Chapter 2
Literature Review
Relating literature has been reviewed and presented as follows:
2.1. The Underpinning Theory of Customer Loyalty
2.2. The Underpinning Theory of Service Quality
2.3. The Underpinning Theory of Customer Satisfaction
2.4. The Underpinning Theory of Perceived Value
2.5. The Underpinning Theory of Commitment
2.6. The Underpinning Theory of Expectation Disconfirmation Theory
(EDT)
2.7. The Underpinning Theory of Stimulus Organism Response (S-O-R)
2.8. Universities in Thailand
2.1 The Underpinning Theory of Customer Loyalty
2.1.1 Definition of Customer Loyalty
Loyalty can be defined as repeated purchases of products or services in a
particular brand with purchase frequency during a certain period of time (Brody
and Cunningham, 1968), later Oliver (1997) defines loyalty as “a deeply held
commitment to rebuy or repatronize a preferred product or service consistently in
the future, regardless of situational influences and marketing efforts having the
potential to cause switching behavior” (p.392).
According to Strauss and Neuhaus (1997), when customers are completely
satisfied with a service, as opposed to being merely satisfied, they are significantly
less likely to defect or switch, leading to the proposition which intensify
satisfaction element in customer loyalty. Dick and Basu (1994) proposed that
customer’s psychological predisposition repurchase from the same firm/seller again
2
and recommend the same firm/seller. Moreover, loyalty should involve an intention
behavior in the next purchase that comprise two dimensions: the likelihood of
customer’s product advocate and a direct seller, and repurchase intention (Zeithaml
et al.,1996). Finally, to understand why customer perform different level of loyalty
or repurchase in product/ service, and to combine that knowledge with customer
behavior, the company should measure the customer’s loyalty in that service or
product.
Nowadays, the university service providers should contribute the basic needs
of student to increase student feeling of returning back to the service, support, and
contribute to become
loyal to the university in the end.
2.1.2 Theory of Customer Loyalty
There are three conceptual theory on customer loyalty. They are Loyalty theory
(Dick and Basu :1994), Loyalty phases (Oliver: 1997) and Satisfaction Loyalty (Oliver
1999).
In the study loyalty is defined according to the theory of Dick and Basu:
1994, which mentions about a relative relationship between attitudes
and re-
patronage as shown in Table 2.1
Table 2.1: Categories of Loyalty
Relative attitude
High
re-patronage
low
High
Loyalty
Latent loyalty
Low
Spurious Loyalty
No loyalty
Source: Dick and Basu (1994)
From Table 2.1 Categories of loyalty, Dick and Basu (1994) claim that
loyalty is determined by the strength of the relationship between relative attitude
3
and repeated patronage, and that it has both attitudinal and behavior elements.
They suggest that the basis of the attitude behavior relationship proposes four
conditions to related loyalty: 1) Loyalty indicates a favorable correspondence
between relative attitude and repeated patronage. 2 ) Latent loyalty is associated
with high relative attitude, but low repeated patronage 3) Spurious loyalty gives a
low relative attitude, with high repeated patronage. 4) No loyalty is associated
with a low relative attitude, combined with low repeat patronage.
Furthermore, Dick and Basu (1994) state that “customer loyalty is viewed
as the strength of the relationship between an individual’s relative attitude and
their repeated patronage” whereas Day (1969) has revealed a weak evidence saying
that repeated patronage measured as share-of-category purchase, is associated with
customer characteristic and influenced mainly opportunity.
Moreover, Tucker (1964) looks strictly at the loyal customer from repeated
purchase behaviors. Generally, loyalty has continued in a same circulation as
repeated purchasing frequency or relative volume of same-brand purchasing (Tellis,
1988), It is argued
that concentration on the behaviors of loyalty could
consequently overestimate the share of real loyalty as customers who are forced to
repeatedly buy the same brand or use the same distribution channel (Day, 1969).
The repeated purchase behavior evolves that proportion of purchase,
sequence of purchase, and probability of purchase (Jacoby and Chestnut, 1978).
Moreover, the measurement of behavior is based on the customer’s purchase history
to explain the underlying buying motives in action such as price tolerance, word
of mouth, or complaint behavior (Samuelson and Sandvik, 1997)
According to Dick and Basu (1994) attitude-behavior of loyalty is an
outcome. They also use the relative attitude for developing a composite index of
4
loyalty. Thus if relative attitude is high compared with a highly repeating
patronage, it indicates a true loyalty, whereas the same patronage ratio together
with low relative attitude will be spurious loyalty (Lutz and Winn, 1974; Day,
1969; Dick and Basu, 1994). Loyalty is claimed to recognize the various structural
conditions
including
different
buying
situations
(individual,
group
decisions,
organizational buying behavior), which leads to a particular outcome (Zins, 2001).
Consumers experience is notably emotional experiences, often arising from
satisfaction or dissatisfaction and also holding strong commitments (Belch, 1981;
Tellis, 1988). Satisfaction is a fairly temporal pasturage state for one-time
consumption or a repeatedly expectedly experienced for ongoing consumption. The
satisfaction experience becomes one input to loyalty behavior, thereby allowing
consideration of dissatisfaction determinants (Oliver, 1999). Moreover, conceptual of
customer loyalty in Figure 2.2
Figure 2.1 Conceptual of Customer Loyalty
Cognitive
Affective
Source : Oliver, 1997
Conative
Action
Loyalty
5
Table 2.2: Loyalty Phases with Corresponding Vulnerabilities
Stage
Cognitive
Identifying Marker
Vulnerabilities
Loyalty to information Actual or imagined better competitive features or
such as price, features, price through Communication (e.g., advertising)
and so forth.
and vicarious or personal experience. Deterioration
in brand features or price.Variety seeking and
voluntary trial.
Affective
Loyalty to a liking: “I Cognitively induced dissatisfaction. Enhance liking
buy it because I like for competitive brands, perhaps conveyed through
it.”
imagery
and association.
Variety
seeking
and
voluntary trial. Deterioration performance.
Table 2.2: Loyalty Phases with Corresponding Vulnerabilities
Stage
Conative
Identifying Marker
Vulnerabilities
Loyalty to an intention: Persuasive counter argumentative
“I’m
committed
buying it.”
to competitive messages. Induced trial (e.g.,
coupons, sampling, point-of-purchase
promotions). Deteriorating performance.
Action
Loyalty
to
action Induced unavailability (e.g., stock lifts-
inertia coupled with the purchasing the entire inventory of a competitor’s
overcoming
obstacles.
of product from a merchant). Increased obstacles
generally. Deteriorating performance.
6
Source: Oliver (1997)
As shown in Table 2.2 Loyalty Phases with Corresponding Vulnerabilities
following cognitive indicates that one brand is preferable to consumer alternatives.
This stage is referred to prior or vicarious knowledge or recent experience based
on information and brand belief. The depth of loyalty is no deeper than mere
performance when satisfaction is processed. Affective is a second phase of loyalty
development. Whereas cognition is directly subject to counter argumentation, affect
is not as easily dislodged. The brand loyalty exhibited is directed at the degree of
affection (liking) for the brand. Similar to cognitive loyalty to remains subject to
switching or loyalty. Conative is the stage that influenced by repeated episodes of
positive affect toward the brand. However, the conative ppears to be the deeply
held commitment to repurchase the brand and motivation the consumer repurchase
but similar to any “good intention”. Action referred to the motivated intention in
the previous loyalty state into readiness to repeat in action.
Thus, the preceding of cognitive affective conative and action bring the
attitude based loyalty to the behavior of interest to rebuying. Cognitive loyalty
indicates to the brand’s performance aspects, affective loyalty is directed to the
brand’s likeableness, conative loyal focuses experienced when the consumer wants
to rebuy the brand, and action loyal is commitment to the action of rebuying.
An extension of attitude is argued that customers form relationship with
their brand. Jacoby and Kyner (1973) suggest that a brand loyalty is claimed to
be attitudinally based. Ehrenverg (1988) notices that customer loyalty could be
divided among a number of brands meanwhile Yi (1991) note that the goal of
brand reinforce to purchase behavior is rather than the pursuit of incentives. This
is important to direct customers’ attention toward the product and service.
7
In term of attitudinal measures, liking the brand has been used as a
predictor of retention (e.g.Baldinger and Robinson, 1996) while other researchers
have explained loyalty in relation to satisfaction (e.g. Oliver, 1999; Shankar et al.,
2000), commitment (e.g. Bloemer and do Ruyter, 1998; Beatty et al.1988).
Chaudhuri and Holbrook (2001) add that behavior, purchase, or loyalty is
composed of repeated purchases of the brand, whereas attitudinal brand loyalty
includes a degree of dispositional commitment in terms of some unique value
associated with the brand.
The consequences of attitudinal element can be surveyed with: Search
motivation
as
experience
learning
satisfaction
and
repeat
purchase
increase
alternative brands (Newman and Staelin, 1972). Word-of-mouth: “post-purchase
communication is supposed to be particularly likely if consumers experience
notably emotional experiences, often arising from satisfaction or dissatisfaction”
(Rowley
and
Dawes,
1999) (p.349), and individuals holding strong commitment
(Belch,1981).
Figure 2.2 : The Relation between Satisfaction and Loyalty
Satisfaction
Loyalty
Source : Oliver (1999)
From Figure 2.2 the relationship between satisfaction and loyalty, Oliver
(1999) views that satisfaction is a “core” concept for entertaining loyalty
development and in terms of the degree to which loyalty totally encompasses
8
satisfaction (i.e., satisfaction is contained entirely within loyalty). It is simple to
demonstrate common consumption situations in which satisfaction exists without
loyalty and loyalty exist with out satisfaction.
2.1.3 The Antecedents of Customer Loyalty
The concept of customer loyalty has been much more interesting in the
marketing literature. In the other hand, a key objective is to support customer
loyalty, Rowley and Dawes (1999) mentioned that a concept loyalty has its roots
in the consumer behavior literature whose primary focus in private sector
organizations and business. The theory on customer loyalty conceptualizes loyalty
as an interaction of attitudes and behaviors.
There is a debate about the relationship between attitude and behavior, and
there is some support for the assumption that attitude causes behavior. However,
East (1997) argues that the establishment causal primacy may be unrealistic. Also,
the relationship between thinking and feelings are interwoven and that changes in
one component of the construct may affect another, such as social and physical
environment and personal abilities.
Uncles and Laurent (1997) debated about incompatibility between attitude
and behavior which may also occur because of attitudes that embrace a set of
circumstances making it difficult to predict a single behavior. For circumstances,
attitude may even be a consequence of behavior and both attitudes and behavior
may change over a period of time.
Regard to marketing applications, Farr and Hollis (1997) mentioned the
relationship between promotional strategies and loyalty mentioning that they act as
push and pull mechanisms affecting loyalty. Push mechanisms primarily affect
behavior and are the outcomes of marketing activity directly influencing consumer
9
decisions at the point of purchase. Pull mechanisms are a result of marketing
efforts that establish a longer-term positive consumer predisposition towards a
brand and are concerned with the attitudinal aspect of loyalty.
In addition, there is a consensus that loyalty is likely to be easier to
maintain the customers compared with that of customers perceived goods although
it may cost more to keep the regular customers loyal to the services (Zeithaml
1981). Furthermore, Dick
and Basu (1994) proposed the development
and
maintenance of a loyalty relationship. Drawing in their customer loyalty framework
can identify for a loyalty relationship in the existing antecedents as “cognitive
antecedents, which are associated with a “rational” decision making based on
informational determinants; affective antecedents, provided to feelings about the
product
or
service,
and
conative
antecedents,
associated with
a
behavioral
disposition”.
One of the affective antecedents of loyalty in the framework is satisfaction.
The relationship between satisfaction and loyalty is interesting and far from
straightforward In service companies it is easy to assume this relationship if they
provide a high quality service that leads to customer satisfaction, then loyalty will
automatically form.
2.1.4 Importance of Loyalty
Pearce (1997: 1-31) mentioned that customers of greatest value are those
who are the most loyal to products and use products increasingly. Therefore,
marketing strategy needs to concentrate on creating loyalty and customers loyal to
the brand and those buying a lot to get long term profit. In other words, long
term profit can be obtained from marketing strategy focusing on creating loyalty.
10
As a result, marketing personnel realize that loyalty is a tool to increase the sales
and prevent market share, which, in turns, results in various motives. However,
loyalty is more difficult to occur than the way that customers buy products
regularly at a shop or than repurchasing behavior.
Jacoby & Chestnut (1978) stated that the brand name with long term profit
cannot be determined by the number of one time purchaser, but rather the number
of regular purchasers. Therefore, loyalty can sufficiently define the ultimate goal of
organizations and it is the important characteristic that the entrepreneur has to
keep.
Lau (1999) noted that marketing experts have interests in the concepts of loyalty
because the loyalty in the brand name can attract customers well. In addition, the brand
name is useful for repurchasing or service reuse or dissemination. Brand name
administration is therefore important to create loyalty.
Assael (1995) notified that loyalty in the brand name created by good
attitude to the brand name of the customer will result in the repurchasing for many
times because the customers have learned about the brand name product which
serve customers’ need and make customers satisfied.
In conclusion, loyalty is important to long term profit of service business.
Therefore, marketing personnel should plan marketing strategy to focus mainly on
customers with loyalty because customers with loyalty have increasing purchasing
quantity from good attitude to the brand name which increase sales and keep
market share from the competitors.
2.1.5 Measuring the Antecedents of Service Loyalty
11
Oliver (1999: 33-34) stated that for measuring of loyalty for each
component, it is necessary to assign the limit according to customers’ attitude to
products or services. The evaluation of attitude level consists of 3 steps linking to
deep evaluation of loyalty including: (1) satisfaction to the components of the
brand name which means beliefs (2) the satisfaction with the product which means
attitude and (3) the full intention to buy everything about the product which mean
conation. Therefore the attitude about loyalty is the link between the research of
Attitudinal Loyalty which is widely accepted and Behavioral Loyalty.
Backman 1988 suggested the measurement of loyalty by integrating both
behavioral and attitudinal dimension on the basis of Behavioral Consistency and
Psychological Attachment by classifying components of Loyalty Paradigm into 4
groups as follows:
1. Low Loyalty with low consistency in both Behavioral Consistency and
Psychological Attachment
2. Latent Loyalty with low consistency in Behavioral Consistency but high
in Psychological Attachment
3. Spurious Consistency with high consistency in Behavioral Consistency but
low in Psychological Attachment
4. High Loyalty with high consistency in both Behavioral Consistency and
Psychological Attachment
Tsai (2004:20) stated that there have been the addition of aspects in the
attitudinal dimension in the observation of the expression in behavioral dimension to
confirm that this is consumer behavior that can truly indicate loyalty and is called
Psychological Commitment in terms of Buying Behavior of customers and can assign the
style of measuring loyalty in the brand name in two ways including: 1) approach to
12
measure behavioral aspect and 2) approach to measure attitudinal aspect. Both approaches
affect brand name loyalty, therefore they can measure the support and repurchasing of
customers. However, for the measurement of
behavioral aspect cannot sufficiently
explain the brand name loyalty of customers because buying behavior can be describe
under the condition of the basis of loyalty and expressed habit only. Consequently,
behavioral measurement is lack of conceptual fundamentals and it shows only consistent
results of
changing process too much. Most questions focus on the answer of the
possibility of behaviors. Business organizations therefore need to understand clearly about
which marketing efforts affect customer buying behaviors. Brand name loyalty therefore
needs to be measured in both behavioral and attitudinal as concluded in Table 1 and 2.
Bourdeau (2005: 17) , Jacoby & Chestnut (1978) stated that loyalty is not only the
measurement of repurchasing or in a short term, but rather needs the measurement in other
dimensions and in the long term. Therefore, the concept of loyalty has extended its
definition which can be classified into 2 dimension including Behavioral and Attitudinal
dimensions. For the study of loyalty in the last 25 years, only frequency and repurchasing
are emphasized. The fact nowadays is that basically most consumers buy products with
the main reason of convenience or happenstance only. The important point is that the
buying behavior is concealed under the brand name truly satisfaction. In addition,
consumers might have Multi-brand Loyalty in the same type of products or there might be
no leading brand in mind. The data therefore need to be studied by classification for
comparison and then are assumed to be loyalty.
Business organizations can apply previous study results involving consumer
attitude and behavior to increase the number of loyal customers. The results have also
become essential to the study of service loyalty. It has been widely accepted that customer
behavior can become the antecedent to determine loyalty. Others paid attention to other
13
antecedents to test the outcomes of loyalty including (1) the intention to repurchase
(Bolton & Lemon 1999; Zeithaml, 1996) (2) the intention to change low level brand name
(Keavenly, 1995) (3) Better favor level for products (Dick & Basu, 1994) (4) Positive
suggestion or introduction (Dick & Basu, 1994; Rust & Zahorik 1993; Zeithaml, 1996) (5)
Special consideration (Grembler & Brown, 1996) (6) committed buying (White &
Schneider, 2000) (7) Identification only those familiar (Butcher, 2001) and (8) Fashion of
paying more to get good service (Anderson, 1996; Zeithaml, 1996). It can be seen that
researchers have increasingly studied the antecedents to loyalty to classify the loyalty
level in customers. The results can be appilies to measure the impact of loyalty in various
level to the organizations of service business (Narayandas, 1998; Pattterson & Ward,
2000; White & Schneider, 2000).
