HIGH YIELD HINTS FOR AIPMT, AIIMS AND JIPMER
TOPIC 1 - ECOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT
1.A troublesome American water weed in India called “ sorrow of Punjab “ is - Eichornia
2. Bergman’s rule is related to - Avian and Mammalian life
3. The leaves of Tundra plant resemble the leaves of plant in the - Desert
4. A woody plant becomes hardened to the cold in preparation for winter. It lowers the freezing point
of its cells and fluids by – Increasing TP.
5. Plants such as Prosopis, Acasia, and Capparis represent examples of tropical - Grass lands
6. Layering or Stratification is common in – Tropical rain forests.
7. The most important characteristic feature of Xeric environment is – Low humidity.
8. Rhizopora / Mangrooves of marshy / swampy Sunderbans is characterized by
– Viviparity, Proproots, Pneumatophores
9. Submerged Hyrophytes show – Absence of cuticle and stomata on any surface.
10. Salinity of soil can be corrected by the use of – Lime.
11. Black soil is rich in – Clay and Humus.
12. A non- succulant Xerophyte with thick leaves having white sticky waxy coating is – Calotropis
13. The correct sequence of organizational complexity is – Population – Species – Community
- Ecosystem.
14. Allopatric speciation is due to – Geographical isolation.
15. Communication in honey bee is discovered by – Karl Von Frisch.
16. Two opposite forces operate in the growth and development of every population. One of them
relates to the ability to reproduce at a given rate. The force opposing too it is – Environmental
resistance.
17. Species diversity increases as one proceeds from – High altitude to low altitude and from high
latitude to low latitude.
18. Mutualism ( Reciprocal symbiosis ) is mutually benefited relationship between two organisms.
Anabaena and Azolla which cannot live independently. This is also found in –
Rhizobium and Legumes, Sea anemone and Hermit crab, Zooxanthellae and Termites /
Ruminants.
19. The type of food chain in which the energy rich organic compounds produced by producers is
decomposed by microbes and converted into energy rich compound is – Detritus food chain.
20. The Ecological pyramid that never occurs in the Inverted form is – Pyramid of Energy.
21. The grass land that has richest and deepest soil and tall grasses is – Prairies of Canada.
22. 10 % Law is applied to – Transfer of 10% energy from one trophic level to next and 90% loss
and Transfer of 10% food from one trophic level to next and 90% is
consumed.
23. Competition for food, light and space is most severe in – closely related species occupying the
same niche.
24. Warm ocean surge of Peru Current recurring every 5-8 years or so in the East Pacific of South
America is – El Nino.
25. The part of the world that has high density of organisms is – Tropical rain forests.
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26. Carbon dioxide is a green house gas because it is – Transparent to solar radiation and opaque to
Infrared and is a strong absorber of Infrared rays.
27. Life in biosphere is abundant between – 200 m below sea level to 6000 m above sea level.
28. The Phosphorous rich fertilizer obtained from Sea birds along the cost of Chili and Peru is
Guano.
29. In many countries, spread of Opuntia is controlled by – Introducing insects.
30. Ecological Backlash or Ecological Boomerang is – Adverse ecological effect caused by a chemical
which was previously useful.
31. Leakage of Methyl iso cyanate ( MIC ) caused the biggest industrial disaster of the recent times
in 1984 ( Bhopal Tragedy ). The industrial plant where the leakage occurred is – Pesticide factory.
32. Ozone layer of Stratosphere requires protection from indiscriminate use of – Aerosols and high
flying jets.
33. The most dangerous Radio isotope to humans is – Strontium 90.
34. The series of events that leads to Eutrophication are – High phosphate content – excess growth of
algae – bacteria feed on dead algae – depletion of Oxygen.
35. Agent Orange contains – 2,4 D, 2,4,5 T , Dioxin as contaminant or carcinogen
36. Itai – Itai or Ouch – Ouch disease is characterized by bone softening. It is due to – Cadmium.
37. Kock knee disease is due to – Excess Fluoride in the water.
38. Sewage water can be made it for drinking by using – Microbes ( It is Bioremediation ]
39. NEERI is – National Environmental Engineering Research Institute.
40. The most common indicator that represents polluted water is – Escherichia coli.
41. Green Petrol is – Unleaded Petrol.
42. Ozone day, World Environment day, and National Pollution Prevention day are celebrated
respectively – Sept 16 , June 5 , Dec 2.
43. Threatened species is – That is to be conserved to avoid its becoming rare, endangered, or
vulnerable species.
44.The most important activity responsible for the extinction / diminishing of wild life is
Alteration and destruction of natural habitats.
45. Project Tiger was launched in 1973. It is a – Conservation programme.
46. Periyar wild life sanctuary of Kerala is famous for – Elephants and other animals.
47. The symbol of WWFN is – Giant Panda.
48. The Indian army wing that takes the task of preserving and restoring ecology of the country is
TASK.
49. Chipko Movement is the world’s most known eco development programme started by
S.L.Bahuguna in 1973 in Tehri Garhwal ( Uttranchal ). It is meant for –
Plant / Forest conservation.
50. Shifting cultivation is being practiced by some tribals in Assam and Europe. It is one of the causes
of deforestation as a forest area is cleared by slashing ( cutting ) and burning of trees for
cultivation for 3-5 years and then a new forest area is cleared. The abandoned area invites erosion
wild vegetation. This type of cultivation is – Jhuming cultivation.
51. The most important function of the forest to control drought is – Brings rain fall in monsoon.
52. The main cause of increase in salinity of arid land due to irrigation is – solutes being brought up
from lower soil horizon.
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TOPIC 2
GENETICS AND APPLICATION BIOLOGY
1. In a material medium, when a positron meets an electron, both the particles annihilate leading
to the emission of two gamma ray photons. This process forms the basis of an important
diagnostic procedure called – PET.
2. In Drosophila melanogaster, normal body colour is brown and hereditary variant has yellow
colour. When normal larva raised on food containing silver salts, they develop in to mutant
but would give rise to brown flies in the normal environment, this effect of environment on
expression of genes is – Phenocopies.
3. Haemolytic jaundice is caused by a dominant gene but only 10% of the people actually
develop it. What proportion of the children would be expected to develop the disease if a
heterozygous man marries a homozygous woman – 1 : 20
4. The important features of Positron Emission Tomography – PET – are
1. It uses radio isotopes such as Carbon 11 and Oxygen 15 tagged with glucose.
2. The principle of mass annihilation is used for emitting a pair of Gamma radiations.
3. Epilepsy, Schizophrenia, Parkinson’s disease and Drug addiction can be studied.
5. Phenylketonuria in man is caused by a recessive allele p. If both parents are carriers – Pp –
what is the chance of all children are normal in population of five children – 243 / 1024.
6. In Tomato, genotype aa bb cc produces 100 gm tomatoes and AA BB CC produces 136
tomatoes. What will be the weight of tomatoes in the parents and progenies of the cross
between Aa bb cc and aa BB cc - 106 g, 112 g , 112 g, 106g.
7. In human an abnormality of the large intestine called Intestinal Polyposis is dependent on a
dominant gene A and nervous disorder Huntington’s chorea is determined by a dominant
gene H. A man carrying the gene A ( Aahh ) married a woman carrying the gene H ( aa Hh ).
