakage repair of piping. Prepared by Ninham Shand in association with
Arcus Gibb.
City of Cape Town, CMC Administration. 2001. Integrated Water Resource Planning Study. Report 7 of
12 : Water efficient fittings, automatic flushing urinals, grey water and private boreholes and wellpoints.
Prepared by Arcus Gibb in association with Ninham Shand.
City of Cape Town, CMC Administration. 2001. Integrated Water Resource Planning Study. Report 8 of
12 : Potential for the use of treated wastewater within the CMA. Preapred by Ninham Shand in
association with Arcus Gibb.
City of Cape Town, CMC Administration. 2001. Integrated Water Resource Planning Study. Report 9 of
12 : Adjustment of water tariffs, metering, credit control, water restrictions and user education.
Prepared by Arcus Gibb in association with Ninham Shand.
City of Cape Town, CMC Administration. 2001. Integrated Water Resource Planning Study. Report 10 of
12 : Administration Report. Prepared by Ninham Shand in association with Arcus Gibb.
City of Cape Town, CMC Administration. 2001. Integrated Water Resource Planning Study. Report 11 of
12 : Public Participation Process. Prepared by Ninham Shand in association with Arcus Gibb.
City of Cape Town, CMC Administration. 2001. Integrated Water Resource Planning Study. Report 12 of
12 : An evaluation of alternative water supply augmentation and water demand management options for the
City of Cape Town using multi-criteria decision analysis. Prepared by Palmer Development Group in
association with Arcus Gibb and Ninham Shand.
CMC Administration document entitled Executive Committee 22-05-2001, Water and Sanitation Tariffs 2001/2002 Budget Year.
Ninham Shand/Arcus Gibb
I W R P Study :
Background, Results and recommendations
18 July 2001
41
Department of Water Affairs, South Africa. 1991. Long-term urban water demand in the Western Cape
Metropolitan Region 1990 - 2020. Prepared by Ninham Shand in association with Bruinette Kruger
Stoffberg and the Institute for Futures Research.
Department of Water Affairs and Forestry, South Africa. 1999. Review of the long-term urban demand
for water in the Cape Town-Saldanha Supply Area. Prepared by Ninham Shand, Institute for Futures
Research and Palmer Development Group.
Ninham Shand/Arcus Gibb
I W R P Study :
Background, Results and recommendations
18 July 2001
42
Department of Water Affairs and Forestry, South Africa. 2000. The effects of water conservation and
demand management on the growth of urban and agricultural water demands on the Western Cape System
and the timing of the implementation of the Skuifraam Scheme. Prepared by Ninham Shand.
P:\9026cmcwtr\final report\execsummary-final
Ninham Shand/Arcus Gibb
I W R P Study :
Background, Results and recommendations
18 July 2001