2.1.6 Previous Research on Antecedents of Customer Loyalty
Customer loyalty has been a major of strategic marketing planning (Kotler, 1984)
and focus on an important basis for developing a sustainable competitive advantage that
can be realized through marketing efforts (Dick and Basu, 1994). The study on loyalty
has largely measurement issue to performance of customer returning. For example, Ching
and Quester (2006) studied about loyalty for modelling store that customers’ perceptions
on their attitude (customer satisfaction) and behavior (customer loyalty) provide impact to
service performance. Moreover, customer loyalty is valuable for the service marketing, it
is generally much cheaper to maintain existing customers than to attract a new customer
(Reicheld and Sasser, (1990). Thus, the loyalty can be considered reasonably competitive.
The summary to the dimension can be viewed as shown in Table 2.3
14
Table 2.3: Summary of loyalty dimension from selected previous studies.
Researcher
Mittal and
Year
1998
Lasser
Lee et. al
Keininghan et.
al.
2001
2007
IV
Respondent
Service quality and
Health care services
satisfaction
and car repair services
Overall satisfaction, price,
Telecommunications
DV
Loyalty
Finding
Statistic
Service quality is
Discriminate
significant to loyalty
Coefficient
Core service
ANOVA,
overall core service, overall
significant to loyalty
Regression,
value-added services,
Switching cost
Residual, R2
switching cost
significant to loyalty
Loyalty
Customer satisfaction,
Retail banking, mass-
Customer loyalty
Share-of-wallet
customer expectation,
merchant retail, and
(attitude,
significant to loyalty
customer value (worth what
Internet service
intention,
with recommend
paid for), Brand preference,
recommend-
Customer
repurchase insertion,
retention)
satisfaction
repurchase intention,
significant to loyalty
customer retention,
with retention
Regression
15
Table 2.3: Summary of loyalty dimension from selected previous studies.
Researcher
Year
IV
Respondent
DV
Finding
share-of-wallet
Customer value
customer
significant to loyalty
recommendations,
with retention
Statistic
trend in
spending
Zins
2001
Service
quality, Airline
perceive value,
attitude, customer
passenger
Customer
All four factors are
t-test,
loyalty
significant to loyalty
AMOS
3.6
satisfaction
16
Table 2.3: Summary of loyalty dimension from selected previous studies.
Researcher
Luh, Ding-Bang
Year
2003
IV
Respondent
Product and
Graduate Student
DV
Loyalty
service
Finding
Statistic
Most test Subjects are essentially
Description deep
“rationalists” eight of the 14 test
interviews
subjects can be categorized as
qualitative
“prudentialists” three as “hedonists” one
analysis
as opotimist and one as “pessimist”
Lee et.al.
2005
Percieved
Company in the
Value
chemical industry
satisfaction
Loyalty
Structured Neural Network (SNN)
Structural
technique for modeling loyalty and
Equation Models
profitability take into account the
(SEM), Partial
potential nonlinear and asymmetric
Least Square
relationships as opposed to traditional
(PLS), Structured
techniques.
Naural Network
(SNN)
17
Table 2.3: Summary of loyalty dimension from selected previous studies.
Researcher
Salegna. et. al
Year
2005
IV
Service
Respondent
Customer
DV
Loyalty
Finding
Statistic
Loyalty is defined as a
A 9conceptual
quality,
multidimensional construct of
model of the
Satisfaction
behavior, attitude and emotions. The
relationships
linkages which may have impotant
among the
implication for increasing brand
constructs of
loyalty need to be further
service loyalty.
researched.
Bourdeau et .al.
2005
Congnitive,
Customer
Loyalty
Congnitive,
Structural
Affective,
Affective,
Equation
Connative,
Connative, and
Models (SEM),
Action
Action relationships Loyalty
LISREL
18
Table 2.3: Summary of loyalty dimension from selected previous studies.
Researcher
Booker et.al.
Year
2005
IV
Satisfaction
Respondent
Student with
DV
Loyalty
Finding
Statistic
The combinations of online course
Reviewing
higher education
material, teacher quality and general
survey results
at University of
online access quality are the major
and student
Arizona
factors that discouraged student from
demographics
completing the course or enrolling in
another course.
Parasuraman
et.al
2005
Efficiency, System
Customers
Quality,
Four factor score measures have
E-S-QUAL
availability, Fulfillment,
Value,
significant positive effects on the
and E-Recs-
Privacy
Loyalty
three dependent measures in both
QUAL
sample. Highly positive feeling about
the instructor/student
19
Table 2.3: Summary of loyalty dimension from selected previous studies.
Researcher
Stone
Year
2006
IV
Satisfaction
Respondent
Graduate
DV
Loyalty
Students
Finding
Statistic
Relationship and Student satisfaction
M and R
and relationship development in the
values
VTC class environment were found
to be related to one another
Oliveira et.al
2007
Service quality
Customers of
e-backing service
Loyalty
The reliabilities of both the quality
Structural
contruct and the loyalty construct
Equation
were found to be above the
Modeling
commonly accepted threshold value
(SEM), Spss.
of 0.70
20
21
As the results present in Table 2.3, Mittal and Lasser (1998) found that
technical quality played a more significant role in creating loyalty than functional
quality. When loyalty dimensions viewed as predictors for quality service, reliability
is more influential than responsiveness/ empathy/ assurance. In SERVQUAL, reliability
can be deemed to represent “technical quality” whereas the responsiveness, assurance,
and empathy dimensions reflect “functional quality”. Although Kandampully and
Suhartanto (2000) indicated in hotel study that hotel image and customer satisfaction
with housekeeping are the most important factors to customer consideration in
decision to repurchase, recommend and loyalty, price is also an important factor in
determining to customer’s intention to repurchase.
The result from Lee et. al (2001) identify switching costs plays a significant
factor in satisfaction-loyalty , for the economy and standard groups switching costs
do not affect loyalty. Customer in these groups can be regarded of either true
loyalists or hostages depending on their satisfaction level. Moreover, Keininghan et.
al (2007) discuss that customers’ loyalty based on behaviors are multidimensional. In
particular, attitudes and intention associated with customer loyalty differ in the
strength of association to various customer behaviors.
Zins (2001) suggested that the influence of loyalty relies on satisfaction and
quality perceptions are complete. The loyalty, quality has a stronger effect on
corporate image and image , in turn, a strong direct effect on future loyalty.
Luh, Ding-Bang (2003) explores product design strategies to manage customer
loyalty. It is found that, in highly competing business environments , maintaining existing
markets should be equally important as developing new markets. In addition, product
designers should take customer loyalty elements into account in their design works.
22
Lee et.al. (2005) develops a new technique namely struchered neural network
(SNN) technique for modeling loyalty and profitability, and demonstrates an application
for a chemical company.
Selegna et.al. (2005) took multidimensional construct to define loyalty to consist
of behavior, attitude and emotions. They also proposed that linkages among relationship
involvement, emotional commitment and service loyalty may have important implication
for increasing loyalty.
Booker et.al. (2005) studied several factors affecting students satisfaction and
retention and indicated that certain combinations of online course material, teacher
quality and general online access quality are the major factors that discouraged students.
Parasuraman et.a. (2005) made use of the means end framework as a theoretical
foundation to conclude that efficiency, the system availability, privacy, and the perceptual
attributes contain implied service aspects of the service quality.
Store (2006) explored student perceptions of counselor education courses taught at
a distance using video teleconferencing (VTC) and found that student satisfaction and
relationship development the VTC class environment relate to one another.
Oliveira et. al. (2007) employed structural equation modeling to investigate and
find strong link between web site quality and customer loyalty which is considered to
hold in e-service siftings as well.
In conclusion, four main factors found to determine the loyalty include product
and service, service quality, perceived value and satisfaction.
23
2.2 The Underpinning of the Service Quality
2.2.1 Definition of Service Quality
Service quality is seen as a subjective measure of the difference between
what the customer expects, and what they perceived they have received during the
service encounter. This has been explored as two separate, yet connected,
approaches to measuring services quality – the services gap model (Zeithaml et al,
and the SERVQUAL service quality measurement instruments (Zeithaml et al,
1985.).
Grosby (1979) defines “quality” as “quality is an elusive and indistinct
construct. It has been often mistaken for imprecise adjectives like goodness, or
luxury, or shininess, or weight ”. Besides, quality requirements are not easily articulated
by consumers (Takeuchi and Quelch,1983).
Garvin (1983) measured quality by counting the incidence of “internal” failures
(those observed
before a product leaves the factory) and “external” failures (those
incurred in the field after a unit has been installed)
Parasuraman et.al., (1985) mentioned that services , especially those with a high
labor contant, are heterogeneous issues with their performance often varying from
product
to
producer, from
customer
to
customer, and from day to day. Thus
consistency of behaviors from service personnel (i.e., uniform quality) is difficult to
guarantee (Booms and Bitner,1981). This can be the case because what the firm intends
to deliver might entirely be different from what the customer has expected and received.
SERVQUAL is a multi-item scale developed to assess customer perceptions of
service quality in service and retail businesses (Parasuraman et.al., 1988). The scale
decomposes the notion of service quality into five constructs as follows:
24
1) Tangibles – physical facilities, equipment, staff appearance, etc.
2) Reliability – ability to perform service dependably and accurately
3) Responsiveness – willingness to help and respond to customer need
4) Assurance – ability of staff to inspire confidence and trust
5) Empathy – the extent to which caring individualized service is given
SERVQUAL represents service quality as the discrepancy between a customer’s
expectations for a service offering and the customer’s perceptions of the service received,
requiring respondents to answer questions about both their expectations and their
perceptions (Parasuraman et. al., 1998). The use of perceived as opposed to actual
service received makes the SERVQUAL measure an attitude measure that is related to,
but not the same as, satisfaction (Parasuraman et. al., 1998). Parasuraman et. al., (1991)
presented some revisions to the original SERVQUAL measure to remedy problems with
high means and standard deviations found on some questions and to obtain a direct
measure of the importance of each construct to the customer.
Roest and Pieters (1997) proposed that “perceived service quality should be
performed stictly as a relativistic (not absolute), cognitive (not affective), product
related (not sacrifices)”
2.2.2 The Previous Conceptualizations of Service Quality
In 1970s the conviction suggested by Levitt (1972) stating that people in
service supported the thinking of the traditionalist’s way in marketing theory
specifying that goods and services should not be different. There are not special
efforts for the development of service oriented theories; models and conception
25
during this time period. Services marketing had confidence in the theory of traditional
consumer goods marketing.
In the present time, the marketing specialist expresses that service marketing
constructs and theories are different from the ones typically used by manufacturers
of consumer goods (Vandamme and Leunis 1993). For instance, earlier researchers
on service oriented theories Zeitham (1981); Gronroos (1983) and Parasuraman et.al.,
(1985) believe that grasping the meaning of the quality constructs used in the
consumer goods area may not be sufficient to apply the service quality concept of
four
well-known
characteristics of service quality; namely, intangibility, variability
/heterogeneity, inseparability / interrelatedness and perishability. However, the marketing
of service is unobtrusive making response problematic (Kyj 1987).
Firstly, services performance cannot be seen, felt, counted, touched or measured
before consumption, and consequently, its demand is often difficult for customers to
manage the basic service in their mind (Rushton and Carson 1989; Zeithaml and
Bitner 2003).
Secondly, services are frequently performed by people who deliver the
service, the actual heterogeneity connected between employees and customers. An
additional quality in service depends on willingness of persons and what they need.
The main result depends on the level of demand in the services and a third party
(suppliers) because the service provider cannot really know in what manner the service
is planned, delivered and promoted, and it cannot be controlled by service managers
(Zeithaml and Bitner, 2003).
Thirdly , the characteristic of service is integrated with a different tangible
product which is associated. Most of consumption services that are sold for the first time
can lead to the repeated purchase. Similarly, the service providers are playing an active
26
role as part of the product itself and provided service with good quality. However,
the customers’ judgment on a service quality will highly depend on how the employees
deal with the customer (Lovelock,1983).
Finally, Perishability related to the service that cannot be retained and altered,
both are of intangible and inseperable characteristics (Rushton and Carson, 1989;
Kasper and Lemmink,1989). An inappropriate incidence of this service can cause
the consumers’ dissatisfaction.
2.2.3 Service Quality Theory
The conceptualization of service quality can be divided into three underlying
themes.
Figure 2.3 : The determinants of Service Quality
Determinant Of
Service Quality
Word Of
Mouth
Personal
Needs
Past
Experience
1.Access
2. Communication
3.Competence
Expected
service
Perceived
Service
Quality
4. Courtesy
5.Credibility
6. Reliability
7. Responsiveness
8. Security
9. Tangibles
Source
: Parasuraman et.al.,(1985)
10. Understanding
Knowing the
Customer
Perceived
Service
27
Figure 2.3 described the determinants of service quality that is the result of
the customer’s comparison to expected service with service quality. The relative
mains of the 10 determinants influence the customer expectation in service (prior to
service delivery) and differ from customer perceives of the deliver service that
supported in the perceived service quality. There are also 3 indicators of expected
service including word of mouth, personal need and past experience. The positive
feedback will provide good expected service leading to perceive service quality.
In this study it is inevitable to mention the theory of service quality which
can be grouped and discussed as follows.
First, service
quality
perception results from a comparison of consumer
expectations with actual service performance (Parasuraman et.al, 1985). Garvin (1983)
measures quality by counting the incidence of “internal” failures (those observed
before a product leaves the factory) and “external” failures (those incurred in the field
after a unit has been installed). Lewis and Booms (1983) concerned that “service quality
is a measure of how well the service level delivered matches customer expectations.
Delivering quality service means confirming to customer expectations on a consistent
basis”. Service quality has been discussed so far in this study. Furthermore, Gronroos
(1982) develops a model in which customers compare the service they expect with
perceptions of the service they receive then evaluate service quality.
On the other hand, satisfaction with services can be related to confirmation or is
confirmation of quality expectations (Smith et.al.,1982). Moreover, Churchill and
Suprenaut (1982) claimed that satisfaction relates to the size and direction of the
disconfirmation experience which disconfirmation is related to the person’s initial
expectations.
28
Parasuraman et.al., (1985) agreed that service quality as perceived by the
customers is an overall evaluation similar to an attitude. Oliver (1981) summarized the
transaction-specific nature of satisfaction and compared it to attitude as follows; “attitude
is the consumer’s relative enduring affective orientation for a product, store¸ or process
(e.g. customer service) while satisfaction
is
the emotional
reaction
following
a
disconfirmation experience which acts on the base attitude level and is consumption.
Attitude is, therefore, measured in terms more general to product or store and is less
situationally oriented” (p.42). Therefore, service quality is defined as the result of a
comparison of expectations with perceived service performance (Vandamme
and
Leunis, 1993).
The second, service quality involves outcomes and processes. Sasser et al.,(1978)
suggested three different kinds of service performance: levels of material, facilities, and
personnel. What implied in this situation is the notion that service quality involves
more than outcome. It also includes the manner in which service is delivered. This
notion is supported in other researchers on service quality as well, such as Gronroos
(1982) who mentioned that two types of service quality exist: technical quality (involves
what the consumer is actually receiving from the service), and functional quality (which
involves the manner in which the service is delivered).
According to Lehtinen and Laitamaki, (1985), there are three dimensions of
service quality: physical quality (e.g. physical environment, equipment, intermediate and
final good consumed during the service-delivery process and the service outcome),
interactive quality (as a result of the buyer-seller interactions as well as the interactions
among customer), corporate quality (involves the company’s image or profile). Lehtinen
and Lehtinen, (1982) also differentiate the quality associated with the process of service
delivery and the quality associated with the outcome of the service.
29
This position is also the same spirit, Gronroos (1983) expects the firm’s
corporate image to be part of the service quality construct that affected by the
technical and functional quality offered, and can have a strong impact on the
expectations of customers. Moreover, the firm’s image can play a compromising role
(positive or negative) if expectations are not matched with the perceived service.
Another concept is shown in Figure 2.4. The service quality model was
altered by Parasuraman el . at. In 1988 to regroup the determinants of service
quality to assess service quality from 10 dimensions to 5 dimensions.
Figure 2.4 : Service quality Model : Parasuraman
Tangible
Reliability
Responsiveness
Assurance
Service quality
Empathy
Source: Parasuraman et.al., (1988)
One conceptual frame of service quality defines service quality as the
Technical/ Functional quality perspective (Arora and Stoner, 1996). As originally
conceptualize by Gronroos (1983) stating that technical quality involves what is
provided, and functional quality considers how it is provided. In addition, technical
quality might include the quality and effectiveness of diagnosis and medical
procedures at hospitals although functional quality comprises involved in the delivery
of service products.