Assume the A and H are on the non homologous chromosomes. What is the proportion of
children that might be expected to have both abnormalities - 1 / 4
8. MRI has the following features.
1. It uses magnetic field of fixed frequency but varying magnetic field.
2. Defective cells absorb energy at a different frequency campared to healthy cells.
3. The magnetic field used is around 2 Telsa.
9. The presence of recessive part of in a large population is found to be 16 %. The frequency of
dominant allele in the population is – 0.84
10. Digital Substraction Angiography or DSA uses – Iodine angiographs.
11. Simple radiography images – entail the difficulty of internal structure superimposition.
12. Sonography uses – the principle of reflection of ultrasonic waves due to difference in densities
of two tissues or organs.
13. If only one chiasma is organized between two gene loci X and Y in 40 % of the tetrad of an
individual of genotype AB / ab. The percentage of gametes in recombinants ( Ab or Ab )
considering linkage factor is
- 5 %.
14. The patient suffering from Killer Disease ( SCID ) can be cured by inserting
- ADA gene
15. E. Coli is used in genetic engineering to produce – Humulin, Interferon, Interleukin, Human
GH.
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16. The microbe that remove oil spills is – Pseudomonas putida.
17. The longest human gene which is made up of 2400 Kilo base pairs is – Gene for Duchenne
muscular dystrophy.
18. Chromatin is formed by a repeating series of chromosomes containing – DNA and Histones.
19. The correct sequence of genes within the operon is – Regulator – Promoter – Operator –
Structural genes.
20. Wobble pairing takes place – in some cases between the third base of codon and that of an
anticodon.
21. The concept of Split genes is that of – coding sequences in many eukaryotic genes are often
separated by non coding sequences.
22. Heterochromatinisation takesplace during – early gestational development.
23. Gynandromorphism in certain flies is the result of – mis division of chromosomes where by
one X chromosome gets lost.
24. During mutagenesis the information necessary to repair the damage of segment of the DNA is
present in – Proof reading enzyme DNA Polymerase I
25. Magnetic Resonance Images are derived from the proton bearing species present principally
from water and – long alkaline chain protons of the fatty acid moieties.
26. The segment of DNA molecule determining the amino acid sequence of protein is – Structural
gene.
27. The Aminoacyl synthetase facilitates – adoption of amino acid by t RNA of its type.
28. Largest chromosome is - Polytene chromosome.
29. The Puffs in the Polytene chromosomes of the Salivary gland cells of Drosophila represents –
Region of active protein synthesis.
30. Chromosome puffs are also called as – Balbiani rings.
31. Lampbrush chromosomes are found in – Amphibian Oocytes.
32. Certain genetic elements that regularly “ jump “ to new locations, often inactivating the genes
into which they become inserted. These are – Transposones.
33. Based on the current knowledge, which represents the complete and accurate depiction of “
Central Dogma “ in molecular biology – DNA
RNA
Protein.
34. The partial duplicates of structural genes which have incorporated sufficient changes so that
they are not biologically active and usually are not transcribed are – Pseudogenes.
35. Point mutations are due to – changes in nucleotide sequences of a gene.
36. Kappa particles are – Sub microscopic granules formed by the folding of naked DNA found in the
cytoplasm of Paramecium.
37. Paramecium that kills other strains by producing toxin “ Paramecin “ contains – Kappa
particles.
38. The first step in the biosynthesis of polypeptide is catalysed by – Aminoacyl –E-RNA synthetase.
39. The Mitochondrial DNA or mt DNA is characterized by – the production of its own r-RNA
and t-RNA which directly interact with mt DNA codon .
40. Bar eye, a dominant character of Drosophila is due to – duplication of a chromosomal
segment.
41. The method used to detect chromosomal disorder during eight to tenth months of pregnancy
is – Chorionic Villus Sampling or CVS.
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42. Test tube baby is produced by – fertilization outside and gestation inside the womb of
mother.
43. First test tube baby is – Lousi Jay Brown.
44. GIFT is – Embryo Implantation after in vitro Fertilization.
45. Lack of sleep, loss of appetite, hallucinations are the symptoms due to the intake of – Cocaine.
46. Replacement level in developed and developing countries is – 2.1 and 2.7
47. The average number of children that would be born to a woman during life time, assuming the
age specific birth rate of a given year is – total fertility rate.
48. Dilation of pupil, urination, high blood sugar level are the symptoms due to the intake of –
Marijuana.
49. The number of centers of origin of crop plants recognized by Vavilov is – 7
50. The characters of Plant introduction are
1. give us new crops
2. give us new varieties
3. there is risk of disease.
4. quarantine is a must.
51. Coccidiosis in poultry is caused by – Protozoan parasite Eimeria .
52. Multiple ovulation and embryo transfer ( MOET ) is the method of – hybridization in cattle.
53. Viral disease of Silkworm is – Flacheria.
54. The proteins present in silk are – Sericin and Fibroin.
55. A loose association formed by nitrogen fixing bacteria with roots of crops is – Azospirillum.
56. Anti-feedant property occurs in – Azadirachtin.
57. Rotenone is – Natural insecticide.
58. Transgene expression can achieve by
1. prevention of expression of native gene.
2. modify the existing bio chemical pathway.
3. produce a protein that itself produces phenotype of interest.
59. The risks associated with GM crops are
1. toxicity.
2. allergic RKn
3. antibiotic resistance in microorganisms present in the alimentary canal.
60. EnzymeTissue Plasminogen Activator ( TPA ) is used for – dissolving blood clot.
61. Cidar is prepared by – action of saccharomyces on apple juice.
62. The bacterium associated symbiotically with non legume plant is – Frankia.
63. “ Collego “ and “ Devine “ are two substances used as – Bioherbicides.
64. Distemper is a fatal disease of dogs. The important feature of the disease is – humans have
innate immunity for this disease.
65. The only antibody that crosses placenta is – Ig G.
66. piezoelectric effect is used in – CT scanning and Ultrasound imaging.
67. PET is the best method for functional imaging because – Isotopes of basic body elements are
used for imaging.
68. Embryo culture is used for – recovery of inter specific hybrids.
69. The crystal Lead Zirconate is a key component of – Sonography.
70. The part of Endoscope that receives signals is – Transducer.
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TOPIC 3 CELL BIOLOGY
1.
Glycocalyx layer- The cell layer which is not absolutely essential for bacterial survival but can
become immunogenic.
2. Porins – Proteins present in the cell wall of E.coli that functions ass channels for the entry and
exit of hydrophilic low molecular weight substances.
3. Components of bacterial cell wall – Pentacyclic sterols or Hopanoids, Glycoproteins,
Glycophorins.
4. Functions of mesosomes
1. cell wall formation and secretion.
2. chromosome replication and distribution.
3. increase plasma membrane surface area and enzyme content.
5. Plant Karyotyping uses banding technique called – Q,C,R bands.
6. The purple Cabbage leaves do not lose their colour in cold water but do so in the boiling water
because – Plasmalemma killed in boiling water.
7. Interferon is a natural product of animal cell which protects – Human and bird cell against
variety of viruses.
8. Plasma membrane of animal cell is composed of – Lipids, proteins, and oligosaccharides.
9. Succinic dehydrogenase and cytochrome oxidase are located in the – Mitochondrial inner
membrane.
10. Single membrane bound cell organellae are – Lysosomes and Sperosomes.
11. Poisons like Cyanide inhibit Na efflux and K influx during cellular transport. This inhibitory
effect is reversed by the injection of ATP. This shows that – Energy for Na – K exchange pump
comes from ATP.
12. In an experiment, radio active substance is incorporated with amino acid then maximum
amount of radio active labeled protein will be found in – Endoplasmic reticulum co ordinated
with polysomes.