30
On the other hand, Baker and Lamb (1993) advised that, for evaluative
purposes, customers tend to rely primarily on functional-based dimensions of
service quality, as they may not have the knowledge and skill to evaluate more
technicatbased dimensions. Lassar et.al.,(2000) suggested that the process element of
service quality (i.e. functional quality) has the positive effect of functional service
quality on satisfaction to satisfaction intensified. When the technical quality (what is
actually delivered) is fairly stable, the customers are able to devote more attention to
how the service is delivered.
In Figure 2.5, service quality model shows the relation of Technical quality
with the values of Reliability and Tangibity, whereas Functional quality consists of
Responsiveness, Assurance
and
Empathy, all of which have relationship with
satisfaction as a medium to build the customer’s loyalty in the future.
Figure 2.5 : Service quality Model : Mittal and Lasar
Technical Quality
- Reliability
- Tangibility
satisfaction
Functional Quality
- Responsiveness
- Assurance
- Empathy
Source: Mittal and Lasar (1998)
All three kinds of Models were also employed in the study.
Loyalty
31
2.2.4 The measurement of the antecedents of service quality
Zeithaml;et al. (1990 : 25) stated that due to the fact that quality is the direct
service following customer expectation, service quality depends on the yield that the
customers get from the service and the process to obtain those yields. Research revealed
that customers have criteria to evaluate service quality with 10 factors as follows:
1. Reliability in the standard of quality service involves the outcomes and the
readiness to service regularly and continuously. In other words, organizations need to
serve appropriately since the start and organizations need to keep promise to customers
such as the correct billing, the correct data collection and the timely service, etc.
2. Response involves the willingness and readiness to service of officers and
involves prompt service such as sending the owner transfer immediately, quick calling
back to customers and quick service.
3. Service with capability means having skills and knowledge to do the service
work as the way it should be such as knowledge and proficiency of the those who have to
contact customers, knowledge and proficiency of those who support service work, etc.
4. Access involves various contacts that can be done easily and smoothly such as
the time to get the service is not too long, opening/closing time to facilitate customers,
and convenient places to get service.
5. Friendliness involves politeness, honor, care about customers’ feelings,
friendship from the contact with service officers. Such as taking care and thinking about
customers’ property, friendliness of service officers, care and compassion, etc.
6. Communication means eager to provide data to customers with languages that
customers can understand as well as willing to listen to customers’ opinions. This can
mean that organizations need to adjust languages to different types of customers such as
the implementation of deeper and more complicated knowledge level when contacting
32
with customers who are knowledgeable about the service and the use of the language that
is easy to understand, etc. In addition, this concerns the explanation of the details of
service methods, the description of the payment for that service, the way to make
customers confident that their need are served, etc.
7. Reliability about worthiness, trustfulness and honesty relates to the
consideration of greatest benefits for customers, facilitation to create reliability such as
organization reputation, personality of those contacting customers and honesty of service
provider, etc.
8. Safety means being safe from danger, risks or doubtfulness involving physical
safety, financial security and secret keeping, etc.
9. Real understanding and knowing customers involve the effort to understand the
customer needs such as investigating customer expectation and needs, care and attention
to individual customers and recognition for regular customers, etc.
10. Concrete service is the only factor that the customer can touch of all that they
use to evaluate service quality such as facility, exterior decoration, clothing of service
provider, tools and equipment to use in the service, physical service agent and
characteristics and behavior of other customers who get the service simultaneously at the
service place.
From the aforementioned research, it is found that there is high inter-relationship.
Therefore, they are combined to obtain only 5 factors in the evaluation of service quality.
For the part of service quality that can relate to loyalty outcome (behavior), there
have been apparent evidences (Athanassopoulos, 2000; Anderson & Sullivan, 1993;
Boulding et al, 1993; Harris & Goode, 2004; Parasuraman; Zeithaml & Berry, 1988;
Parasuraman, Berry & Zeithaml, 1991; Taylor, 1997; Taylor & Baker, 1994; Zeithaml,
Berry & Parasuraman, 1996). Parasuraman, Zeithaml & Berry, 1988, 1991) indicated that
33
service quality and willingness to suggest the service business to others relate positively.
Boulding et al (1993) found also that quality and advocate are related which ha s the
characteristic of positive relationship between quality and repurchasing intention. For
this, Zeithaml, Berry and Parasuraman (1996) studied the outcomes of service quality and
spefied that positive link occurs from service quality to suggestion, loyalty, increasing
buying quantity, and willingness to pay with price premium. Moreover, Bitner (1990)
specified the cause of service quality to give impact on behavioral intention as well.
In summary, the measurement of the antecedents of service quality occur from the
measurement of perception of customers after getting service, taking 5 aspects into
consideration, namely: (1) concrete service which means the characteristics of physical
facilitations that are touchable (2) reliability in the standard of service quality meaning
then ability to service as promise reliably (3) Response means willingness to help
customers promptly and quickly (4) Confidence means that service officers must have
knowledge, skills, ability, honesty and respectfulness which lead to reliability and
trustfulness and (5) Understanding and sympathy means taking care and paying attention
individually that organizations provide to customers. Therefore, from the aforementioned
studies of the measurement of antecedents for service quality can be applied to create the
criteria for questionnaire and service quality model for this research.
2.2.5 Previous Studies on Service Quality
The literature on service quality dimensions have also influenced the quality
service. Zeithaml et al.(1990) identified the service quality as a construct of unique to
service in the inseparable variable and intangible characteristics. Service quality is
defined as an increasing key factor in different services and builds competitive
situations in service businesses (Taner and Antony 2006).
34
Understanding how to evaluate service quality will help the University and
other service quality providers to determine aspects of their service performance.
Taylor and Cronin (1994) reports that the quality concept is a judgment operationally
based on values and perceptions or attitudes.
The real key implication of the study for development of quality measures is most
useful if it is based on the experts’ judgments, specifically for the customers and
practitioners in quality service. There are two main groups of researchers : Parasuraman
and colleagues in the UK. (Johnston, 1995), who proposed ranking of well-known
determinants delivery on service quality.
Parasuraman et.al. (1985) mentioned a list often determinants for service quality:
access, communication, competence, courtesy, credibility, reliability, responsiveness,
security, understanding and tangibility. Berry et.al. (1985) found that there is a high
degree of correlation between communication, competence, courtesy, credibility and
security. A combination of access and understanding results in two broad dimensions,
namely, assurance and empathy.
Then they proposed a basic five consolidated
dimensions: tangibles, reliability responsiveness, assurance and empathy, which are used
as
a
measurement
instrument
in
service
quality
(Parasuraman
et.al.,1988;
Zeithamlet.al.,1996). Although, the service quality (SERVQUAL) instrument concerns
the relative weight scale regardless of reliability whereas the most critical dimension is
based on responsiveness, assurance and empathy, whereas, the tangibility is not a quality
dimension but an element of the service itself. Parasuraman et.al. (1988) Did not identify
a situation between the effect of the dimensions in terms of satisfaction and
dissatisfaction.
Similarly, Johnston et.al.(1990) supported Parasuraman et.al.’s opinion (1988) on
the service quality determinants.
However, after their trial test, they classify the
35
determinants of service quality into eighteen factors namely access, aesthetics,
attentiveness/ helpfulness, availability, care, cleanliness/ tidiness, comfort, commitment,
communication, competence, courtesy, flexibility, friendliness, functionality, integrity,
reliability, responsiveness and security. (Johnston, 1995).
Since many of the service quality determinants are clearly explained, the service
providers should improve their understanding on what most important determinants to
their customers and how to satisfy them. Thus, the main point for this study is to
investigate the determinants of service quality, which can necessarily distinguish between
the effect in terms of satisfaction or dissatisfaction.
2.2.6 Service Quality and university services
2.2.6.1 Service Quality
The application of university services is based on the traditional views.
For example, Armistead (1990) divided the dimensions of SERVQUAL into “firm” and
“soft” elements. The firm one is defined as time including (availability, waiting time and
responsiveness), fault freeness (including physical items, information and advice) and
flexibility-ability to alter mistakes in customizing the customers or add additional
services), meanwhile the soft dimension consists of a style (attitude of staff, accessibility
of staff, and ambience), steering (the degree to which customers control their own
destiny) and safety (including trust, security and confidentiality).
It has also been commented that service organizations make misassumptions
about the importance of the customer, only after discovery the differences between the
customers’ expectations and that of the organizational assumption (Lam 1997).
“Relationship quality has been defined as the degree of appropriateness of a
relationship to fulfill the needs of the customer” (Henning-Thurau and klee, 1997 p.751).
36
In addition, Roberts et.al., (2003) define relationship quality as a distinct variable from
service quality, which is also a better predictor for customer’ insertion than service
quality.
Besides, relationship quality refers to customer’s perceptions of how well all
expectations, goals, predictions and desires can attract customers satisfaction (Jarvelin
and Lehtinen 1996)
The concept of a relationship orientation in quality is also highly subjective
and presented with the lack of a clear definition. Thus, it may be useful to explore the
various of address in their impact on the overall quality of a relationship (Wong and
Sohal 2002). It is a certain interaction that people perceived a relationship with the same
interaction and several other factors. Berry (1983) identifies three situations that should
relate to relationship; they are: 1) when the customer must periodically desire for the
reception in service interface as “professional relations” and “social relations”. Wong
and Sohal (2002) mentioned that “the former relationship is grounded on the service
provider’s demonstration of competence; while the latter is based on the efficacy of the
service provider’s social interaction with the customer.” The high degree in relationship
quality can increase the customer satisfaction and loyalty for university quality in future.
Furthermore, quality assessment, suggested by Donabedian (1988) is defines
that student satisfaction should be considered as one of the desired outcome of care…
student satisfaction should be as indispensable to assessments of quality as to the design
and management of university service systems.
It is, therefore, obvious that the service quality is an important factor to keep
a successful long-term relationship between buyer’s perceptions and satisfaction and
service providers.
customer loyalty.
This can benefit for university service providers to maintain the
37
It is, herefore, not too surprising to realize that university providers try their
best to study the student needs to keep the good service quality. Thus, the measuring
instruments are used to measure the student’ expections and the satisfaction for quality of
university services provided. The summary of the dimensions is presented in Table 2.4
2.2.6.2 University Service
1) What are the differences between education and industry ?
Education
differs
from
the
manufacturing
sector
in
four
ways:
objectives, processes, inputs and outputs. For manufacturing firms, profit is the
commonly used indicator for measuring effectiveness. However, the objectives for
education are not so simple. According to Tribus (1994), the objective of every
school should be to provide for each student opportunities to develop in four
categories; these are “Knowledge - which enables us to understand; know-how-which
enables us to do; wisdom-which enables us to set priorities; and character-which
enables us to set priorities; to cooperate, to persevere, and to become respected
and trusted members of society”. Therefore, the mission of education is relatively
long term and there is no single indicator, such as profit, which can reflect the
effective
ness
of
achieving
these
objectives.
Without
precise
and
specific
objectives, if is difficult, if not impossible, to measure effectiveness.
Teaching and learning processes are not the same as assembly lines.
They are interactive processes between teachers and students, and therefore the
procedures in the processes cannot by present in a step-by-step format as those
for an assembly line. Moreover, both of the parties are subject to different motives
and objectives, emotional fluctuations, as well as individual styles of interpersonal
skills.
38
Therefore, there cannot be any specifications as regards the standardized
codes of practice in learning and teaching. In more complicating way, the behaviour of
one party is often responding to the act of the counterpart. Thus, there cannot be a stepwise instruction for the teaching process in classrooms.
As far as inputs are concerned, those of educational settings are
subject to enormous variability. Unlike factories, schools cannot control the quality
of incoming materials (students), which adds to the difficulty of controlling the
quality of outputs. Although some sort of entrance requirements can be imposed on
the applicants, colleges are confronted with increasing difficulties in drastic increase
in the number of college places in recent years. Moreover, the quality standard of
students is not as precise as those of materials. The pre-admission academic
performance in public examinations and the demographic characteristics are the
only information available to college admission officers when the admission
decision has to be made. There are other factors, such as the attitudes of students
towards learning, their learning strategies and interpersonal skills, which are not
readily assessable. Although admission interviews are widely used by many
colleges, their effectiveness is questionable. Students are human beings whose
performance
is
expected
to
vary
under
different
situations,
and
thus the
measurement of human behaviors cannot be subjected to a precise scale. This
factor complicates the difficulty of measuring the quality of incoming students.
Likewise, it is difficult to define a certain quality standard for the
output. For manufacturing firms. Quality outputs are hose which can satisfy the
requirements of the customers. In education. There are many customers. the
students themselves, the parents, the teachers, the school management, the potential
employers and society in general. Whose interest should be the first priority if
39
there are conflicts between their interests? Are students, being participants and
“customers” in the foremost position to determine what is the best for themselves?
In fact, would they know what is the best in the first be produced in education?
Can they achieve perfect standard ? These are just some of many questions that
must be addressed before defining the quality of the outputs. It is very difficult to
define any perfect standard in education. School curriculum is only one of the
many factors that shape the personality, behaviour and academic achievement of a
student even if these three dimensions are accepted as the criteria for measuring
the performance of a student in general. Family education and the societal impact
also play an important role. Thus, the performance of a student is the only
indicator of the teaching process.
The evaluation of student performance is also a problem. What should
the educators award?
Should they
award the relative progression in students’
learning or the absolute learning outcome only? In other words, should they award
more to those sub-standard students who manage to jump from Grade F to Grade
C or those who achieve Grade A with minimal effort? Recalling Deming’s words
that “when there is a problem, 85 percent of the time it will be with the workers”
(Deming, W.E. 1986, p. 23), if one is to believe in him, then one is faced with
that frightening prospect that it is not the case, then one has to admit that it is
not the case, then one has to Given the complexity of the learning and teaching
environment, this allegation is not fair to the teachers.
2) Service characteristics in education
Rushton and Carson (1991,p.14) pointed out that there are varying
degrees of intangibility, with education being: right at the “intangible” end of the
40
spectrum, with few if any tangible products normally provided as part of the
service.
Intangibility makes it difficult for potential clients to assess the quality
of a service, except by looking at the tangible elements associated with it, whether
it be the tidiness and emptiness of dustbins in refuse collection or examination
results and student behaviour in schools. Lovelock (1988) pointed to the
importance in service industries of the customer service function to ensure that
customers’ needs and expectations were met effectively.
One of the major purposes of marketing, therefore, is to explain to
potential clients the services of products they are about to purchase, as well as
trying to persuade them to buy a particular brand. Marketing functions include
customer education as well as sales. Schools, for example, can explain what
opportunities are offered to students, such as how and what they are taught. Gray
(1991) thought that the preparation and promotion of an institution’s mission
statement, the use of a logo, and careful public relations would help parents and
students to identify the particular service offered. Pardey (1991) such as evaluation
of the environments within which a service is provided-how, for example visitors
to a school are welcomed-help clients to evaluate the quality of service they
receive.
The provision of services tends to be a heterogeneous process. To
some extent the quality of provision depends on the personal kills and attributes of
each provider within and organization who is in contact with the clients.
Homogeneity of service, unlike that of goods on a production line, is difficult to
achieve since the people involved, providers and clients, are all different. Teaching
as a craft is dependent on teachers’ interpersonal skills and the social interactions
41
of groups of students. Even if a curriculum is prescribed. As it has been in state
schools in England and Wales since 1988. how staff teach and how students
respond to their pedagogy will vary.
Schools, like other services provide something which is perishable and
which,
in
its
creation,
is
largely
inseparable
from
the
interactions
of
teacher/providers and student/clients. The process of education is perishable
because it is “consumed” at least partially at the point of delivery. In education, a
lesson missed by an absent student cannot be recreated identically, although its
content may be conveyed. Linked to this perishability is inseparability : teaching
and learning are inextricably intertwined” To complicate matters further, students
usually interact with one another in complex ways during lessons, helping one
another to learn as well as learning with the teacher. Effectively, students both
produce and consume the educational product, knowledge. Some service industries
turn inseparability to their advantage by featuring the providers as part of the
benefit of the service. Schools can promote the pastoral care, extracurricular
activities and academic qualifications of their staff as valuable features, attractive to
students and the local community.
3) Identifying the client customers of education
In addition to its educative and sales functions, marketing has, perhaps
primarily, a research function. To survive, an industry must identify the needs of
its potential clients and develop products of services which will meet these needs
Blackshaw (1989) at a price which the customers can afford to pay. This appears
to create an ethical minefield for public services: to what extent should the quality
of their provision be geared only to that for which client customers are willing or
able to pay? To what extent should their quality of provision be determined by
42
professional expertise applied altruistically to perceived and identified client /
customer need regardless of the costs involved? To what extent should the price
mechanism, which is theoretically supposed to regulate markets, determine both the
quality of provision and which customers receive what quality of provision?
Furthermore, who precisely are the customers of education?
In education, identifying the customers of clients, i.e. the people who
benefit from it, is problematic. Gray (1991) noted that clients are often long-term
users of such things as the personal services of a lawyer, whereas customers tend
to have brief, one-off contacts with providers when purchasing goods of services.
On this argument schools would seem to have clients rather than customers.
Students and their parents usually work for a long time with the schools which
the students are attending, as well as taking part in the creation of the learning
process. Distinguishing between clients and customers in this way is helpful but
does not address the deeper problems of understanding for whom the education
service is constructed, i.e. to whom it is accountable, even if it is clear to whom
the service of schooling is delivered. It does not assist schools to decide how to
market themselves.
Patch (1992) regarded parents as the consumers of education. Macbeth
(1989) suggested that there are four groups of people who benefit from the
education system:
1. the pupil (who revives instruction);
2. the parent (who delegates authority over the child to the teacher);
3. the owners of a school, whether independent or a state authority,
who employ the staff; and
4. society at large.
43
He defined the first group as “consumers” and the second as “the
school’s prime clients” because in the UK they are legally responsible for the
education of their children until the age of 16 years.
An implication of the preceding paragraph is that schools should
market themselves as much to their pupils and potential pupils as to their pupils’
parents, both being perceived as important client groups. This is an important
perspective which has recently been given support by the work of Ruddock et al.
(1995) who commented on the accuracy and perspicacity of students’ views of
schooling. We would support this contention, regarding students, of whatever age,
as the direct primary clients of education, and deeming the other stakeholders –
parents, employers, society at large – to whom a school also has to market itself,
to its secondary beneficiaries.
Students exercise varying degrees of control over their choice of
educational institutions at different ages. Although most parents select a child’s
primary school, at age 11 0r 12 , children may expect to contribute to the
decision. Webster et al. (1993) found that 69 per school selection thought their
child’s opinions “very important”. Stillman and Maychell (1986) and West et al.
(1995) also found that parents took significant account of their children’s views
before making a final choice. On the other hand, whatever influence children have
over their parents’ perceptions of a school, parents are still the major, if not the
sole, education choice makers for most children during their years of compulsory
schooling. Students are likely to make their own decisions about post-compulsory
education, although “parents are also influential, but may have very different
expectations from those of their off spring”.
44
Ignorance about the consumer’s environment is one of the major
problems facing service industries and education is no exception. Managing this
eternal environment is one of the main challenges of marketing. Marketing helps an
organization to identify how and why its clients choose it and so to act more
effectively
to attract clients to it. Implicit in many marketing processes is the
unproven assumption the clients, given adequate knowledge, will always make
rational choices which maximize their benefits. This presupposes that clients have
a choice, which is not always the case where there is only one school serving a
particular area or parents are unable to afford the alternative (private) schooling, if
it exists. It also assumes that increasing the flow of information to identified
client groups, through school prospectuses, for example, will necessarily increase
the student inflow sufficiently to cover the costs of expenditure on public
relations; again, this assumption is unproven. Indeed, many head teachers point to
the deleterious effect of the costs of elaborate marketing exercises on their budgets
for curriculum provision, one of the criteria by which parents judge the success of
a school.
Although parents generally tend to consider the same broad range of
factors, priorities vary from survey to survey. This indicates the importance of
every institution exploring its own customer base in order to understand its
specific needs and wants. Johnson (1990, p. 28) outlined the main educational
choices which schools can offer parents:
Public or private; “free” or fee-paying; selective or non-selective (by
various criteria); strongly or nominally religious; residential or non-residential
single-sex or coeducational; all-through or age-related; institutional or home-based.
45
For primary schools, the Plowden (1967, p23) Report found that
location, religious ethos, word-of-mouth reports and prior family contacts with a
school were all significant factors affecting choice. Some parents also considered
educational standards and the atmosphere of the school to be important.
When children transfer from primary to secondary school, most parents
make either a child-focused choice, based on the health, ability and temperament
of the child concerned, or a school-focused choice based on criteria such as size,
nature of student-intake (mixed or single-sex), and amenities. Webster et al. (1993)
found that siblings at the same school were the single largest influence on
parental choice. There is evidence that some parents choose secondary schools on
the basis of the subjects/facilities offered by schools and by students’ performance
in academic subjects. Adler and Raab (1988) noted that school attainment was of
sufficient importance to encourage parents to send children considerable distances
to secondary school, usually to schools that were large or that had a selective
intake of students of high socioeconomic status. The enquiries of Johnson (1990,
1987) into parental choice of independent schools echo this.
Social factors also have a major influence on parental choice. Elliott
(1981) found that parents placed great value on the process of education. They
stressed the importance of personal and social development and the happiness of
the children in school. Hanford (1990, p. 4) found that parents valued most “the
hidden basic fundamentalism of schools” with the behaviour of staff and current
students being perceived as the key indicators. Parents’ perceptions of these
behaveiours were mediated by agencies external to the school, such as the
neighbourhood grapevine and parents’ personal experiences of schooling.
46
Negative perceptions of schools by parents damage their ability to
recruit students. West et al. (1993) found parents particularly discouraged by
reports of poor discipline/ behaviour, by a school’s bad reputation, by dislike of
what they saw on a visit or by a school’s location. Both positively and
negatively, the importance of a school’s reputation locally, and the style of the
welcome which is offered to parents, must be seen as major factors in its success
in recruiting students.
4) Marketing for Education
Firms market themselves to attract customers to sell products to earn
money to survive. To market itself effectively an organization not only needs to
communicate with its customers and clients but also to involve all its personnel in the
creation of market strategy. In schools this includes support staff as well as teaching staff.
All need to share ownership of the schools’ vision of what it is aiming to achieve and feel
they have a role to play in future development. In the business world, neither products nor
services are usually marketed across the whole of society different kinds of customer.
Have different wants/needs, which marketing sets out to identify Failure by a firm to
differentiate adequately between the buying behaviour of different customers leads to
poor customer focus and ultimately to the firm’s collapse. The devolution of funding to
main tained schools and colleges in the UK since the late 1980s has presented schools
with the same need to attract and keep student clients. In the independent sector of
schooling this situation has existed for much longer, although demographic, social and
recessionary pressures are prompting independent schools also to reconsider the need for
positive marketing. Notions of consumer choice in education and the attendant view that
more powerful people, at least financially, are more able to gain the service provision
they want, fit in well with the attempts by the UK government to introduce a market into
47
state education in the last 15 years. On the other hand, they lie uncomfortably alongside
notions of social justice and equity of educational provision which have underpinned the
development of the state sector of schooling in the UK for more than a century. This latter
perspective emphasizes an entitlement to education which meets the varying needs of all
people in a community, regardless of their ability to wield influence.
State schools therefore face a dilemma, particularly where only one school
serves a local community: whether they serve the needs of an entire community or
whether they target particular groups of parents in it. Marketing would seem to suggest
the latter. Targeting those who are more influential, for whatever reasons, but this
confronts issues of equity of provision. If a school targets only specific client groups, it is
likely that the needs and wants of those parents and students not targeted will be met less
well than those targeted. In this respect, perhaps, independent schools face less of a
problem than do state schools since they can elect to service a Niche market for particular
parent wants and income brackets. If parents find the provision unsatisfactory they can
withdraw their children from the school.
In competitive arenas, localities where several schools are trying to attract
the same student population, schools may want to attract some parents in preference to
others. They could identify these parent niches in the market by specifics or by
descriptors. Specifics include such items as the rate at which clients purchase services,
the range of products available (in schools this might be the range of courses or
extracurricular activities) and media exposure. Descriptors cover variables such as age
(schools are usually either primary or secondary). gender, geodemographics (social
structure of a school’s catchment area) and people’s preferred lifestyle. Independent
schools have more opportunity than maintained schools in the UK to segment their
markets by these variables. On the other hand, any school wishing to serve the whole
48
community can use the same processes to identify the specific needs of all its potential
client groups, allowing it to differentiate its provision to each of them. It could use such
processes to identify, for example, any disenchanted groups of parents and set out to
make them feel more welcome
5) The seven Ps for satisfied school clients
As in any other industry, schools must first plan where they want to go,
analysing the four Ps- product, place, promotion and price of the original market mix as
well as the other three Ps suggested by Cowell (1984) -- people, process and the physical
evidence of production.
A school’s product is defined by Marland and Rogers (1991, p.9) as “that
created by producing- that is to lead (‘due’) forward (‘pro’). For them product
development is “…the work of the school in establishing what would benefit the pupil
and researching and planning it” and separates delivery, i.e. the actual teaching/tutoring,
from content: what and how it is being taught. They suggested that “product
development” in schools is shorthand for “preparation”: curriculum development,
planning for pastoral care programmes and any other forward planning which utilizes the
skill of the staff. However, school management usually has little control over its place of
production, although Bowles et al. (1989) indicated that it could control the site provision
of rooms and time to courses, while site maintenance and minor repairs have been the
responsibility of most schools in the UK since 1990.
Promotion of an educational institution means ensuring that its work is
understood and appreciated by its primary and secondary beneficiaries as well as by more
distant stakeholders such as central government, further education and higher education,
Devlin and Knight (1990) identified both internal and external markets as recipients of
49
this information, the internal market including an “immediate family” of staff, students
and governors and an ”extended family” of present and relatives, former students and
local traders and service providers to the school. In the external market they identified
feeder schools, community organizations, industry and commerce and local authorities.
Their definitions raise questions about how membership of a school as an organization is
defined.
Price cannot be separated from promotion. Independent schools obviously
offer a commercial service but all schools are cost centres and need to balance their
budgets. Davies and Ellison (1991) pointed out that maintained schools in England and
Wales since 1990 must attract enough students to generate sufficient income to survive,
i.e.to cover their costs. Because at least two-thirds of the running costs of a school are
spent on personne1, the deployment of such resources has to be carefully tailored to meet
identified client need. Stott and Parr (1991, p. 2) perceived that “…the price of education,
in real terms, is more than money”. For students in many maintained schools in the UK
there are, for example, school uniform costs, travel costs and the efforts to gain access. In
independent schools such items are overshadowed by school fees, offset in some cases by
different types of bursary support.
Yet, historically the teaching profession has resisted the implications of the
“commercial” or “price” aspects of education, preferring to implement what it perceive as
educationally desirable practices, regardless of cost. The lack of clear commercial
indicators of effectiveness is a major cause of this problem, although meta-indicators such
as the popularity of a school or of some courses can be used to assess the likelihood that a
school or a particular practice would make a profit were it in a commercial market.
Of the remaining three Ps, schools might be said to have limited control over
the people. Recent education legislation in England and Wales in 1986, 1987 and 1988
50
has given maintained schools quasi-employment powers, powers which independent
schools have had for a long time, but there is extensive employment legislation in the UK
which limits how such powers can be over their central processes of teaching and
learning, partly because of long-established teachers’ professional freedoms in the
classroom, and partly because of the prescription since 1988 by the UK central
government of a National Curriculum. This inhibits schools from adapting the academic
curriculum to the identified needs of the communities which form their markets. It is in
their control of the physical environment, such as the quality and ambience of their
rooms, and of the physical evidence of open or resource-based learning, that schools
have most freedom (34).
6) Is marketing ethical for education?
Teachers are professionals who, as Burgess (1992) pointed out, use their
knowledge and experience to assist their students as clients and who act in accordance
with a set of values so that their conduct towards these clients is both ethical and
professional. Their concerns are usually with the quality of educational experience which
they provide to students and only rarely and reluctantly with the commercial or marketing
aspects of their work. Yet the latter provide crucial constraints on resources which
inevitably affect outcomes.
Debates about the appropriateness of marketing to non-profit-making
organizations are not confined to education. Habgood (1993) questioned the suitability of
marketing methodologies for the purposes of evangelization. However, McIntosh and
McIntosh (1984,p.9) indicated that, although the public often associate marketing with
“slick and, perhaps, underhand professionalism”, marketing was actually an ethical
imperative for charities. It is important to identify beneficiaries’ needs as accurately as
possible to avoid wastage of scarce resources.
51
Marketing is a philosophy of management through which institutions
consider, debate and clarify their underlying principles and purposes to meet the needs of
their clients. Educational marketing requires the identification of student and community
needs and a commitment to meeting those needs with a high quality product (20).
Pardey (1991) suggested that the client-centred nature of marketing made it
ethically acceptable in education, pointing out that values shape the goals and decision
making of any organization. Gray (1991) pointed out that if all staff involved in a school
are trying to improve the quality of service, all must be involved in promoting “ customer
care” and in enhancing levels of “customer” satisfaction. This is, effectively, marketing a
school to its primary beneficiaries, the students, and their parents, even if the staff
concerned are not comfortable with the use of commercial terminology to describe it.
The aspect of marketing which seems to cause most offence in schools is
that which relates to selling. It is thought to be unprofessional, if not unethical, for
professional carers to try to attract custom when their implicit professional codes
emphasize looking after people altruistically. On the other hand, clients and potential
clients may need to know the quality of a school’s product/process and the competence of
its staff if they are to make reasoned choices about how best to meet their own needs.
School prospectuses and open days give parents some basis for informed choices as well
as being means of giving them some account of how well a school is looking after their
children. Perhaps as Gummesson (1981, p. 34) says “…it is not unethical or unworthy to
express the advantages of a service of a professional…as long as the truth is told”.
Because teachers have been reticent in the past about the complexities of their job and
what is involved in performing it, they have suffered the humiliation of seeing a travesty
of their work portrayed in much of the mass-media in the UK in the 1980s, such that the
public could have been led to believe that teaching was an easy job with relatively short
52
hours of work, the problems of which were trivial and relatively easily resolved by harder
work, tougher discipline and more rigorous testing. Would that the problems of schools
were solved so easily!
Marketing is a “management orientation process” (1991,p.48), the
foundation of a school’s management strategy. Its main focus is not on those aspects of an
organization for which teachers seem to have little time – the slick processes of imagemaking and public relations-nor on those in which most of them take little interest –
resource management – although it is concerned with using scarce resources as
effectively as possible to meet the identified needs of an organization’s clients. The main
focus of marketing is on a dialogue between an organization and its clients, a school and
its students and parents, and on how their different needs can be met most effectively,
issues which are at the heart of most teacher’s professional concerns. To meet these needs
requires all staff to be involved in a constant, systematic review of their practice in order
to improve the quality of the service and learning which their school provides. Marketing,
then, is crucial if a school is to develop its vision for its students and maintain the
practices of school improvement.
7) Student satisfaction
There is the theory that links consumer satisfaction with perceived quality,
and these in turn affect corporate profitability (Taylor and Cronin,1994)
Higher
education institutions can ensure that all service encounters are managed to enhance
consumer satisfaction, thereby enhancing perceived quality.
Athiyaman (1997) argues that as “attitude pertains to an overall evaluation
of a product/service (object), it is possible (and logical) to equate one’s attitude toward a
product/service with one’s product/service quality perception (an overall evaluation)”.
53
The student’s expectations following enrolment will be negatively
disconfirmed (if performance is less than anticipated), confirmed (if
performance
matches expectation) or positively disconfirmed (if performance exceeds expectations).
Athiyaman (1997) states that “subjective disconfirmation is the student’s judgment about
the discrepancy between what he/she expects of
the class and what was obtained
(perceived performance)” Negative disconfirmation will result in dissatisfaction with the
class and possible student anger, whereas positive disconfirmation will arouse pleasant
emotion such as excitement, and confirmation will result in non-arousing pleasant
emotion such as contentment.
While it is difficult to measure a student’s satisfaction with all relevant
classes, it is more feasible to explain perceived quality in terms of satisfaction by using a
manageable set of general university characteristics such as lecturers’ teaching ability;
availability of staff; library and computing facilitied; class sizes and student workload.
Athiyaman (1997) draws attention to the results of a survey carried out in a medium-sized
university in Australia,which is based on identifying students’ attitude to these attributes.
The finding not only perceived quality is a consequence of consumer satisfaction, but also
that by using two different pre-enrolment attitude and disconfirmation measure the effect
of perceived quality on behavioural intention is greater than that of satisfaction. The result
also suggests that pre-enrolment attitude has little or on direct effect on post-enrolment
attitude.
A study examining satisfaction with life among 304 international students at
the University of Bergen, Norway found that the majority of student were satisfied and
adapted well to living and studying overseas(Sam,2001) The exception to this finding
involves students from Africa who reported a low level of satisfaction. Although the
study cannot provide a clear explanation for this, it is believed that it may be a result of
54
three main factors-a limited number of friends, insufficient information received prior to
enrolment and perceived discrimination
Howarth (2003) researching into the future of
higher education in
hospitality, with the emphasis on international students, emphasizing the need for good
communications in enhancing teacher/students of mult-cultural and linguistic diversity is
more demanding, due to much wider range of learning preferences which have to be
understood”. Asian students, in particular, will have a cultural preference for teachercentred learning rather than the student-centred approad adopted in the UK.