13. Camodulin is a – Cadmium binding protein.
14. Besides the primary constriction, there is a secondary constriction in some chromosomes. This
is called – Nucleolar organizer.
15. Janus green stain is vital stain which is specific for – Mitochondria.
16. One month old human embryo has a tail which is – the actual vestigial tail.
17. Formation of which complex molecule was noticed by Urey and Miller when they subjected
NH3, CH4, and H2O to electric discharge – Amino acids.
18. The plant that turns to brown ball during drought ( drought adaptation ) but turns green just
with first shower is – Selaginella lepidophylla.
19. The method of determining the age of a tree by counting the annual rings is called – Dendro
chrono biology.
20. The dyes used to stain chromatin are – Acetocarmine, Haematoxylin, Feulgen stain,
Acetoorcein.
21. The important peculiarity of the polytene chromosome of Drosophila is – Size
22. Polytene chromosomes are formed by – Endo mitosis or Endo duplication ( chromatin
multiplication without cell division ).
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23. Chiasma are formed during crossing over in the pachytene stage of meiosis I. Presence of one
chiasma reduces the chance of another chiasma formation by – Interference.
24. Acrosome of sperm is formed from – Golgi apparatus.
25. The Mitosis Promoting Factor ( MPF ) consists of two components namely catalytic and
regulatory. The regulatory sub unit is – Cyclin dependent Kinase or cdk.
26. In Kreb’s cycle, the FAD participates as electron acceptor during the conversion of – Succinic
acid to Fumaric acid.
27. The correct sequence of Electron acceptors in ATP synthesis is – cyt.b, c, a, a3
28. Microtubules are involved in – Cell division.
29. All antibodies are formed of – Proteins.
30. Spoilage of oil can be detected by – fatty acid Erusic acid.
31. Recently after 1980, evolution is considered as “ RNA World “ because of the discovery – RNA
has enzymatic ( Ribozymes ) activity.
32. In Mitosis, the difference between Anaphase and Metaphase is – Same number of
chromosomes but half number of chromatids in anaphase.
33. 5-Bromo uracil is a base analogue. It pairs with – Adenine.
34. Tay – Sachs disease is an autosomal recessive inherited disorder due to – Ganglioside
breakdown and excessive accumulation of Gangliosides.
35. Histidine amino acid can be converted into biologically active amine Histamine ( produces
allergy ) by – Lyase enzyme.
36. Thr glycolytic enzyme are inhibited by Fluoride is – Enolase.
37. Cut apple turns brown but does not do so if dipped in Ascorbic acid because of – inactivation
of polyphenol oxidase.
38. Dictysome is also called – Golgi body.
39. Both ATP and Mg are required for the activity of – Glucokinase.
40. NAD and NADP are similar in respect that they – take up two electron at a time.
41. A short length of DNA contains 240 adenine and 240 cytosine bases. The total number of
nucleotides in this DNA segment is – 480 bases.
42. The bond in B – DNA that have to be rotated to convert it to Syn to Anti conformation is –
Glycosidic bond.
43. The substance that is used to determine Glomerular filtration rate is – Inulin.
44. The enzyme Hayaluronidase is unique to – Acrosome of mammalian sperm.
45. The protein that become a tough and hard on treatment with tannic acid and yield gelatin on
boiling with water is – Collagen.
46. Spermatozoa in seminal fluid uses – Fructose.
47. Quenching is – Rapid cooling of DNA to fix it in denatured state.
48. Cyanide resistant respiration is the characteristic of – Plants.
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PLANT KINGDOM
THALLOPHYTA
PHYLA
1.Cyanophyta
Blue green algae
Eg. Nostoc , Anabaena.
2.Euglenophyta
Euglenoids
Eg. Euglena.
3.Chlorophyta
Green algae
Eg. Chlamydomonas, Spirogyra.
4. Chrysophyta
Yellow green algae, Golden brown algae, Diatoms.
Eg. Mallomonas,
Pinnularia.
5. Phaeophyta
Brown algae
Eg.
Ectocarpus, Laminaria.
6. Pyrrohta
Cryptomonads, Dinoflagellates .
Eg.
Gymnodinium
7. Rhodophyta
Red algae
Eg. Polysiphonia, Gelidium.
8. Schizomycophyta
Bacteria
9. Myxomycophyta
Slime moulds
10. Eumycophyta
True fungi
Divided into 4 classes
1. Phycomycetes
Eg. Rhizopus, Albugo.
2. Ascomycetes
Eg. Penicillium, Aspergillus.
3. Basidiomycetes Eg. Puccinia, Ustilago.
4. Deuteromycetes Eg. Fusarium, Alternaria.
( Fungi imperfecti )
SUB KINGDOM : EMBRYOPHYTA
Divided into 2 phyla.
1. Phylum Bryophyta or Atracheata
divided into 3 classes.
A. Musci ( Mosses ) Eg. Funaria, Pogonatum.
B. Hepaticae ( Liver worts ) Eg. Riccia, Marchantia.
C. Anthocerotae ( Horn worts ) Eg. Anthoceros, Notothylas.
2. Phylum Tracheophyta or Tracherata
Vascular plants. Divided into 4 sub phyla.
Tracheophyta
Silopsida
Primitive vascular plants
Lycopsida
Sphenopsida
Club mosses
Horse tails
Pteropsida
Pteropsida
Class Filicinae
Gymnospermae
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Angiospermae
Class - Gymnospermae
2 sub classes 1. Cycadophytae
2. Coniferophytae
Class – Angiospermae
2 sub classes 1. Dicotyledonae
2. Monocotyledonae
CHARACTERS OF PLANT GROUPS
CRYPTOGAMAE
Non flowering plants – divided into Thallophyta, Bryophyta and Pteridophyta.
THALLOPHYTA
1. Body not differentiated into roots, stem and leaves.
2. Body is called Thallus.
3. Vascular tissue absent.
4. Sex organs mostly unicellular.
5. No multi cellular embryo.
6. Alternation of generation is not distinct.
ALGAE
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Phycology is the study of Algae.
Vegitative structure is unicellular and motile in Chlamydomonas.
Macrocystic and Nereocystis are largest algae.
Cellwall is composed of cellulose and Pectose.
Cell wall of Blue green algae is composed of Mucopeptide or Muroin or Peptidoglycan.
Sexual reproduction is primitive.
Sexual reproduction is totally absent in Blue green algae.
FUNGI
1. study of Fungi is Mycology.
2. P.A.MICHELI is the founder of Mycology and De Bary is the Father of Modern Mycology.
3. Hyphal wall is composed of Chitin but in Rhizidiomyces cell wall contains cellulose and
chitin.
4. Reserve food is Glycogen.
5. Albugo and Puccinia are Obligate parasites living in the cells of hosts.
6. Phythium and Fusarium are Facultative parasites living as Saprophytes.
7. Mucor and Rhizopus are Obligate Saprophytes living on dead matter.
8. Ustilago or Smut fungus is a Facultative Saprophyte living as parasites but can become
saprophyte.
9. Sexual reproduction is absent in Deuteromycetes or Funfi imperfecti.
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10. In Synchytrium, plant body is unicellular and become a reproductive structure ( Holocarpic
Fungi )
11. In Eucarpic Fungi, a part of the Thallus is used as reproductive structure. Egs. Penicillium,
Aspergillus.
LICHENS
1. Fungal partner is Mycobiont and Algal partner is Phycobiont.
2. Based on Growth, Lichens are classified into
A. Crustose lichens - Tallus adhered on to the rocks.
Egs. Acarospora, Basidia, Bullia,
Lecanora, Lecidea, Rhizocarpon.