Lashley (2002) in researched hospitality management students’ preferred
learning styles at Leeds Metropolitan University , found that the UK students registered
high preference for the activist style of learning , Where they learn best by doing and
feeling and talking with others…however, the international students only showed a
marginal preference for activist learning , and this would need to be monitored over time.
Lashley suggests that the challenges for hospitality educators include the need to formally
measure and register enrolling students’ learning style preferences and then adapt their
learning experiences to ensure the Activist learning style needs of student are met. In
addition, strategies need to be developed to help students to reflect and theories. This may
not be necessary in the case of international student but determination of preferred
learning styles might influence their overall satisfaction and perception of
service
quality.
The provision of education and training to international students might be
considered an extension of the human resource function of the industry and in recruiting
appropriate student to UK higher education institution, there is potential recruitment to
the UK hospitality and tourism industry.
55
Delivering service quality is perceived as an important goal for higher
education institutions Not only are international students able to contribute to the
international character of institution but they generate much needed additional revenue
Overseas fee-paying students are a valuable source of income and can often be educated
at marginal cost. Student satisfaction influences perceived quality and in turn affects
profitability. For these reasons, higher education institutions should aim for levels of
student satisfaction.
56
Table 2.4 Summary of service quality in university dimension from selected previous studies.
Researcher
Parasuraman
et al.
Years
1985
IV
Respondent
DV
Finding
Tangibles, Reliability,
Retail
Expected
Expected service
Responsiveness,
banking,credit
service,
>perceived service,
Communication,
card, securities
Perceived
Perceived quality is
Credibility, Security,
brokerage, and
service
Less than satisfaction Expected
Competence, Courtesy,
product repair
quality
Service= perceived
Understanding, access
and maintenance
Statistics
In-depth interview
service,perceived quality is
satisfaction Expected service<
Perceived service, Perceived
quality is more satisfaction
56
57
Table 2.4 Summary of service quality in university dimension from selected previous studies.
Researcher
Palacio et.al
Petruzzellis
et.al
Years
IV
Respondent
2002
Cognitive and affective
6,675 students at
dimensiors of the
university image
2006
Quality of service
DV
Statistics
The overall university image is
Factorial analysis,
a Spanish
more influenced by the affective
Standard regression
university.
component with the critical ratio
weights, the critical
above ± 1.96
ratios.
Satisfaction of services is analyzed
SPSS.
1,147 students in
Satisfaction
Finding
Satisfaction
the twelve
by student percentage and the
faculties of the
mean.
University of Bari
57
58
Table 2.4 Summary of service quality in university dimension from selected previous studies.
Researcher
Russel
Years
2005
IV
Satisfaction
Respondent
Hospitality and tourism
DV
Profitability
Finding
Reputation and programmers
management students of
play important role, with the
Bournemouth University
significant effect equal or less
: 43 Postgraduate and 50
than 0.05
Statistic
SPSS.
undergraduates
Joseph et. Al.
2005
Factors to
450 incoming freshmen
select the
school
Satisfaction
University staff is are of the
Factor
at a small liberal arts
first eight factors, with 60.9
analysis
university located in the
percent of the total variance.
south eastern part of the
USA
58
59
Table 2.4 Summary of service quality in university dimension from selected previous studies.
Researcher
Telford et.al.
Deshields Jr. et al
Years
2005
2005
IV
Respondent
Quality
Interviews and 8 focus
values
DV
Satisfaction
Finding
Statistic
Issues with student
ANOVA
groups of 8-140
satisfaction and
SPSS
representatives each in a
dissatisfaction are listed. Less
large Business School of
than 5 Percent of SPSS and
the Napier University of
20 percent of ANOVA are
Edinburgh, Scotland.
considered less significant.
Key factors
160 undergraduate at a
Satisfaction and
Faculty and classes
ANOVA,
that influence
state university in South
retention
significantly form student
regression
experience
Central Pennsylvania
partial college experience,
analysis
leading to satisfaction;
determined by R ant T self
rated knowledge affect
59
satisfaction.
60
Table 2.4 Summary of service quality in university dimension from selected previous studies.
Researcher Years
Helgesen
2007
et.al.
IV
Respondent
DV
Finding
Student satisfaction
389 Students at
Students’
Service quality, information and
and students
the bachelor level
loyalty
facilities are significant for
perception
of a university
Statistic
SEM
satisfaction, determined by t-values
college in Norway
Douglas
et.al.
2006
Various aspects
865 students at
Student
Aspects associated with teaching and
SPSS and
Liverpool John
satisfaction
learning are the most important,
Quadrant
determined by the percentages
Analysis
Moores
University’s
Faculty of
Business and Law
60
61
According to the result in the table of determinants, the perceived quality has to be
based on expectation and satisfaction. The general comparison of satisfaction with
expectation is suggested in previous studies on service quality (Parasuman et. Al., 1985;
Camilleri and O'Callaghan 1998, Lim and Tang 2000).
Athiyaman (1997) specified the relationship between consumer satisfaction and
perceived quality using a scenario specific to higher education and finds that perceived
quality is an important influence on students’ post enrolment communication behavior.
Palacio et. Al. (2002) adopted a perspective focused towards the image recipients
in the university context and concluded that both of cognitive and affective dimension
influence the forming of the overall image of the university and this, in turn, influences
students’ satisfaction.
Petruzzellis et. Al. (2006) developed questionnaire test student satisfaction of
university performance and find that universities have to improve the quality of both
teaching and non-teaching services.
Russell (2005) studied the service quality perceptions among international
students and finds that the reputation and programmers play significant role.
Joseph et. Al. (2005) investigated factors that students used in making their
school selection and find that the topmost factor is the staff. In addition, although
participating students consider university as satisfactory they do not think their university
a “quality” institution.
Telford et. Al. (2005) tried to find out the congruent of quality values by various
target groups and notice that there is generally no student dissatisfaction on issues where
the stakeholders do not share the same values.
62
Deshields Jr (2005) investigated the determinants of business student satisfaction
and retention in higher education and report to be faculty and classes contributing their
experience.
Nasser et. Al. (2008) experimented student satisfaction related to knowledge of
seines and programs and find that students who assessed their knowledge as higher are
satisfied and senior were less satisfied in general.
Helgesen et. Al. (2007) formed three hypotheses for the relationship between
reputation, loyalty and satisfaction and fend that the findings are supportive.
Douglas et. Al. (2006) surveyed various aspects that might affect student
satisfaction and find that those associated with teaching and kerning are the most
important, determined by the percentage of questionnaire respondents.
It can be concluded that attitude, image, quality of service, service factors,
perception and aspects of activities contribute significantly to satisfaction.
2.3 The underpinning of Customer Satisfaction
2.3.1 Definition of Customer Satisfaction
Satisfaction is generated when the customer’s perceived value meets or exceeds
his/her expected value. Satisfaction advances the relationship to the subsequent stages
through repeated purchases and this serves to enhance the perception of the supplier’s
reliability. Such advances strengthen the positive attitude towards the suppliers (also
defined as trust) and allow the development of the relationship towards loyalty (Bitner
1995; Chaudhuri and Holbrook 2001)
Consistent with Oliver (1999), we define satisfaction as the perception of
pleasurable fulfillment of a service and loyalty as deep commitment to the service
63
provider. Satisfying the end customer is strategically crucial to all channel members
because it is seen as a means to competitive advantage (Day & Nedungadi 1994). Among
is most strategic consequences satisfaction leads to increased customer retention,
decreased price elasticity, lower customer acquisition coasts and lower transaction costs
(Anderson, Fornell, & Lehmann 1994; Lemon, White, & Winer 2002).
Kamakura and Russell (1989) hypothesized that the consumer’s value model has
three elements-price, the bundle of tangible deliverables (product/service attributes) and
the bundle of intangible attributes.
Previous researches have consistently viewed
customer satisfaction as being central to loyalty and improved financial performance
(Anderson, Fornell, & Lehmann 1994). On the other hand, service quality has been found
to be important to consumers who are purchasing products (Doyle, 1987; Shycon, 1992).
Jillian, Geoffrey, and Lester (1997) in dictated that retailers are likely to be able to impact
on service quality more than on product quality, or even price, In order to get a more
clear relationship between loyalty and customer satisfaction, we will take both sides of
the arguments into considerations. Here we focus on the key variables associated with
customer satisfaction: product quality, service quality, and relative price.
We have measured customer satisfaction by a single overall item. This decision
can be justified considering the complexity of the measurement model, the risk of
overlapping among constructs, and the results of the qualitative interviews, during which
customers expressed some difficulties in associating th items proposed in previous studies
(Oliver 1999) to the construct’s facets. Furthermore, in previous studies where a single
item has megasured customer satisfaction it has yielded good results (e.g.:Shankar, Smith
and Rangaswamy 2003).
Satisfaction of customer is likely to retain customer' satisfaction relationship with
the service providers, and it costs a service provider less to keep the old regular customers
64
than approach new customers because they are inclined to re-buy more and help to
acquire new customers through positive word-of -mouth (Reichheld and Sasser, 1990).
Hovland et al.(1957) suggested assimilation theory as originally, specifying that people
dislike to experience discrepancies from their previously held positions or opinions, and
also assimilate their interpretations of events their experiences in the direction of their
previous positions.
A basic of customer satisfaction with a product is likely to lead to repeat
purchases, acceptance of other products in the product line, and favorable word-of-month
(Cardozo, 1965), so it is very helpful to understand customer post-purchase response
focused on the notion of cognitive dissonance (Festinger, 1957).
Day (1980) tried to elaborate an agreement on how to define satisfaction, asserts
that "while everyone knows what satisfaction means, it clearly does not mean the same
thing to everyone" (p.593). The customer satisfaction involves a single evaluative
reaction from customers, which may or may not be related to pre-evaluation concepts.
Similarly, Hunt (1977) notes that "satisfaction is a kind of stepping away from an
experience and evaluating it... One could have a pleasurable experience that caused
dissatisfaction because even though it was pleasurable, it wasn't as pleasurable as it was
supposed to be. So satisfaction / dissatisfaction isn't an emotion, it's the evaluation of the
emotion" (p.39). satisfaction thus is conceptualized as a comparison between predicted
service quality and perceived service quality and this method permeates the service
literature and health care in particular.
Oliver (1980) confirmed that customer satisfaction is a post purchase judgement
and evaluation of service. Thus, customer satisfaction can be determined to evaluate and
enhance the characteristics of service term, industries, and economic section in the quality
of services and products as measured by customer experienced (Fornell et. Al. 1996).
65
2.3.2 The Antecedents of Satisfaction
Moreover, Oliver (1980) specifies that customer satisfaction/ dissatisfaction (CS/
CD) result from a comparison of expectation concerning the quality of consumption, with
the actual consumption experiences. Roetst and on Pieters (1997) argue that prior
expectations may have a forward assimilation effect on satisfaction as well as indicated
by the significant correlation between prior expectations and attribute specific customer
satisfaction /dissatisfaction (CS/ CD).
The conceptualization of customer satisfaction is transaction-specific satisfaction
as customer's evaluation of his or her experience with, and reaction to a particular product
transaction episode or service encounter (Oliver, 1997; Yi, 1991). According to Bitner
and Hubbert (1994) conceptualizations of satisfaction are viewed in 2 different ways as
transaction-specific satisfaction is likely to comment on particular events of a service
transaction (specific employee actions).
Conversely, customers are likely to comment on global impressions and general
experiences with the firm (honesty of the firm) when asked about overall satisfaction.
It is also mentioned that satisfaction level is determined by the difference between
service performance as perceived by the customer and what the customer expects
(Parasuramam et al., 1988). Moreover, Hunt (1977) assumes that customer satisfaction is
generally related to prior expectations and conception in an evaluation that the experience
was at least as good as it was supposed to be. If the actual performance exceeds
expectations, customer are likely to form strong feelings of satisfaction (Oliver, 1997;
Woodruff et al., 1983).
Parasuraman et al., (1991, p.1048) suggested 2 levels of "customers" expectations:
desired and adequate. The desired service level is the service that the customer hopes to
receive. It is a blend of what the customer believes "can be" and "should be." The
66
adequate service level is what the customer finds acceptable. It is partially based on the
customer's assessment of what that service " will be, in another word, a predicted
service."
Thus, satisfaction concept is customer's expectations and experience to a
comparison between predicted service quality and the customer receives, which is
evaluated in university service.
2.3.3 Satisfaction Underpinning Theory
A number of theoretical approaches have been utilized to explain the relationship
between disconfirmation and satisfaction under view as variation of consistency theories
and the nature of the customer's post- usage (Oliver, 1980). Consistency theories are
discussed when expectations and the actual product performance are nothing matched
with the customer's feeling. In addition, the consistency theory has four theoretical
approaches. 1. Assimilation Theory 2. Contrast Theory 3. Assimilation-Contrast Theory
and 4. Negativity Theory which are described as follow:
The first approach is Assimilation Theory. The basis of assimilation theory is
dissonance theory. Dissonance theory mentions that customers make some kinds of
cognitive comparison between expectations on the product and the perceived product
performance (Festinger, 1957).
If there is a discrepancy between expectations and perceived product performance,
then dissonance arises. This point of the customer post-usage evaluation was introduced
into the satisfaction in form of assimilation theory (Anderson, 1973). According to Olson
and Dover (1979), customer can reduce the tension resulting from a discrepancy between
expectations and product performance either by distorting expectations in order to they
coincide with perceived product performance or by raising the level of satisfaction by
minimizing the relative importance of the disconfirmation experience.
67
The second approach is Contrast Theory that presents an alternative view of the
customer post-usage evaluation process to assimilation, for this mentioned post-usage
evaluation leads to results in opposite prediction for the effects of expectations on
satisfaction (Harvey et.al., 1957; Cardozo, 1965). Dawes et al., (1972) define contrast
theory as a tendency to magnify the discrepancy between "one's own attitudes and the
attitudes represented by opinion statements" (p.281). Contrast theory holds a surprising
effect leading to the discrepancy being magnified or exaggerated.
The third approach is assimilation-contrast theory. It is composed of assimilation
and the contrast theories. Assimilation-contrast theory assumes the satisfaction as a
function of the magnitude of the discrepancy between expected and perceived
performance (Hovland et al., 1957). Assimilation-contrast theory makes it possible to
bring customer satisfaction "hypothesize variables other than the magnitude of the
discrepancy that might also influence whether the assimilation effect of the contrast effect
would be observed..... when product performance is difficult to judge, expectations may
dominate and assimilation effects will be observed..... contrast effects would result in
high involvement circumstances. The strength of the expectations may also affect whether
assimilation or contrast effects are observed" (Bitner, 1987, p. 13).
The fourth approach is negativity. The foundation of negativity theory is in a
disconfirmation process, which leads to the customer satisfaction, while the negativity
theory mentions about strongly held expectation, thus customer will respond negatively to
any disconfirmation. (Anderson, 1973). It, therefore, can be concluded that dissatisfaction
appears if perceived performance is poorer than one's expectation or if perceived
performance exceeds expectations (Carlsmith and Aronson, 1963; Anderson, 1973).
Even though the impact of customer satisfaction is well accepted in terms of
results, the fundamental of concept framework of the real satisfaction structure is rarely
68
mentioned. The first conceptual framework of satisfaction boundary which is relied upon
is under only the expected or non-confirmed vision (Olshavsky & Miller, 1972; Oliver &
Swan, 1989; Prakash, 1984). For the theory, researchers have determined from the way in
which customers evaluate the product after buying or after use. The customers are to
choose to confirm or not confirm their expectation. (Bearden & Teel, 1983; Oliver, 1979,
1980; Oliver & Desarbo, 1988). The effort to study the satisfaction is the first step of the
process of understanding. But conceptual framework at present additionally suggests that
the service satisfaction should be evaluate from extended feelings. (Fornell & Wernerfelt,
1987; Oliver, 1997; Westbrook, 1987; Westbrook & Oliver, 1991). Oliver (1999)
mentioned that Entertaining satisfaction can fulfill the need, desire and goal. Now there
has been broader viewpoint to assign the model of customer satisfaction which has direct
impact on customer loyalty from marketing research (Anderson & Narus, 1990; Ganesan,
1994). Important antecedents to measure customer satisfaction including products or
service worth the paid money (Mcdougall & Levesque, 2000), products reaching
expectation (McDougall & Levesque, 2000; Hellier et al, 2003), Feeling satisfied with
products or service (Caruana, 2002; Mittal & Lassar, 1988; Sivadas & Baker-Prewitt,
2000), Feeling of getting good experience when using products or services and the fact
that the decision to buy or use the service is the feeling of clever choice (Hellier et al,
2003) and feeling satisfied after buying or use (Hellier et al, 2003; Bloemer & Kasper,
1995)
In conclusion, the measurement of the antecedents of customer satisfaction is the
measurement of pleasure to the components of products and services in various areas
according to the experience the customers gains from the service. Even though there have
been only limited number of the identification of the components of customer
satisfaction, it can be stated that the antecedents of the satisfaction of customers of
69
university including the satisfaction to various marketing strategies such as the
satisfaction with service quality, products, price, service style, modern
place and
trustfulness to people and local. Therefore the study of the antecedents of customer
satisfaction can be used to assign to be criteria to create questionnaire and create student
satisfaction model in this research.
2.3.4 The Previous Research of Customer Satisfaction
Hanan and Karp (1989) viewed customer satisfaction as the competitive
advantage in the meaningful way. To support this view, Hughes (1994) stated that
customer satisfaction has prioritized the establishment of a continuous relationship like
flow of information on service performance between the providers and customers.
Accordingly Matanda et.al. (2000) indicate that the factors such as perceived quality,
expectations, price satisfaction and communication have a direct influence on
achievement of customer satisfaction.
Moreover, Oliver (1989) suggested that a service quality is an antecedent of
satisfaction which is on the proposition to evaluations on satisfaction to involve affection,
cognitive or emotional responses. In the words of Lee et al. (2000), satisfaction or
dissatisfaction in a service can be only positively assessed after it has been interpreted and
then revealed the implications about service quality. For example, Barkema and
Drabenstot (1995) mentioned that today's demands of health care customers are
introduced in many alternatives with accessible service, good services preparation and the
greater changes in the health service market.
On the other hand, there is an intention to measure the customer satisfaction that
can be grouped into 4 issues as 1) different concepts to developing procedures of
customer satisfaction that can be evaluated (Griffin and Hauser 1992, 2) adopting systems
or methods for institution on measuring customer satisfaction including organizational
70
control systems (Lele and Sheth 1988), 3) developing systems to effectively respond to
customer complaints and customer dissatisfaction in service (Richins 1987), and 4)
designing what effects customer satisfaction through data collection and reviewing the
information with sophisticated systems (McQuance and McIntyre 1992).
To gain a better understanding of customer satisfaction in health service, Piercy
(1996) suggested the dimensions of customer satisfaction by considering a process called
as; "analytical" that concerns techniques and formal procedures, "behavioural" that
responses to attitudes, perceptions, motivation, beliefs and commitment of people,
"organization" that views the structure of organization, culture, and the process operates
in the context, and "consistency" which is between the analytical behavioral and
organizational.
Based on Giese and Cote (2000) who are seeking for a resolution of customer
satisfaction propose three components: 1) response affecting intensity; 2) time and
situation; and 3) a focus on purchase and using service.
Although satisfaction and service quality are different in certain prospects, they
are closely related. Parasuraman (1998) suggested that service quality is similar in nature
to an attitude. It is related, but not equivalent, to satisfaction. Cronin and Taylor (1992)
ask whether a provider's objective should have consumers who are merely "satisfied" or
who consider the experience of their encounter as one which has achieved maximum
levels of quality. They suggest that Service quality perception should be considered as
long-term consumer attitudes., whereas satisfaction should be referred to as short-term,
encounter-specific consumer judgments.
71
Table 2.5 Summary of satisfaction in university dimension from selected previous studies.
Researcher Year
Johnston
1995
IV
Respondent
DV
Finding
Attentiveness/
Customer of airline,
Satisfying
Attentiveness,
helpfulness,
hotels and restaurant
dissatisfying
responsiveness, care
Responsiveness, care
and friendliness
Availability,
significant to
Reliability Integrity,
satisfaction integrity
friendliness Courtesy,
and aesthetics is
Communication
dissatisfaction.
Statistics
Coefficient
Competence,
functionality
Commitment, Access,
Flexibility Aesthetics,
Cleanliness/ tidiness
comfort, Security
71
72
Table 2.5 Summary of satisfaction in university dimension from selected previous studies.
Researcher Year
Levesque
1996
IV
Service,quality, core,
Respondent
Retail banking
DV
Finding
Customer
Service quality has
Regression
Coefficient,R2
and
relational, Tangibles,
Satisfaction, Future
significance with
Mcdougall
Service features,
intentions,
customer satisfaction
Enabling,
Recommend to
and future intentions.
friend, Consider
Service features has
Switching.
significance with
Competitive.
Statistics
customer satisfaction
and future intentions
72
73
Table 2.5 Summary of satisfaction in university dimension from selected previous studies.
Researcher
Soderlund
Year
1998
IV
Customer
Respondent
Supplier
Satisfaction
Thapisa et. al.
1999
Various services
DV
Finding
Statistics
Customer behavioral
Word -of mouth
Regressio
variables (Word-of-
effects customer
n analysis,
mouth, Feedback,
satisfaction feedback
mean,
loyalty)
effects customer
regression
satisfaction
coefficient
300 students
Perceptions of quality
To achieve total quality information
Null
and 100
service
service, a comprehensive information
hypothesis
faculty staff
programnce should be provided and
by Chi-
members at
the service provider also influences.
square
University of
UBL is not lacking quality since. The
Botswana
hypotheses are accepted with the level
of Significant of 0.05
73
74
Table 2.5 Summary of satisfaction in university dimension from selected previous studies.
Researcher
Year
IV
Respondent
DV
Finding
Statistic
Athanassopoulos 2001
Employee,
Customer of
Customer
All eight factors are significant to
Chi-square,
et.al.
competence,
commercial bank
satisfaction
customer satisfaction
Degrees of
Reliability
freedom, X2/
product
d.f., GFI,
innovation,
CFI,
pricing,
RMSEA
physical
evidence,
convenience,
word of mouth
communications,
intention to
switch
74
75
Table 2.5 Summary of satisfaction in university dimension from selected previous studies.
Researcher
Year
Nguyen et. Al.
2001
IV
Respondent
Image and
395 student of a business
reputation
school
DV
Loyalty
Finding
Statistic
The degree of loyalty tends to be
Bivariate
higher with far curable perception
correlation
of reputation and image,
coefficient
determined by higher correlation
coefficients than that of the indices.
Capizzi et. Al.
2005
Key loyalty
Data from numerous loyalty
marketing
marketing program.
trends
Loyalty
Ubiquity, one of the five key
Statistics
loyalty-marketing trends,
from
determined by growing rate.
numerous
loyaltymarketing
programs.
75
76
Table 2.5 Summary of satisfaction in university dimension from selected previous studies.
Researcher
Gupta et. Al.
De Lara
Year
IV
2005
Outsourcing
138 Presidents and or vice-
initiatives
2008
Respondent
DV
Finding
Statistic
Satisfaction
The vast majority of institutions in
Percentage of
presidents of all private and
all three states surveyed hold on to
response rate
public schools in the states of
the concept of outsourcing
and score.
Mary and North Carolina and
according to their position in the
Virginia in the USA.
system.
International 270 teachers 22,599 students
Teaching
The intra-group relationships may
SEM and
justice
satisfaction
be the most salient in predicting
multiple
justice non-task behaviors that
regression.
a Spanish public university.
benefit the universities and in turn
may elicit quality teaching, related
through SEM supported hypothesis.
76
77
Table 2.5 Summary of satisfaction in university dimension from selected previous studies.
Researcher
Luarn et. Al.
Year
IV
2003 Attitudinal,
Respondent
DV
Finding
Statistic
180 respondents Loyalty
Trust, customer satisfaction
Multiple
commitment and
attending an e-
perceived value, and commitment
regression
behavioral loyalty
commerce
are separate construct that
analysis.
exposition and
combine to determine loyalty,
symposium
under the criteria of factor
loading exceeding 0.5 showing
discriminate validity.
77
78
The studies of customer satisfaction in Table 2.5 are particularly important
as they are linked to University. However. The result of Levesque and Mcdougall (1996)
shows that in case of customer satisfaction indicate behavioural intention in driven
more by impact on willingness for recommendation to friends. It also shows that
satisfactory problem resolution can increase customer loyalty to wards the service
provider.
Additionally,
Athanassopoulos
et. al., (2001)
discussed
that
behavioural
response consists of very satisfactory items (intention and decision to switch and
word-of-mouth communications). A highly satisfactory result was resulted from that
customer satisfaction perceptions through word-of-mouth actions. The factors of
reliability, employee competence, physical evidence and price are better linked to
customer satisfaction and ultimately gain higher importance on the behavioral customer
responses. Product innovation in service has been found to have a significant
effect on behavioral responses, which effect the satisfactory result, Besides, Soderlund
(1998) indicates that the form of the association between customer satisfaction and
word-of-mouth in contingent on the level of satisfaction, in which low levels of
satisfaction produce a negative association while high levels produce a positive
association
The result revealed by Host and Knie-Anderson (2004) proposes the three
latent endogenous variables customer satisfaction customer loyalty and willingness
for recommendation each were measured by 94 percent of customer satisfaction, 63
percent of customer loyalty and 89 percent of willingness for recommendation.
Furthermore, the importance in determining customer satisfaction is also put forward
the private university student as a dimension to their university service quality.
79
Thapisa et. Al. (1999) investigated the perceptions of the library clients to be
related to quality service and to determine the success of the library and find out to be of
quality.
Nguyan et. al. (2005) studied loyalty trends for the twenty-first century and
identify five key loyalty-marketing trends : Ubiquity, technology, coalition lite, customer
analytics and the wow! Factor.
Gupta et. al. (2005) measured the degree of satisfaction level with the outsourcing
initiatives from higher education institutions and observe that the vast majority of
institutions in all three states surveyed hold on to the concept of outsourcing according to
their position in the system.
De Lara (2008) examined the relationship between teachers’ international justice
and their non-task behavior and finds that justice is an antecedent of group commitment
that fully mediates the relationship.
Luarn et. al. (2003) discussed the concept of e-service in details, define the
constructs, and propose hypotheses concerning the relationships between the constricts.
In summary, loyalty, perception of quality service and satisfaction are reported to
be influenced by : various service; image and reputation; key loyalty-marketing trends;
outsourcing initiatives; international justice; attitudinal, commitment and behavioral
loyalty. It shows a diversity of factors regulating loyalty and satisfaction, depending on
the nature of activities under study.
80
2.4 The underpinning theory of Perceived Value
2.4.1. Definition of Perceived Value
Perceived value is no tangible product and, as such, it is difficult for consumers to
differentiate product quality, service quality. In this regard, the product quality, service
quality are also intertwined with each other. Cumulative insights from prior studies
support the general notion that perceived value contributes to customer loyalty (e.g.,
Parasuraman and Grewal, 2000; Dodds et al.,1991; Grewal et al., 1998; Voss et al., 1998).
The value-loyalty linkage is also consistent with Reichheld’s (1996) work on loyalty.
Regardless of whether the core offerings of an university service are products or service,
customer perceived value of products/services and university service quality provided by
an university service should be positively related to customer loyalty and commitment.
Parasuraman and Grewal 2000) suggest that the influence of perceived value on loyalty is
an issue in need of more empirical research.
2.4.2 The measurement of the antecedents of perceived value.
Bourdeau 2005: 27 citing Zeithaml, 1988 stated that hypotheses which are the
sources of the impact on Perceived Service Value is the intention to buy and behavior.
Perceieved value from the survey by letting the customers assess as a whole the benefits
of products and services on the basis of the perception of the things provided and those
obtained. This conceptual framework claims that customers have the conscience of giveversus-get will turn to value of perception. Service value has difference in benefits. By
comparing benefits obtained from the use and investment cost, both money or nonmoney. Furthermore, the structure of this conceptual framework has become one of the
study results of perceived value with apparent reliability (Bolton & Drew, 1991; Change
& Wildt, 1994; Cronin et al, 1997; Ennew & Binks, 1999; Wakefeild & Barnes, 1996).
81
2.5 The underpinning theory of Commitment
2.5.1 Definition of Commitment
Morgan and Hunt (1994) define commitment as a belief by an exchange partner
that an ongoing relationship with another is so important as to warrant maximum efforts
at maintaining it. In their definition the commitment party believes that the relationship is
worth working on to ensure that it endures indefinitely. Kiesler (1971) defines
commitment as a gradual relation between the individual and their behavioural activity-in
any situation the more the individual acts the more they become involved. Commitment
may therefore be built on decisions or acts requiring little involvement on the individual’s
part, but where each act still serves to increase commitment over time.
Oliver (1999) defines brand loyalty as “a deeply held commitment to rebuy or
repatronize a preferred product/service consistently in the future, thereby causing
repetitive same-brand or same brand-set purchasing, despite situational influences and
marketing efforts having the potential to cause switching behavior.” This definition
emphasizes the two different aspects of brand loyalty that have been deacribed in prior on
the concept-behavioral and attitudinal (Aaker,1991; Jacoby and Chestnut, 1978; Oliver,
1999; Jacoby and Kyner,1973;Day, 1969). Still, this view is not universally held, as
others suggest that the two constructs are either not relate (Oliva et al.,1992)
Gundlach et al (1995) identify three important factor in conceptualizing
commitment:
Self-interest commitment in business relationships includes adimension relating to
self-interest. Thus commitment is calculative act- in which costs and benefits are traded
off. It results from investments made in the relationship and/or the lack of alternatives
available and high costs of termination. The term ‘calculative commitment’ has been used
82
to describe this-an explicit evaluation of the costs and benefits involved in developing and
maintaining a relationship.
Commitment in relationships has also been conceptualized as an attitudinal
construct. This describes an affective orientation towards a business partner and a
congruence of values and the term ‘affective commitment’ is used to describe this.
Relationships involving shared goals and values are likely to last longer than those based
purely on the material merits of exchange. Affective commitment is based on a general
positive feling towards the exchange partner root in identification, shared values,
belongingness, dedication and similarity. The essence of affective commitment is thst
customers acquire an emotional attachment in a consumption relationship.
Time is seen as inherently connected to notions of commitment-commitment
becomes meaningful only when it developes consistently over time. Active commitment
we define as ‘the genuine desire on the part of a donor to maintain a favoured
relationship’ and this closely parallels the notion of affective commitment described
above.
2.5.2 Relationship commitment
Relationship commitment exists when a partner believes the relationship is
important enough to warrant maximum efforts at maintaining that relationship in
the long term. Moorman et al.(1992) defined relationship commitment as an
enduring desire to maintain a valued relationship. Commitment is of critical
importance in organisational buying behaviour and can lead to important outcomes
such as decreased customer turnover (Porter et al., 1974 ) and higher motivation
(Farrell and Rusbult, 1981). Commitment is positively related to loyalty and
repeated purchase and, because relationship performance is critical to repurchase
83
decisions in a relational exchange, business loyalty is similar to relationship
commitment (Morgan and Hunt, 1994).
Commitment and loyalty are two concepts connected but different. Indeed,
commitment exceeds the framework of the favourable attitude towards the brand:
commitment has a stronger solidity, robustness and stability than the general
attitude towards the brand (Goala,2003). Beyond the favourable or unfavourable
appreciation of the brand, commitment plays the role of stabilizing the behaviours
in time irrelevantly of the circumstances (Scholl,1981), being and essential
component of long-term loyalty (Morgan and Hunt, 1994). Commitment towards a
brand is based on three principal behavioural consequences : the repurchase of the
brand (Amine, 1999; Geyer et al., 1991), resistance to modifications generated from
the competing universe (Crosby and Taylor, 1983; Debling, 1998) and resistance to
negative feelings generated by specific dissatisfactions (Gurviez,1999). Commitment
results in a preference towards the brand the will to continue using it and a
resistance to the actions of competition (Bettencourt, 1997; Zeithaml et al., 1996).
Commitment also helps customers to develop positive intentions towards an
extension of the brand to new categories of products (Gurviez, 1999) moderating
the effect of negative information about the brand on the changes of consumer’s
attitudes (Ahluwalia et al., 2001).
On the other hand, loyalty is described as “ a deeply held commitment to
re-buy or repurchase a preferred product/service consistently in the future, thereby
causing repetitive same-brand or same-set purchasing despite situational influences
and marketing efforts having the potential to cause switching behavior” (Oliver,
1999, p.34 ). Oliver ( 1997) describes the consumer who “fervently desires to rebuy a product or service and will have no other , as a consumer who will pursue
84
this quest “against all odds at all costs”. These latter conditions define the concept
of “ultimate loyalty”.
Anderson and Weitz (1992) saw manufacturer-distributor commitment as the
adoption of a long-term orientation towards the relationship. They proposed that
mutual commitment results in “channel members” working together to serve the
needs of end-customers’ more effectively-thus increasing mutual
profitability
beyond what either member could achieve by operating independently. The
following hypothesis is therefore proposed.
Since the 1960s, commitment has been a frequently studied variable in
organizational contexts (Hunt, Wood, and Chonko 1989; Kelley and Davis 1994; Mathieu
and Zajac 1990). Today, commitment is often integrated as a key variable of interest in
relationship marketing studies (Doney and Cannon 1997; Macintosh and Lockahin 1997;
Mohr, Fisher, and Nevin 1996: Ping 1997; Siguaw, Simpson, and Baker 1998; Tax,
Brown, and Chandrashekaran 1998). Several scholars consider commitment as an
essential ingredient of successful relationships (Andaleeb 1996; Dwyer, Schurr, and Oh
1987; Geyskens et al. 1996; Morgan and Hunt 1994; Scheer and Stern 1992). Gundlach,
Achrol, and Mentzer (1995, p. 78) claimed that commitment “may well become a focal
point of explanation in marketing, as the discipline moves futher away from the
transactional view of exchange and embraces the relational view”. Relationship
commitment is considered important because it is hypothesized to lead to cooperation, to
reduce the temptation of attractive short-term alternatives, and to enhance profitability
(Andaleeb 1996; Anderson and Weitz 1992; Morgan and Hunt 1994).