B. Foliose lichens -Thallus is leaf like
Egs. Parmelia, Heterodermia, Physia, Dermatocarpon,
Collema, Leptogium.
C. Fruticos lichens - Thallus lobes are branched and thread like
Egs. Usnea, Ramalina, Rocella, Cladonia, Stereocaulon.
ULOTHRIX
Found in free running water. Found attached to the substratum.
Ulothrix zonata is the most common species.
Ulothrix flacca is the Marine species.
Filaments are green and unbranched.
Filaments exhibits division of labour.
Cell wall is two layered, outer cellulose layer and inner pectose layer.
Girdle shaped chloroplast are found in cells except hold fast cells.
Chloroplasts are parietal in position and contains one or more Pyrenoids.
Aesxual reproduction is through Akinetes, Aplanospore, Hypnospores, Palmella stage and
Zoospores.
Hypnospores are thick walled aplanospores formed during Drought.
Zoospores are formed during favorable periods.
Zoospores are motile, nacked without cell wall and possess cup shaped chloroplasts.
Sexual reproduction is Isogamous – Gametes are like biflagellate micro – zoospores.
Zygote is Qadriflagellate and motile at first. It has 2 eye spots, 2 chloroplasts, and 2 sets of
chromosomes.
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SPIROGYRA
RHIZOPUS
Commonly called as “ Pond Scum “ or “
Water Silk “
Most common species is Spirogyra
condensate.
Filaments green and un branched.
Cell wall consists of outer Pectose layer
and inner Cellulose layer.
Chloroplast contains equidistant Pyrenoids.
Reproduction is by sexual or vegetative.
Asexual reproduction is found in Spirogyra
Includes 35 species.
Commonly called as “ Bread mould “.
Rhizopus nigrans is the most common species.
Mycelium is Coenocytic and are Stoloniferous
and Rhizoidal hyphae.
Soloniferous hyphae are areal growing
horizontally.
Rhizoidal hyphae occur as clusters along the
Soloniferous hyphae.
aplanosporum.
Sexual reproduction is Isogamous occurs by
Conjugation.
Scalariform conjugation takes place at
night between recently divided cells which
shows heterothallic or dioceous condition
( morphologically similar but physiologically
different )
Parthenospores are round haploid
structures formed during scalariform
conjugation. They develop into filaments.
Eg. S. groenlandica and S. mirabilis.
Lateral conjugation may be Indirect or
Direct.
Asexual reproduction is through non motile
multinucleate Aplanospores.
Thick walled Chlamydospores are
multinucleate structures formed during
unfavorable seasons.
Sexual reproduction is Isogamous and mycelium
is Heterothallic.
Heterothallism was discovered by
A.F.Blakeslee in 1904.
YEAST
Non-mycelial Ascomycetous fungi growing as Saprophytes.
They are unicellular globose organisms measuring 1-12 micrometer length and 1-10 micometer breadth.
Cell wall is composed of Chitin.
Nucleus is spherical and surrounded by a double membrane. Nucleolus and chromosomes are present.
Vacuole and 4-10 mitochondria are present.
Asexual reproduction may be Budding or Fission.
Budding takes place in Budding Yeast ( Saccharomyces ) and Fission in Fission Yeast ( Schizosacchaomyces ).
Life cycle may be
1. Haplobiotic type – Diploid stage is short.
– Schizo saccharomyces octosporus
2. Diplobiontic type – Diploid stage is pronged – Saccharomyces ludwigii.
3. Haplo – diplobiotic type – Haploid and diploid stages are present – Saccharomyces cerevisiae
( Beaking Yeast )
Adelphogamy – In some yeast like Schizosaccharomyces mellacei and S. prombe, copulation occurs between
two adjacent cells formed by fission .This is called Adelphogamy.
Top Yeasts grow on the surface of fermenting liquid and Bottom Yeast grow at the bottom of fermenting liquid.
Fermentation is carried out by enzymes Invertase and Zymase.
Sucrose
Invertase
Glucose + Fructose
Glucose or Fructose
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Zymase E. Alcohol and CO2
ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF
ALGAE
As Food – Porphyra, Nostoc, Ulva, Laminaria,
Sargassum, Chlorella
As Fodder – Sea weeds like Laminaria, Fucus,
Ascophyllus
Agar Agar – Red algae Gelidium, Gracillaria
Alginic Acid – Ascophyllum, Laminaria,
Macrocystic, Eisenia.
Carrageenin – Red alga Chondrus crispus
( Irish moss ). Used in industry.
Iodine – Brown alga Kelps.Laminaria, Eisenia.
Diatomite – Rock like deposite from past
diatoms.
Nitrogen fixers – Soil pH control- Aulosira,
Oscillatoria, Anabaena, Nostoc, Cylindrosperum
Medicine
Clorellin – Chlorella. Inhibits growth of
Staphylococcus.
Vermifuge – Digenia, Codium, Alsidium.
Space travel – Chlorella pyrenoidosa used in
space travel to remove CO2.
Water supply – Blue green algae like
Microcystis, Oscillatoria, Nostoc causes Water
blooms.
Parasitic forms – Cephaleuros is a parasite on
Mango and Tea.
ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF
FUNGI
As Medicine - Sclerotia of Claviceps is used
as a strong Abortifacient.
As Food
- Mushrooms ( Psalliota
campestris , Pleurotus ), Puffballs
( Lycoperdon ) Morels ( Morchella )
Amanita – Highly poisonous mushroom.
Alcohol
- Yeasts, Aspergillus niger.
Baking
- Saccharomyces cerevisiae.
Cheese
- Penicillium sp.
Enzymes
- Saccharomyces, Rhizopus,
Aspergillus, Penicillium.
Lactic acid - Rhizopus, Mucor.
Citric acid - Aspergillus. Penicillium.
Oxalic acid - Aspergillus niger.
Genetic studies – Neurospora.
Fungi causing Plant diseases
White rust of Crucifers
Downy mildew
Late blight of potato
Powdery mildew
Rust
Smuts
Albugo candida
Peronospora
Phytophthora
Erysiphe
Puccinia
Ustilago
ERGOTISM
caused by the alkaloids
present in Claviceps purpurea
Spoilage of Food – Penicillium, Aspergillus,
Mucor, Rhizopus
Heteroecism
Some Parasitic fungi
requires two hosts to complete the life cycle. This
is Heteroecism. Eg. Puccinia
Smut – It is called so
because the rust
formed resembles soot
Rotting of Timber – Wood rot of trees
is caused by Polyporus and Fomes
Common names of Fungi
Bread mould or Pin mould
Green or Blue mould
Red or Pink bread mould
Black mould
Heterokaryosis Presence of nuclei
containing different genotypes in the fungal
mycelium
12
Rhizopus nigricans
Penicillium
Neurospora
Aspergillus niger
BLUE GREEN ALGAE
Nostoc, Anabaena, Oscillatoria.
Gaidukov Phenomenon or Complementary Chromatic Adaptation - Oscillatoria assumes
Green colour in Red light, Reddish in green light, Bluish green in Yellow light. This is called
Gaidukov phenomenon.
Blue green algae contain photosynthetic pigments Chlorophyll a and Carotene. Chlorophyll b
totally absent.
Other pigments are c-Phycocyanin, c- Phycoerythrin and Myxoxanthin.
Heterocysts are specialized cells that carry out Nitrogen fixation.
Hormogonia are segments of filaments produced by fragmentation.
YELLOW GREEN ALGAE
Xanthophyta
Botrydium, Vaucheria
Pigments are Chlorophyll a and Xanthophyll.
Reserve food
Leucosin
( Oil, Lipid, Glucose polymer )
Cell wall
Pectin
RED ALGAE
Rhodophyta
Porphyra, Polysiphonia, Gelidium,
Gracilaria, Chondrine.
Mostly marine.
Pigments are Chlorophyll a and d.
Red colour is due to r-Phycoerythrin – red
r- Phycocyanin – blue green
Reserve food
Floridean starch.
DIATOMS
BROWN ALGAE
Phacophyta
Fucus, Ectocarpus, Laminaria,
Sargassum, Dictyota.
They are exclusively Marine.
Fucoxanthine ( carotinoid ) gives brown
colour.
Photosyntheic Pigment is Chlorophyll a
Reserve food – Mannotol and Lamina.
Cell wall is made up of Cellulose and
Algin.
Algin is found only in Brown algae.
CHARA is called as Stone wort
It belongs to the group Charophyta.
Pigments are Chlorophyll a and b.
Reserve food is starch.
Bacillariophyta
Commonly called as “ Jewels of Plant World “ because of the ornamented call wall.
Cell wall is made up of Pectic substance called Silica.
Diatom cell is known as Frustule.
Pigments are Chlorophyll a, c, Fucoxanthine.
Diatomin is the principle colouring pigment present in diatoms.
Reserve food – Volutine ( Protein )
Auxospores – Formed during vegetative reproduction.
13
LICHENS
Helotism
Algal and Fungal parts are symbionts but the Fungus is the dominant partner
Reindeer Moss
Cladonia rangifeva – Edible, found in tundra region.
Rocella tinctoria
Used to prepare Litmus.
Pollution indicator Lichens are indicators of pollution. They are totally absent in
Industrially polluted areas.
PLANT PATHOLOGY
Etiology
Collateral host
Prophylaxis
Hypertrophy
Hyperplasia
Irish famine
Investigation of the causes of plant diseases.
Host required by a pathogen for Perennation
Prevention of plants from being exposed to pathogens.
Increase in size of cells due to infection.
Increase in the number of cells due to infection.
Occurred in 1985 due to Late blight disease caused by Phytophthora
Infestans.
BORDEAUX MIXTURE
Fungicide developed by
Prof. Millardet of Bordeaux
University.
It is a mixture of Copper
sulphate and Lime
AFLATOXIN
Fungal toxin from
Aspergillus favus
PHYTOLEXIN
Antibiotics produced by
the interaction of host
and parasite. Egs.
Glyceollin, Phaseolin,
Pisatin, Capdidiol.
PLANT DISEASES
Disease
Early blight
Late blight
Powdery mildew
Ergot
Loose smut
Covered smut
Smut
Stem rust
Leaf rust
Thikka desease
Red rot
Panama wilt
Canker
Host
Potato
Potato
Pea
Graminae
Wheat
Barley
Sugarcane
Wheat
Wheat
Ground nut
Sugarcane
Banana
Citrus
Causative agent
Alternaria solani
Phytophthora
Erysiphe polygoni
Claviceps purpurea
Ustilago tritici
Ustilago hordei
Ustilago scitaminea
Puccinia graminis
Puccinia recondite
Cercospora personata
Collectotrichum falcatum
Fusarium oxysporum
Xanthomonas citri
14
Mosaic disease
Bunchy top
Root knot ( Nematode )
Potato
Banana
Tomato
Potato virus X
Banana virus I
Meloidogyne
BRYOPHYTA
Amphibions of the Plant kingdom
LIVER WORTS
Used as medicine for liver troubles and hence
the name.
Belongs to the group Hepaticae.
Egs. Riccia, Marchantia, Pellia, Porella
Plant body may be thalloid as in Livervorts
or Musci as in Mosses.
True roots absent
They lack Vascular tissue ( Atracheata )
HORN WORTS
Belongs to the group Anthrocerotae
Eg. Anthroceros
TRUE MOSSES
Funaria, Polytrichum
PTERIDOPHYTES
First land plants with vascular system
CRYPTOGAMS
Devoid of Visible sex organs
PHANEROGAMS
Seed plants
PSILOPSIDA
Rootless , leafless Saprophyte
PTEROPSIDA
Higher pteridophytes. Compound leaf is
called as Fronds. Stem is underground
And is called as Rhizome.
LYCOPODIUM
It is the Club Moss
SELAGINELLA
Resurrection plants. They can withstand
dry seasons for long periods.
GYMNOSPERMS
Phanerogams without ovary
Cycas, Pinus, Ginko
Seeds nacked
Gymnosperms are related to pteridophytes as
they have ciliated sperms and to
Angiosperms as they have seeds.
SEQUOIA
Tallest Plant. It is a Gymnosperm
PINUS
Cataphylls are the brown scale leves present
on the stem of Pinus.
OLEORESIN
It is obtained from Pinus It is used to prepare Turpentine and Rosin by distillation
Rosin is used to prepare Soaps and Cosmetics.
15
ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF GYMNOSPERMS
Canada balsam – It is obtained from Abies balsamina. Used to prepare permanent slides.
Cedar wood oil – It is obtained from Cedrus. Used in oil immersion objective of microscope.
Sandarac
- It is called as Hard White Sprit. Obtained from Callitric.
Tannin
- Obtained from Seqnoia
Ephedrine
- Obtained from Ephedra. It is used to make cough mixture.