Commitment to a buyer-seller relationship is generally regarded as an important
relationship outcome (andaleeb 1996; Crosby, Evans, and Cowles 1990; Ganesan 1994; 3
eyskens et al. 1996; Macintosh and Lockshin 1997; Mohr, Fisher, and Nevin 1996;
85
Moorman, Zaltman, and Desphande 1992; Morgan and Hunt 1994; Smith and Barclay
1997). According to Dwyer, Schurr, and Oh (1987), relationship commitment represents
the highest stage in relationship bonding. In line with this, Mohr and Nevin (1990) stated
that commitment is a highly desirable “qualitative outcome”. Morgan and Hunt
(1994,p.22) stressed that the level of relationship commitment “distinguishes productive,
effective relational exchanges from those that are unproductive and ineffective- that is
whatever produces relationship marketing successes intead of the failures”. Consequently,
in this student relationship commitment is also regarded as a relationship outcome.
2.5.3 The measurement of the antecedents of Commitment
Morgan & Hunt (1994) stated that the commitment of customers can be evaluated
from the confidence of customers. Each service provider gets the confidence from
customers differently. This can be assessed when customers get serviced and compare
with the promise from the service provider.
Sirdeshmukh, Singh & Sabol (2002) noted that the measurement of consumer
perception for reliability should focus on the reliability that involves the organization and
employee. Consumers are to evaluate the perception about the honesty and
straightforwardness and potential of organizations and employee.
Bourdeau (2005: 125) investigated and found that the antecedents of reliability
involve the ability of service providers to create confidence for customers. Dependability,
honesty, service capability, straightforward and beneficial service as well as the ability to
modify the style of service corresponding with future needs. All components relate with
attitudinal loyalty in terms of understanding, feeling, behavior and action.
In conclusion, the measurement of the antecedents for commitment can be
performed in a way that customers evaluate service providers both in terms of
organizations and employee about the potentiality to service, the capability to create
86
reliability, dependability, honesty and ability to adapt service style to meet customer
future needs continuously. Therefore the study of the measurements of antecedents of
commitment can be applied to obtain the criteria to create the questionnaire and reliability
model for this research.
2.6 The underpinning theory of Expectation Disconfirmation (EDT)
2.6.1 Definition of Expectalion Disconfirmation Theory (EDT)
Expectation-confirmation theory posit that expectations, coupled with perceived
performance, lead to post-purchase satisfaction. This effect is mediated through positive
or negative disconfirmation between expectations and performance. If a product
outperforms expectations (positive disconfirmation) post-purchase satisfaction will result.
If a product falls short of expectations (negative disconfirmation) the consumer is like to
be dissatisfied (Oliver,1980: Spreng et al. 1996).
The four main constructs in the model are: expectation, performance,
disconfirmation, and satisfaction. Expectation reflect anticipated behavior (Churchill and
Suprenant, 1982). They are predictive, indicating expected product attributes at some
point in the future (Spreng et al. 1996). Expectations serve as the comparison standard in
ECT- what consumers use to evalueate performance and form a disconfirmation judgment
(halstead, 1999). Disconfirmation is hypothesized to affect satisfaction, with positive
disconfirmation leading to satisfaction and negative disconfirmation leading to
dissatisfaction.
A major debate within the marketing literature concerns the nature of the effect of
disconfirmation on satisfaction. The root of the problem lies in the definition of predictive
expectations as the comparison standard for perceived performance. In such case, the
87
confirmation of negative expectations is not likely to lead to satisfaction (Santos and
Boote 2003). To overcome this problem, researchers have proposed other comparison
standards such as desires, ideals, equity, or past product and brand experience (see review
by Halstead, 1999:Yi 1990 and analysis by Tse and Wilton, 1988. Also see Spreng et al.
1996: Woodruff et al.,1983).
Figure 2.6: EDT Model
Expectations
Disconfirmation
Satisfaction
Perceived
performance
Souce: Oliver,1980: Spreng et al. 1996
2.6.2 Perceptions versus expectations: the customer gap
McCormack (2004.) identifies the gap between the expectations of the
research process and the reality of the research experience as a primary factor in
the non-completion of the subject’s thesis components. In services marketing. this
is identified as the disconfirmation of expectations model, and is a core element of
the management of service quality and service delivery. The disconfirmation model
is simply the difference between the expected level of a service and the perceptions
of the service received (Q = P-E) with three outcomes of satisfaction from the
levels matching (0) positive disconfirmation resulting in satisfaction (+), and
negative
88
disconfirmation (-) resulting in dissatisfaction with the service.Mayer et al.
outline a range of influence of the customer perception include personality, cultural
factors, and other influences based on temporary subjective factors such as mood,
and the perceived risk associated with the service. Key customer influences for
students in the process have been identified as cultural influences including
gendered role expectations (Johnson et al., 2000), importance of the research to the
individual and the risk associated with failure to breakdown in the supervision
(McCormack,2004). From a research supervision design perspective, there are limits
to how these influences on the perceived service can be influenced as they are
residual elements of the student.
Perceptions and expectations of quality in services are based around a series
of measurement variables that can be tracked against an expected or idea level
and the subsequent perceived level encountered during the service process. Berry et
al. (1990.) outlined a five-part quality metric of reliability,assurance, tangibility,
empathy and responsiveness (RATER). Although primarily designed for commercial
service delivery, the RATER model was successfully applied to higher education
teaching by Stodnick and Rogers (2008.), who note the value of the approach for
explaining variances in student satisfaction, and student learning outcomes.
Reliability has been consistently regarded as the most important attribute of
service delivery in that it represents the capacity of the service organization to
deliver the promised service (Zeithaml et al., 2006). Assurance is the combination
of personal factors such as competenc, courtesy, credibility and the sense of
security that inspires trust between the service provider and customer (Shanin,
2005.).
89
Tangibility represents the physical environment, and any physical objects
involved in the service delivery process (Sultan and Simpson, 2000 ). Empathy is
connected to the Assurance variable in that it represents the interpersonal
connection between service provider and the service consumer through a concerted
effort to understand the consumer’s needs (Ham et al.,2003). Responsiveness is the
willingness to assist the customer by providing prompt service, fast response and
reacting to consumer questions and requests (Parasuraman et al., 1991.). Table I
outlines a summary of the five elements and a proposed list of equivalent service
characteristics within the postgraduate research context.
Table 2.6 Equivalent Service
Cruteria
Reliability
Definition
University equivalence
Ability to perform the
Competency to university area
promised
expertise Appropriate research
vice dependably and accurately
experience or
qualification
Assurance
Knowledge and courtesy of
university experience Technical
employees And their ability to
knowledge of methodology
inspire trust and Confidence
Subject area/content
knowledgeInterpersonal
relationship between
Student and university
90
Cruteria
Tangibility
Empathy
Definition
University equivalence
Physical facilities, equipment,
Office space Tutorial rooms
and appearance of personnel
Lecturer appearance
Caring, individualized attention
Understanding student outcomes
the firm provides its customers
from the requirements of the
university arrangement
Personalised agenda
Responsiveness Physical facilities, equipment,
and appearance of personnel
Willingness to assist the student
Speed of response to submitted
Materials Open door policy
Sources: Parasuraman et al. (1991.); Zetthaml et al. (2006.); Sultan and Simpson (2000.); Bills
(2004.); Nerad and Heggelund (2005.); Ribeiro (2005.)
The provider gap: four potential gaps in supervision delivery of the actual
service, and the creation of the expectations in the minds of the customer in terms
of controllable factors that are influenced by service product design. The services
gap model is presented as aconceptual framework for analyzing points of potential
breakdown in any service delivery process (Zeithaml et al.,2006). Consequently, the
model is presented as a series of negative constructs that identify potential points
of failure in the process - this negatively framed focus is a feature of the model
as a service-failure audit system. The four identified points of breakdown are:
(1) Gap 1: not knowing what customers expect.
(2) Gap 2: not having the right service designs to deliver what the
customer expects.
91
(3) Gap 3: not delivering to service standards that are set.
(4) Gap 4: not matching performance to promises.
Figure 1 outlines the four provider gaps in the context of a service delivery
framework.
In the postgraduate supervision context, these gaps can arise between the
failure to communicate the expectations of the supervisor-student arrangement (gap
1), failure to ser appropriate standards for both parties (gap 2), and failure to meet
those established arrangements (gap 3 and 4). Figure 2.7
Figure 2.7 Services gaps model.
CUSTOMER
Expected
Service
Customer
Gap
Perceived
Service
Service
Delivery
COMPANY
Gap 4
Gap 3
Gap 1
Customer-Driven
Service Designs and
Standards
Gap 2
Company Perceptions
of Consumer
Expectations
Source: Zeithanml et al.(2006,p.35)
External
Communications
To Customers
92
Figure 2.8 University gap
Expected
STUDENT
Student
Gap
Perceived
University
Delivery
University
Gap 4
Gap 3
External
Communications
to Student
Student-Driven
University Service
Gap 1
Gap 2
University Perceptions
of Student
Expectations
Source: Derived from Zeithanml et al.(2006)
The proposed four University gaps are supported by the postgraduate
identifying
problems
in
the
differing
concepts
of
University Service
expectations of the role of University between students and University
and
(Bills,
2004; Brew, 2001; Kiley and Mulllins, 2005; McCormack, 2004).
Student gap: the defference between the expected and the perceived
University service McCormack
(2004.)
emphasized
this
gap
as
the
major
contributing factor to postgraduate as the tension between the student’s perception
of
the
university,
and
their
expectations
for
the University
arrangement
93
overshelmed the University service. The student gap is influenced by the external
communications from the university, University service and word of mouth from
current or former Postgraduate.
The external
communications represent
a
form
of socialization of
the
University into the And overall student satisfaction with the research experience
(Lves and Rowley,2005.).
Gap 2: not having the University service to deliver what the student expects
The second gap is most likely to be the enduring problem of generational change
between University and student, with the expectations held by University being
shaped by their Uniuversity service experience. Anderson et al. (2006.). Examined
the perceptions of University as the roles of the student, and highlighted a range of
factors that University believed were the pre-existing attributes required of a
University Service.
Gaps in the University design can also be attributed to the University’s
assumption regarding the nature of graduate attributes as either pre-existing (level
1) or secondary by-product of the University process (Barrie, 2004.).
Where the University believes the role of the University service process
does not extend to level 3 or level 4 of the Barrie (2004.) model of attribute
development , the University gap has the potential to exist, and to influence the
design of the University arrangements. Similarly, Todd et al. (2006.) emphasized
the design of the University process and the “fading” method of progressively
reducing the active role of the supervisor in the decision making processes as the
student gained experience and confidence in their capacity as a researcher.
However, without the research design matching the needs of the student, or having
94
been clearly communicated to the student, the University gap is likely to widen as
the University “fades” out the support in the belief that the student is ready or
willing to accept the responsibility. Manathunga (2005) also outlined the early
warning signs of Postgraduate which included the failure of the University designs
to meet the needs of student in terms of support, access or guidance. This also
impacts on the capacity of the University to match the reliablility aspect of the
University quality , and reduces the sense of assurance in the capacity of the
University to deliver a satistactory University experience.
Gap 3 : not delivering to supervision arrangements The third gap is
relatively straightforward in terms of University failure, either through non-dilivery
of the promised University, or other failures of the University process incurred by
the University or university including the depatture of the process incurred by the
University (Ives and Rowley,2005). The University failures rang from non-delivery of
University through to delays in responding to requests forfeedback, failure to read
draft material, or avoiding contact with the student (Ives and Rowley, 2005;
Pearson and Brew, 2002; McCormack, 2004; Boud and Lee, 2005). Gap3 can arise
from personal performance by the University, or through structural issues such as
time management, staff resource overloading or poor timetabling which reduces the
capacity of the University to provide adequate supervision to the students. Nondelivery of the promised supervision will influence theperceived reliability and the
assurance factors, along with perceptions of esponsiveness of the University in
reacting to student requests.
95
Gap 4: not matching University performance to University promises The
fourth gap in the process is the distance between explicit and implicit promises for
the University and the nature of the University service, and the reality of the
University experience. This gap can be created by explicit promises made in the
University service such as thosenoted by Johnson et al. (2000.), Boud and Costley
(2007.), or Ives and Rowley (2005.) where the University service is “sold” to the
prospective student as a dynamic service environment which, in reality, is far more
of a solo exercise in self guided service and development.Similarly, the reputation
of university service including the communicated experiences of previous service
students can create the gap between the promised serviceand the reality of the
University.
Beyond the breach of explicit promises, the fourth gap also represents the
socialization process of higher education .McCormack (2004.) and Boud and Lee
(2005.) both noted that dissatisfied students felt they have been given the
misleading or misguided impressions as to the nature of the University service, and
the University project. Kotze and du Plessis (2003) discuss the role of socialization
processes in preparing customers and students into their roles in co-creation of the
service product. It is this socialization process that creates a series of implicit
promises to the student that can be the root cause of gap 4. Translation attributes
and enabling attributes, as identified by Barrie (2004), socialize students into
disciplinary specific expectations of autonomy, self-identification and development
as a University. Kamler and Thomson(2004) also emphasize the role of the service
process in University as the creation and development of the University identity of
the quality service, and the socialization of the student into the expectations,
promises and boundaries of their chosen university.
96
2.7 The underpinning theory of Stimulus-Organism-Response (S-O-R)
S-R Theory (stimulus-response) reduce variables and control stimuli
and measure response. (mind is a black box)
Figure 2.9 S-O-R Theory
Stimulus
(S)
Organism
(O)
Response
(R)
Cognitive Revolution: the mind should be viewed as an information processor (the
computer analogy) S-R theory is inadequate because it ignores the process that occurs in
the middle (the black box)
Eroglu et al. (2001) has developed the S-O-R (Stimulus-Organism-Response) model
for the almospheric cues and responses present in online stores and shopers which has
been adopted by certain business economists to invesrigate the external and interal
influences on the company actions. The momel is applied in this research to help explain
effects of service quality, perceived value and satisfaction on student loyalty due to the
fact that the model has the advantage of being able to include qualitative variables such as
emotional attitudes,etc.
97
Figure…2.10 The response possibilities in universities under investigation (S-O-R
Model)
Stimuli
Number of new student
Organism
R
Ranking
Competition
3 Universities under investigation
Non-response
Routine
Innovative
E
S
Service
P
Perceived Value
O
Satisfaction
N
S
E
Table 2.7 Conclusion Theory use for structural equation modeling study
Author
Parasuraman et.al
Year
1988
model
Tangible
Reliability
Responsiveness
Assurance
Empathety
Service
Quality
Service Quality Model
98
Author
Dick + Basu
Oliver
Year
model
1994
Perceived
Value
Satisfaction
Satisfaction
Loyalty
Loyalty
1997,
1980,
1981
Bourdeau
2005
Morgannd Hant
1994
Goala
2003
Oliver
1980
Commitment
Loyalty
Expectations
Spreng et al
1996
Churchill and
1982
Disconfirmation
Suprenat
Mcquaill
Satis faction
Perceived
Performance
1930
S
O
R
Stimulus – Organism – Response (S-O-R)
Parasuraman,
1985
Zeithaml + Berry
Bourdeau
2005
Citing Zeithaml
1988
Oliver
1999
Service
quality
Service
quality
Perceived
Value
Sat is
faction
Perceived
Loyalty
Loyalty
Satisfaction
Loyalty
The relation between satisfaction and Loyalty
99
Author
Year
Mittal and Lasar
model
1998
Technical Quality
- Reliability
Satisfaction
Loyalty
Functional
Quality
- Responsiveness
Service Quality Model
Oliver
1997
Cognitive
Affective
Conative
Action
Loyalty
Parasuraman et. al.
1985
Access
Communication
Competence
Coutesy
Credibility
Reliability
Expect
Service
Perceived
Service
Quality
Perceived
Value
2.8 Universities in Thailand
From the Commission of Higher Education (CHE), it is found that the
number of universities in Thailand is 112 which can be classified to be 78 public,
and 34 private. In Southern Thailand, there are 10 universities including 1) Prince
of Songkla University (Hatyai Songkhla, Pattani, Phu-ket, SuratThani and Trang)
2) Princess of Naradhiwat (Naradhiwat) 3) Phuket Rajabhat University (Phuket) 4)
Yala Rajabhat
University (Yala) 5) Songkhla Rajabhat University (Songkhla) 6)
Nakonsritammarat Rajabhat University (Nakonsritammarat) 7) Surat Thani Rajabhat
100
University (Surat Thani Rajabhat) 8) Rajamangla University of Technology
Srivijaya (Songkhla) 9) Thaksin University (Songkhla) and 10) Walailak University
(Nakonsritammarat). There are 2 private universities in the South of Thailand
including Hatyai University (Songkhla) and Yala Islamic College (Yala).