HIGH YIELD FACTS
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Agar is obtained from Gelidium
Ginkgo biloba is a living fossil
Ribbon shaped chloroplasts are found in Sprogyra
Cycas roots have Anabaena
Sex pili are the sex organs of some bacteria. Used in conjugation
Circular free DNA is found in Bacteria
BGA are included in Prokaryotes
Blue green algae are found in thermal springs. The temperature tolerance is due to
Mitochondrial structure
9. Little leaf disease of Brinjal is caused by Mycoplasma
10. Crown gall is produced by Bacteria
11. Number of Peristome teeth in the capsule of Funaria is 32 in two rows
12. Fungal spores produced at the tip of Hyphae are called as Conidia
13. In Pinus the approximate time for fertilization after pollination is few weeks
14. Bacteria are considered as Omnipresent organism
15. Gram positive bacteria retains colour of Crystal violet after washing with alcoholic KOH
16. Diaminopimelic acid is present in the cell wall of bacteria
17. Energy in Chemosynthetic bacteria comes from the oxidation of surrounding
compounds
18. Most of the Photoautotrophic bacteria live as Epiphytes on areal plants
19. The clear zone formed within the bacterial colony is called as Plaque
20. Bacteria with only one flagellum is called as Monotrichus
21. Lophotrichus bacteria contains many flagella
22. Cell wall material in BGA and Bacteria is Muramic acid
23. Most common method of reproduction in bacteria is binary fission]
24. Lederberg and Tatum termed the sexual reproduction in bacteria as Genetic
recombination
25. In bacteria, sexual dimorphism is seen during conjugation
26. Conjugation is meant for the direct exchange of genetic material between two bacteria
27. Transfer of genetic material between bacteria through a virus is called as Transduction
16
28. Rhodospillum rubrum is a Photosynthetic autotrophy
29. Mesosomes are the sites of respiration in bacteria
30. Phycocyanin is the chief accessory pigment present in Blue green algae
31. False branching is the characterestic feature of Scytonema
32. BGA causes water pollution in house hold water tanks
33. Meiotic division is absent in Cyanophyceae
34. Reticulate chloroplast is found in Cladophora
35. Algae forms the largest photosynthetic plant group
36. Filaments of Ulothrix are unbranched
37. Nucleus of Sprogyra is kept in the center of the cell by cytoplasmic strands
38. Coenobium is the colony encircled by mucilaginous sheath
39. Axospores are found in Diatoms
40. Spirogyra shows Palmella stage
41. Sea weed is the common name of Brown algae
42. Diatoms help to prepare Fireproof living
43. Red snow is caused by Chlamydomonas
44. Lichens growing on the bank of trees are called as Corti colos
45. Lichens are used as Bioindicators
46. Perfect stage of Fungus is represented by the Fruiting body
47. Phycomycetes are called as Imperfect Fungi
48. Yeast is the source of Vitamin B. So rich in curd
49. Algae are included among plants because of the presence of cell wall
50. Clorella is rich in Proteins
51. Stone wort is the common name of Chara
52. Cap cells are found in Oedogonium
53. Chondrus cripus is commonly called as Irish Moss
54. Zoospore is the flagellated asexual cell
55. Coprphilous fungi live in Cow dung
56. Litmus is obtained from Lichens
57. Cladonia rangifera is commonly called as Rein deer moss because it is edible to Rein deers
58. Muramic acid is present in the cell wall of bacteria and blue green algae
59. Leavening of Bread is brought about by Bacteria
60. Damping off disease is caused by Pythium
61. Lederberg and Tatum discovered Conjugation in Bacteria
62. Clostidium botulinum causes Food poisoning
63. Robert Koch proposed the Germ theory of disease
64. Equisetum is commonly called as Horse tail
65. Ligule is present in Selaginella
66. Gymnosperms are the most successful land plants
67. Cycas is a living fossil
68. Sango palm is the common name of Cycal revolute
69. Coralloid roots of Cycas contain Blue green algae
70. Canada balsam is obtained from Abies balsamina
17
PHOTOMORPHOGENESIS AND FLOWERING
Photomorphogenesis refers to the effect of light to the development and metabolism of plants.
Phytochrome
It is the pigment that absorbs red and far – red light and also absorbs blue light
Phytochromes play a key role in light regulated plant growth and development.
In dark grown or Etiolated plants, Phytochrome is in the red absorbing form
called Pr form . It is synthesized in Pr form.
Pr appears as blue to human eye and is converted into Pfr, ( blue ) a far red
Absorbing form by red light.
Pfr is the physiologically active form of Phytochrome.
Phytochromobilin is the open chain tetrapyrole of Phytochrome.
Phytochrome is a dimeric protein.
Garnar and Allard in 1920 found that flowering in plants is related to day length.
PHOTOPERIODISM
Short day plants – SDPs
Flower in day length less than critical amount. Egs. Nicotiana, Glycine
Max, Xanthium, Chrysanthimum, Dahlia.
Long day plants – LDPs
Flower when day length exceeds the critical level. Egs. Spinach, Radish,
Beet, Wheat.
Day neutral plants – DNPs . not affected by photoperiod. Egs. Cotton, Sunflower, Tomato, Maize.
Short-Long day plants – SLDP –Require short photoperiod for bud initiation and long photoperiod
For blossoming. Egs. Trifolium repens, Secale cereale.
Long- Short day plants – LSDPs Flower only when long photoperiod is followed by short
Photoperiod. Egs. Bryophyllum, Cestrum.
Flowering is controlled by Dark period rather than light period.
Short day plants flowers when critical dark period is exceeded. That is SDPs are Night Long plants.
In Long day plants Dark period is less. That is LDPs is short night plants.
Leaves receives the stimuli and
transmits through the Phloem
Defoliated plants do not flower because they
cannot receive the stimuli.
The most effective wave length is between
580nm and 680nm in the red region
Green color will not induce
flowering.
18
CIRCADIAN RHYTHEM
It is a biological activity that shows rhythmic activities depending on the regular periodicity of 24
hours.
Flowering is induced when light exposure coincide with the appropriate phase of the biological
rhythm.
The stimulus for flowering is transmitted to the floral buds in the form of Hormone.
FLORIGEN
Gibberillin induce
It is the flowering hormone identified by M.K.Chailakhyan in
1937.
Gibberillin and Ethylene can also induce flowering.
flowering in Arabidopsis
by activating certain
genes.
Ehylene induce
ANTIFLORIGEN
flowering in Pineapple.
These are inhibitors that prevent flowering.
VERNALISATION
Flowering in response to cold temperature. Plants are subjected to
cold treatment to the growing point and exposed to the
photoperiod.
Vernalin is the hormone that causes Vernalisation
Devernalisation is caused
by high temperature.
SENESCENCE
Period between reproductive maturity and death of plants.
Whole plant senescence Whole plant dies after seed formation.
Sequential senescence
Older leaves and lateral organs die and tip of plant continue to grow.
Shoot senescence
In Banana and Gladiolus, the shoot die and underground parts survive.
Synchronous senescence Leaves are shed in a season. Egs. Mapple tree.
Cytokinins delay senescence Abscisic acid promotes senescence.
HIGH YIELD FACTS
1.
2.
3.
4.
Photomorphogenetic responses, the most important pigment absorbs Blue and Red lights.
Studies on seed germination led to the discovery of Phytochromes.
Pfr is the physiologically active Phytochrome.
Day neutral plants are beneficial to farmers because more than one crop of the same plant
can be raised in a year.
5. Growing point of the plant receives stimulus for cold treatment in vernalisation.
6. Auxins also induce flowering in some plants.
19
TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES
LIGHT MICROSCOPE
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
Robert Hook designed first Microscope
Numerical aperture is the light gathering capacity of the Microscope.
Working distance is the distance between the specimen and front lens of the objective.
Condenser lens collects light from the light source and focus to the specimen.
Objective lens produce the primary magnified image of the object and it is real and
inverted.
Ocular or Eyepiece lens produces the secondary image of the primary image produced by
the objective lens. It is virtual image.
Magnification power of the compound microscope is 2000 – 4000 times and Resolution is
0.3 micometer.
Resolution of the lens is the property to distinguish two adjacent points in the specimen as
two separate regions.
A good quality microscope has maximum resolution.
Magnification of compound microscope
Size of the retinal image seen in the microscope / Size of the retinal image with the normal
eye.
Maximum resolving power of human eye is 100 Microns or 0.1 mm.
Average wave length of light in the compound microscope is 5850 Angstroms.
Resolving power of the compound microscope is 300 Angstroms or 0.3 microns. It the half
wave length of ordinary light.
Oil immersion objective is used in the compound microscope to get maximum resolution.
The space between the cover glass and objective lens is filled with oil like Cedar Wood Oil
to prevent the loss of light.
ELECTRON MICROSCOPE
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Knoll and Ruska discovered EM in 1932.
Source of illumination in EM is electrons.
A Tungston filament in the Electron Gun is heated using 500 Kv voltage to emit electrons.
Resolving power of EM is 5 – 10 Angstroms and magnification is up to 10 Lakhs.
Electromagnetic lenses are used in EM in the place of glass lenses because glass will not pass
electrons.
Image in the EM is not visible since human eye cannot detect electrons. So a fluorescent screen
is used to see the image.
Electron microscope may be TEM or SEM or ESEM.
Electron microscope will work only in vacuum because air will scatter the electrons.
Electron microscope requires dehydrated specimen because water will cause electron scatter.
20
10. Metals like Gold and Palladium are used to impregnate the tissue. These increase the electron
scattering power in EM.
11. Osmium tetroxide is used as electron stain to increase the electron scattering in EM.
12. Scanning Electron Microscope provides the surface details of the specimens.
13. For specimen preparation in SEM, first the tissue is dipped in liquid Propane at – 180 degree
and dehydrated in alcohol at – 70 degree.
14. Gold is coated over the specimen to increase secondary electron emission from the specimen.
15. Secondary electrons from the specimen are used to produce image in SEM.
16. Magnification power of SEM is 15000 to 20000 times.
17. Specimen in EM should be thin ( 100 Angstrom thickness ) because thick specimens will scatter
electrons and hence the resolution will be poor.
18. Enivironmental Scanning Electron Microscope or ESEM is used to study wet specimens like
leaf, animal parts etc. It requires no procedures like electron microscope.
PHASE CONTRAST MICROSCOPE
1. Zernike in 1940 discovered the phase contrast microscope.
2. Phase contrast microscope is used to study unstained living specimens because staining will
kill the living organism.
3. Phase contrast microscope has a Phase plate in the condenser and an Anuular diaphragm in
the ocular lens.
4. The phase plate and annular diaphragm produces a phase difference in the light and the object
appears as bright in the dark background.
5. No staining is done in phase contrast microscope.
DARK FIELD MICROSCOPE
1. Zsigmondy in 1905 discovered Dark field microscope.
2. It is used to study unstained living objects.
3. It has a special condenser which remove light from the center. The object is illuminated by an
oblique beam of light.
4. The specimen appears as bright against a dark background.
INTERFERENCE MICROSCOPE
1. Mesten developed Interference microscope.
2. In Interference microscope, light beam is split into two beams. One beam passes through the
object and the other besides the object. The two beams are brought together again. It gives the
idea about the thickness of the specimen and also the light absorbing property of the specimen.
21
ULTRA VIOLET MICROSCOPE
1. Ultra violet microscope permits greater resolution and hence greater magnification because the
Ultra violet light has a shorter wave length ( 180 – 400 nm ) than the visible light ( 400 – 800
nm).
2. In Ultra violet microscope, Quarts or Lithium fluoride lenses are used since UV rays cannot
pass through optical lenses.
3. Image in UV microscope is not visible to human eye and hence a fluorescent screen is used for
observation.
4. UV microscope is used for Quantitative and Qualitative evaluation of cellular components.
5. Those substances like DNA and RNA which absorb in the UV region can be localized even in
the living state.
FLUORESCENT MICROSCOPE
1. Some biological materials like Chlorophyll a, Vitamin A, Riboflavin etc. emit light when
exposed to UV rays. This is called Autofluorescence.
2. Non fluorescent substances can be made fluorescent by treating with dyes called Flurochromes
like Acridine Orange, Auramine, Primulin, Fuschin etc.
3. In fluorescent microscope, Iodine – Quartz lamp or Mercury vapour lamp is used to produce
UV rays.
4. Fluorescent microscope is used to detect Chemicals, Microbes, and finding Metabolic
pathways.
X – RAY MICROSCOPE
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
It uses X- ray beam, Electromagnets and Photographic film.
Magnification of X-ray microscope is very high similar to that of EM.
It is used to study the 3 D structure of substances in the crystalline state.
The technique in X- ray microscope is called X-ray Crystallography or X- ray diffraction.
Astbury and Franklin in 1935 obtain the X- ray diffraction of DNA.
It is used with solid crystalline materials.
ULTRA VIOLET SPECTROSCOPY
1. It is used to identify the functional groups and determination of the molecular structure of an
organic compound.
2. It is specially used to identify compounds containing multiple bonds.
3. It is based on the electron transitions of the molecule by the absorption of UV light.
4. The point where maximum UV light absorption takes place is called Lambda maxima.
22
VISIBLE SPECTROSCOPY
1. It uses the visible light in the 400 – 800 nm range.
2. It is usually used for the quantitative estimation of coloured compounds like chlorophyll ,
biological pigments etc.
LIQUID SCINTILLATION SPECTROMETRY
1. To measure the radiation emitted by a radio active material, 3 methods are used.
1. Autoradiography - X- ray film is used.
2. Geiger – Muller method
- Property of the radiation to cause ionization of
particles with whom collide is used.
3. Scintillating counting method - Some materials like Anthracene or Stilbene absorbe
ionizing radiations and emit phosphorescent light. By using
this method, low energy emitters like Tritium can be
counted.
NUCLEAR MAGNETIC RESONANCE ( NMR ) SPECTROSCOPY
1.
2.
3.
It is used to characterize organic compounds.
It provides a means of determining the structure of the organic compound by measuring
the magnetic movements of its hydrogen atoms.
The number of peaks obtained in the NMR spectrum of the compound gives the number of
sets of equivalent Protons ( Hydrogen atoms ) present in that group.
ELECTRON SPIN RESONANCE ( ESR ) SPECTROSCOPY
1. It is used to detect the presence of free radicals or free metal ions in the biological systems.
2. Free radicals contain odd electrons and also some metal ions as non haem iron of electron
transport system in the mitochondria.
PLASMA EMISSION SPECTROSCOPY
1. It is used to detect the presence of metals in the biological systems.
2. When the electrons get excited, they move to high energy level and return back to normal and
release energy in a form of characteristic pattern of wavelengths called Plasma Emission.
3. The identification of metal is done by measuring the Plasma emission spectrum.
AUTORADIOGRAPHY
1. It is used to localize radio active tracers in the biological systems.
2. It is highly useful to trace metabolic pathways.
23
3. Calvin used auto radiography to study photosynthesis which result in the discovery of Calvin
cycle.
4. The biological material is placed in direct contact with a layer of Photographic emulsion
containing Silver halide.
5. Radio active material in the sample emit radiations which will produce images.
6. Tracer elements like Tritium, C14, P32, I-131 etc are used in auto radiography.
TISSUE STAINING
1. PAS ( Periodic Acid Schiff’s reaction ) is used to detect Carbohydrates in the tissues.
2. Sudan black – B and Sudan Red are used to stain lipids.
3. Naphthol Yellow – S and Mercuric Bromophenol blue are used to stain Proteins.
4. Feulgen’s stain is used to stain DNA.
5. Azure – B is used to stain RNA.
6. Methyl green Pyronine is also used to stain DNA.
7. Metachromasia is the phenomenon in which the cell parts are stained differently.
8. Neutral Red, Methylene blue etc are Vital Stains used to stain living calls.
9. Bouins fluid and Carnoys fluid are used as tissue fixatives.
10. Acetocarmine and Acetoorcein are used as chromosome stains used to study cell division.
11. Leishman’s and Wright’s stain are used to stain WBC.
12. Safranin is used to stain plant cells.
13. Janus green is used to stain Mitochondria.
14. Methylene blue is used as a counter stain.
15. Acid dyes – Eosine, Acid fuchsin
16. Basic dyes – Methlene blue, Basic fuchsin, Crystal violet, Safranin.
17. Crystal violet, Methylene blue and Carbolfuchsin are used to determine the size and shape
of bacteria.
18. Gram staining uses Crystal violet stain. Iodine act as a Mordant in gram staining.
19. Safranin is the Counter stain in gram staining.
20. Gram positive bacteria retains Crystal violet where as Gram negative loses Crystal violet.
21. Safranin stains Gram positive strains dark purple and Gram negative strains as pink to red.
22. Ziehl – Neelsen method is used to identify Mycobacterium .It uses Basic fuchsin stain and
Methylene blue counter stain.