2.8.1 Role of universities
In terms of service, the universities is assigned to be the source of higher
education service unith the objectives to provide education, application, development and
promotion of higher academic and vocational education. There are responsibilities in
terns of teaching, researching, academic sensing to society and promoting art are cultures.
In the operation, the followings need to be concentrated on ;
1. Academic excellence and freedom.
2. Necessities and needs according to economic, social, and cultural
situation.
3. Equity for education of People.
4. Marales and Ethics together with acadermic knowledge.
5. Curiosity to learn for a whole life.
6. Administration with the principle of “Thammapibal” (The king’s
principles).
Universities are higher educational institution which should allow other
institution to cooperate. They have an authority to issue degree or deploring to any class
or to learners from cooperating institutions.
101
2.8.2 The outlook of Thailand’s universities
2.8.2.1 Quantitative data
The number of new postgraduate students in Thailand in the
academic years of 2004-2008 was found to be increasing as shown in Table 2.8.
Table 2.8 The number of new postgraduate students in Thailand and the increments in the academic years of 2004-2008
Academic year
Increments and percent increasing
Averag
Educatio
2004-2005*
2005-2006*
2006-2007
2007-2008
e
n level
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
Numbe
Percen
Numbe
Percen
Numbe
Percen
Numbe
Percen
percent
Master
Degree
47,26
51,73
59,00
62,81
r
t
r
t
r
t
r
t
4,471
9
7,268
14
3,817
8
9,422
14
9
984
46
335
10
602
17
447
11
16
5,445
11
7,603
13
4,419
7
9,869
14
9
72,24
2
3
1
8
0
2,114
3,098
3,433
4,035
4,482
49,37
54,83
62,43
66,85
76,72
6
1
4
3
2
Doctorat
e
Total
* 2005 – 2004 means the number of students of the academic years 2005 minus that of 2004
Source : http://www.mua.go.th/users/budget/statistics.html
From the data, it can be clearly seen that the number of post graduate students nationwide has increased continuously in the last 5 years.
10
2
Table 2.9 The number of new postgraduate student in Southern Thailand and the increments in the academic years of 2004-2008
Academic year
Increments and percent increasing
Education
Average
2005-2004
level
2004
2005
2006
2007
2006-2005
2007-2006
2008-2007
percent
2008
Number Percent Number Percent Number Percent Number Percent
Master
1,577 2,016 2,494 1,848 2,250
439
27
108
65
151
1,620 2,124 2,562 1,926 2,358
504
31
478
23
(646)
(25)
402
17
8
10
14
30
38
33
(636)
(24)
432
22
9
Degree
Doctorate
Total
43
108
68
78
(40)
438
(37)
20
Source : http://www.mua .go.th/users/budget/statistics .html
When condidering the number of post graduate students in the South the number of post graduate students fluctuates.
10
3
Table 2.10 The number of new postgraduate student in three universities in southern Thailand Signing memorandum of
Understanding (MOU) with University Utara Malaysia (UUM)
Academic year
Increments and percent increasing
Education
Average
2005-2004
level
2006-2005
2007-2006
2008-2007
percent
2004 2005 2006 2007 2008
Number Percent Number Percent Number Percent Number Percent
Yala
Rajabhat
University
Master
-
-
54
50
51
-
-
-
-
(4)
(7.4)
1
2
(2)
Degree
Doctorate
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
Total
-
-
54
50
51
-
-
-
-
(4)
(7.4)
1
2
(2)
10
4
Table 2.10 The number of new postgraduate student in three universities in southern Thailand Signing memorandum of
Understanding (MOU) with University Utara Malaysia (UUM)
Academic year
Increments and percent increasing
Education
Average
2005-2004
level
2006-2005
2007-2006
2008-2007
percent
2004 2005 2006 2007 2008
Number Percent Number Percent Number Percent Number Percent
Prince of
Songkhla
Universiry
Master
1247 1386 1517 1285 1382 139
11
131
9
(242)
(15)
97
7
2
Doctorate
126
(27)
(29)
(31)
32
51
7
7
-
Total
1373 1477 1579 1379 1483 104
7
102
6
(200)
12
104
7
6
Degree
91
62
94
101
(35)
10
5
Table 2.10 The number of new postgraduate student in three universities in southern Thailand Signing memorandum of
Understanding (MOU) with University Utara Malaysia (UUM)
Academic year
Increments and percent increasing
Education
Average
2005-2004
level
2006-2005
2007-2006
2008-2007
percent
2004 2005 2006 2007 2008
Number Percent Number Percent Number Percent Number Percent
Taksin
University
Master
289
389
605
427
475
100
34
216
55
(178)
(29)
50
11
14
Doctorate
-
17
6
7
-
17
100
(11)
(64)
1
16
(7)
(100)
9
Total
289
406
611
497
475
117
40
205
50
(114)
(18)
(20)
(4)
14
Degree
When considering only 3 universities with the MOU with UUM , the number of post graduate students fluctuates. This
10
6
may be due to the fact that the admission of post graduate students depends on the readiness of the University.
107
2.8.2.2 Qualitative data
1) Assessment in Thailand
Commission of Higher Education has assessed the teaching and learning in
Universities with the criteria of : the ratio of students and teacher 20% personnel
20% , budget 20%, international status 10% and awards 10% with the full score
of 80 due to the fact that the data of student selectivity are not available for the
academic year of 2007, the results are shown in Table 1.4
Table 2.11 The categorization of Universities in Thailand according to the teaching and learning
Outstanding
Excellent
Good
Fair
Subject to be improved
The score is
The score
The score is
The score is
The score is lower than 60
higher than 75
is 70-74
65-69
60-64
Chulalongkorn
Kasetsart
Thaksin
Narasuan University
University
University
University
Burapha University
Khonkaen
King
Mae Fah Luang
Mahasarakharn University
University
Mongkut’s
University
Maejo University
ChiangMai
University
Walailak
Srinakharinwirot University
University
of
University
Rajamangla University of Technology Thunyaburi
Mahidol
Technology
Silpakorn
Rajamangla University of Technology Phranakon
University
Thonburi
University
Nakhon Prathom Rajabhat University
Suranaree
Prince of
Valaylongkorn Rajamangla University
University
Songkla
Sdusuan DusitRajabhat University
University
10
8
Table 2.11 The categorization of Universities in Thailand according to the teaching and learning
Outstanding
Excellent
Good
Fair
Subject to be improved
The score is
The score is
The
The score is
The score is lower than 60
higher than
70-74
score is
60-64
75
65-69
Rajamagla
King Mongkut’s Institute of Technology Ladkrabang
Buban chom Bung Rajabhut University
University of
King Mongkut’s Institute of Technology North Bangkok
Loei Rajabhat University,
Technology
Rajamangla University of Technology Suvanabhumi
Sakon Nakhon Rajabhat University ,
Krungthep
Surat Tani Rajabhat University ,
Udontanee Rajabhat University ,
Uttaradit Rajabhat University , Tabee
Rajabhat College
Tapkasattree Rajabhat University
From the table, it is found that Tuksin Uinversity and Prince of Songla University have the quality of teaching and
10
9
learning in the level of “good” where as that of Yala Rajabhat University is in the level of “Subject to be improved”
110
For the categorization according to research, the criteria used is that with
budget 20 percent , personnel 20 percent research output 45 percent and the number
of graduates 15 percent totaled 100 points The results are shown in Table 2.11
Table 2.12 The categorization of university in Thailand according to research
Outstanding
Excellent
Good
Fair
Subject to be improved
The score is higher
The score is
The score is
The score is
The score is lower than
than 75
70-74
65-69
60-64
60
Mahidol University
Nation
Prince of Songkla
Maejo
Sdusuan Dusit Rajabhut University
Chulalongkorn
Institute of
University
University
Lua Rajabhut University
University
Development
Silpakoen University
Mahasarharn
Nakonratchasima Rajabhut University
Suranaree University of
Adminitration
Burapha University
University
Thaksin University
Technology
Thammasat
King Mongkut’s
Ubonratchath
King Mongkut’s Institute Bangkok
King Mongket’s
University
Institute of
ani
King Mongkut’s Institute of Technology North
University of
Nareshan
Technology
University
Bangkok. Udontanee Rajabhut University
Technology
University
Ladkrabang
Mac Fak Luang University Walailaklongkorn Rajabhut
Chaing Mai University
Kasetsart
Srinakharinwirot
University Phakon Rajabhut University
Khomkaen University
University
University
Yala Rajabhut University. Nakonsawan Rajabhut
Walailak University
Universitty
11
1
Table 2.12 The categorization of university in Thailand according to research
Outstanding
Excellent
Good
Fair
Subject to be improved
The score is higher
The score is
The score is
The score is
The score is lower than
than 75
70-74
65-69
60-64
60
Tapsatree Rajabhut University
Muban jambung Rajabhut University
Sakunnakon Rajabhut University
Burirum Rajabhut University
Nakonpapham Rajabhut University
Chiang Mai Rajabhut University
Tabri Rajabhut University
Nakonsritammarat Rajabhut University
From the table, it is found that the quality of the research of Prince of Songla University is in the level of “good” where
as that of Tuksin and Yala Rajabhat University are in the level of “Subject to be improved”
11
2
113
Commission of Higher Education (CHE) has ranked public and private
universities by taking into account the ratio of lecturers and students, the number
of research, the direct – to – the – area employment of graduates, learner
satisfaction and popularity measured from the number of applicants and entrance
score with the objective to let universities know the features and drawbacks and
take them as the information for planning and development for the future.
The ranking of universities help create the atmosphere of competition and
arouse the development of university quality. However, the preview ranking criteria
has created the controversy between Commission of Higher Education (SHE) and
universities due to the inappropriateness in many aspects. Therefore, to have good
ranking, the criteria corresponding to the mission of universities and emphasizing
the quality of the graduates such as teaching and learning administration, research,
academic service and cultural promotion to reflect the full administration of the
universities, which can be taken to compare in any period of time and help the
development
of
all
aspects
of
university quality.
This
would
reduce
the
controversy between universities and assessment organizations (Lok Wannee [world
today] Newspaper, Friday, 4th April 2008).
Therefore the ranking of universities is one way to help implement the
universities to speed up the self-development in the area of quality and efficiency
in the education administration. The ranking should make use of the information
from quality assessment from the users, that is, students and stake holders.
Various groups should be given the opportunities to present their opinions and
develop the ranking index together to obtain the system and criteria that support
and create the universities development efficiently and cooperatively.
114
2) Assessment from foreing agemcies.
There has been the data according to global quality universities around the
world according to global quality
1. Mnistry of Singapore assessed : Universities according to overall multi
Disciplinary 32 Universities in Thailand are considered to be within the criteria as
follows:
1. Chulalongkorn University
2. Mahidol University
3. Thamasat University
4. Chaiamg Mai University
5. Kasetsart University
6. Prince of Songkla University
7. King Mongket Insitute of Technology Lad Krabang
8. Khon khaen University
9. Srinakarinwirot University
10. King Mongkut University of Technology Thonburi
11. Assumption University
12. Silpakorn University
13. King Mongkut Institute of Technology North Bangkok
14. Mahidol International College
15. Naresuan University
16. National Insititute of Development and Administration
17. Suranaree University of Technology
18. Bangkok University
19. Rajamagaka Insitute of Technology
115
20. University of the Thai Chamber of Commerce
21. Mahanakorn University of Technology
22. Rangsit University
23. Buapha University
24. Walailak University
25. Bangkok University
26. Mahadsarakham University
27. Dhurakitbandhid University
28. Ubon rajathanee University
29. Maejo University
30. Sripathum University
31. Maefah Luang University
32. Thaksin University
Souecc : http//www.eduzores.com/school-5-4-28896.html
The rank by foreign agency is in a way that Prince of Songkla University
and Thaksin University are within the standard criteria.
116
2. World Rank by webometries.
In the academic year of 2006, the ranks of universities in Thailand
includes;
Table 2.13 World Rank the academic year of 2006
Position
World
University
Rank
Rich
Size
Visibility
scholar
files
384
Prince of Songkla University
334
334
728
680
444
Chulalongkorn University
404
624
558
256
544
Kasetsart University
524
68
475
778
740
Asian Institute of Technology
465
1,037
1,006
644
Thailand
741
Thammasat University
293
1,085
1,025
697
850
Chiang Mai University
806
1,107
1,026
815
877
Assumption University of
590
1,344
685
856
1,413
376
1,847
1,177
858
959
1,398
1,544
1,012
1,907
1,423
1,538
1,421
2,259
1,018
1,030
Thailand
921
Khon Kaen University
937
King Mongkut’s Institute of
Technology Ladkrabang
1383
King Mongkut’s Institute of
Technology
1485
King Mongkut’s University of
Technology
117
Position
World
University
Rank
1580
Suranaree University of
Size
Visibility
Rich iles
scholar
1,131
2,464
1,046
1,404
Technology
1603
Silpakorn University
1,349
2,148
1,536
1,935
1634
Naresuan University
1,247
2,152
1,523
2,384
1728
Ramkhamhaeng University
1,177
1,878
2,169
3,437
1833
Mahasaraham University
1,418
2,719
2,058
1,562
1882
Sukhothai
588
2,818
1,850
2,825
1,751
2,800
955
2,442
2,044
2,673
1,832
1,712
Thammathirat
Open
University
1908
Burapha University
1926
King
Mongkut’s
Institute
of
Technology North Bangkok
1944
Srinakharinwirot University
1,658
2,380
2,110
3,095
1998
University of the Thai Champer of
2,401
2,426
2,125
2,428
Commerce
2052
Ubonratchathani University
1,386
2,907
1,649
3,038
2229
Bangkok University
1,890
2,746
1,841
3,958
2265
Sdusuan Dusit Rajabhat University
2,692
2,021
2,174
5,280
2279
Sripatum University
2,391
2,495
2,499
3,906
2328
Walailak University
1,990
3,101
2,590
2,652
2360
Siam University
4,076
1,494
3,752
4,296
2683
National Insitute of Development
2,149
4,025
2,162
2,460
Administration
World
University
Position
118
Rank
2719
Mahanakorn University of
Size
Visibility
Rich files
scholar
2,010
4,112
1,780
2,926
Technology
2819
Dhurakijpundit University
2,423
3,551
2,834
3,816
2871
Rangsit University
2,437
3,200
3,091
5,075
3075
Maejo University
2,900
4,041
3,280
3,079
3335
Huachiew Chalemprakiet University
2,478
3,951
3,103
6,030
3387
Payap University
2,412
4,824
2,215
4,455
3663
Thaksin University
2,728
4,325
3,3015
6,568
3787
Mae Fah Luang University
2,645
4,776
2,705
6,215
3886
Saint John’s University Thailand
2,490
4,956
4,365
4,802
4078
Sirindhorn Internation of
4,570
5,303
3,274
3,162
4,176
3,700
4,099
8,712
Technology
4157
Makachulalongkornrajavidyalaya
University
4229
Rajabhat Instotute Chandrakasem
2,433
5,378
2,459
7,466
4285
Yonok University
3,382
4,161
5,604
7,466
4408
Mahamakut Buddhist University
3,024
3,623
7,344
8,712
4701
Chulachomlklao Royal Military
4,417
4,782
4,538
7,466
2,770
6,168
3,376
7,466
Academy
4918
Rajamangala University of
Technology Lanna
From the table of global rank, it is found that Prince of Songkla University is
the 384th Position and Thaksin University 3663 rd
119
2.8.3 Budget
Commission of Higher Education revenled The budget in the fiscal
years of 2004-2008 as shown in Table 1.6
Table 2.14 Expense budget for the fiscal years of 2004-2008 ; the total
for Universities in Thailand , and tose for yala Ratjabhat , Prince of Songkla
University and Thaksin University
Budget
Universi
ty
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
Total for
Universit 40,006,029,8 45,241,958,0 51,798,499,7 63,967,308,8 69,541,866,0
y in
00
00
00
00
00
-
100,450,200
135,957,900
250,561,300
258,641,000
Thailand
Yala
Ratjahh
ut
Prince
of
1,844,932,30 2,127,349,90 2,499,405,00 3,416,066,60 3,958,557,80
Songkla
0
0
0
0
0
521,682,900
547,662,400
599,415,400
682,883,300
716,325,600
Universi
ty
Thaksin
Universi
ty
120
2.9 The number of graduates new students for
Table 2.15 The number of graduates new students for
New graduates students
For academic year 2007
Yala Rajabhat
Being alumri
Number
Percentage
54
26
48
1379
717
52
University
Prince of Songkla
University
Thanksin University
497
1238
48
121