23. Negative staining involves mixing of bacteria with India ink or Nigrosin so that bacteria
appears as spots in the middle of a blue black background.
CELL FRACTIONATION
1. Is used to separate cell components. It involves Homogenization and Centrifugation.
2. Homogenization involves the breaking of cell components.
3. Homogenization is carried out in ice cold ( 0 – 4 degree ) isotonic solution of 0.25 Molar
Sucrose solution.
4. Centrifugation separates cell components.
24
5. Centrifuges operates based on the Centrifugal and Centripetal forces.
6. The RPM of Ultracentrifuge is over 75000 per minute.
7. Sedimentation coefficient is represents in Svedberg units.
8. Intact cells and nuclei sediment at 1000 x g for 10 minutes.
9. Mitochondria, Lysosomes and Peroxisomes sediment at 10,000 x g for 25 minutes.
10. Microsomes sediment at 100,000 x g for 6 minutes.
CHROMATOGTAPHY
1.
2.
3.
4.
Chromatography means “ Writing with colors “.
It is used to separate components of a mixture.
Chromatography was designed by Michael Tswett in 1906.
Rf value is the Retension Factor used to identify aminoacids. Each aminoacid has a typical Rf
value.
5. Rf value = Distance traveled by the compound / Distance traveled by the solvent. That is Rf
value is always less than 1.
6. Solvent represents the Mobile phase and the support forms the Stationary phase.
7. Paper chromatography uses Whatman No. 1 filter paper as the stationary phase.
8. Chromatography solvent contains n – Butanol, Acetic acid and Water.
9. Ninhydrin is used to stain aminoacids.
10. In Column chromatography, Calcium carbonate, Magnesium oxide, Silica etc are used to fill
the column.
11. Thin layer Chromatography ( TLC ) uses Cellulose powder or Alumina to make the support.
12. Partition Chromatography uses Silica gel or Cellulose.
13. Affinity and Ion exchange chromatography uses Agarose polysaccharide as the matrix
material.
14. HPLC – High Pressure ( Performance ) Liquid Chromatography uses Resin particles to
increase the flow of materials.
15. Gel Filtration is also called as Molecular Sieving.
ELECTROPHORESIS
1. It is used to separate protein fractions from biological fluids.
2. The substance is subjected to an electric field and separation takes place according to the ionic
charges of the individual fractions.
3. Barbiturate buffer is used in electrophoresis to provide ions to the protein for movement.
4. Bromophenol blue or Light green stain is used to develop the electrophoresis paper.
5. PAGE – PolyAcrylamide Gel Electrophoresis is used to separate proteins. It is used to study
Antigen – Antibody reactions.
6. Electrofocussing is the technique used to separate proteins in a pH gradient.
25
TISSUE CULTURE
1. Tissue culture is also called as “ invitro culture “.
2. Tissue culture medium uses Agar as the base material.
3. Common macro elements used are Ca, Fe, K, Mg, Na and micro elements are Al, Co, Cu, Fe,
B, Mn, Zn, Mo, Cl.
4. Carbon source in the tissue culture medium will be Sucrose and rarely Glucose or Mannitol.
5. Phytohormones used are IAA, NAA and Kinetin.
6. Vitamins are Nicotinic acid and Pyridoxine.
7. Enzymes used in Protoplast fusion are Onozuka –R 10 and Mecerozyme.
8. Poly ethylene Glycol or PEG is the inducing agent in somatic hybridization.
9. Somatic embryogenesis depends on the balance between Auxin and Nitrogen source. Such
factors are called as Epigenetic factors.
10. Organ culture is helpful to protect rare plants from extinction.
11. Monoclonal antibodies are only one type of antibody for a specific antigen generated by
Hybridoma technology.
12. Monoclonal antibodies are called as “ Magic Bullets “ because they are used in
Chemotherapy to give drug to the target cancer cells.
13. Polyclonal antibodies contain different types of antibodies generated by vaccinating an
animal like sheep or Mice.
MICROSCOPY
Type
Magnification
Resolution
1. Bright field
2. Dark field
3. Ultra violet
4. Fluorescence
5. Phase contrast
6. Interference
7. TEM
8. SEM
1500 x
1500 x
2500 x
1500 x
1500 x
1500 x
500,000 – 1,000,000 x
10,000 – 1,000,000 x
100 – 200 nm
100 – 200 nm
100 nm
100 - 200 nm
100 – 200 nm
100 – 200 nm
1 nm
1 – 10 nm
Comparison of Light Microscope and Electron Microscope
Feature
Magnification
Resolution
Specimen mount
Focusing
Light microscope
1000 – 1500
0.2 micro meter
Glass slide
Changing the position
of lens
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Electron microscope.
Over 1Lakh
0.5 nm
Copper Metal grid
By changing the current through
electromagnetic lenses
TECHNIQUES IN GENETIC ENGINEERING AND TISSUE
CULTURE
1. Daniel Nathans ( 1971 ) of Hopkins University utilized the Restriction enzyme to split DNA
of the monkey tumour virus, Simian Virus 40 ( SV 40 ).
2. Paul Berg of Stanford University in 1971 opened the DNA molecule of SV40.
3. Herbert Boyr in 1971 isolated the Restriction enzyme.
4. First gene was cloned in 1972-73.
5. In 1977 complete genetic code of an organism was determines. The organism was X 174 phage
and its genetic code is 5375 bases long.
6. Insulin ( Eli Lilly’s Humulin ) is the first product made through genetic engineering.
7. In 1982, the first transgenic organism, a Mice was produced.
8. In 1983, first transgenic plant was produced.
9. In 1989, the first patented transgenic animal, the Oncomice was produced.
10. In 1990, the first transgenic cereal Maize and Wheat was introduced.
11. Ligase enzyme
It is called as Molecular glue. The RE will not make straight cuts, but staggered
cuts produced by the RE have sticky ends which are joined by Ligase.
12. Restriction fragment
The RE cuts the specific DNA at the two ends which become the Restriction
fragment.
13. Electroporation
Transient pores are produced in the plasma membrane of the host cell by electric
current to insert recombinant plasmids.
14. Complementary or c DNA.
DNA synthesized from RNA template using Reverse transcriptase enzyme.
cDNA is used to make DNA library.
15. Gene gun or Particle bombardment
It is technique in which high velocity particles of Tungsten or Gold are coated
with DNA and then shot into host cell.
16. Microinjection
It is the method to introduce recombinant DNA by using Micro pipette. The
method is useful in large cells like egg cells.
17. Liposomes
These are bubbles of lipid that can carry r-DNA into host cells.
18. Ti plasmid
It is the “ Natural Genetic Engineer “. It is the Tumour inducing ( Ti ) plasmid
found in Agrobacterium tumefaciens, a gram negative , rod shaped motile
bacterium. The Ti plasmid has the ability to integrate the gene into the host
nucleus. Ti plasmid system is a naturally existing” vector system “. So it is called
as Natural Genetic Engineer.
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19. Bio-leaching
It is the separation of metals from ores using microbes. Thiobacillus
ferrooxidans is used to separate Cobalt, Nickel, Lead and Lime.
20. Bioremediation
Technique used to clean pollutants using microbes. Pseudomonas can be used to
clean up oil spills.
21. Protoplast fusion
Technique used to fuse cells .PEG ( Polyehylene glycol ), Calcium ions, Sodium
nitrate etc. are used for protoplast fusion.
22. Nif genes
Nitrogen fixing genes present in Klebsiella pneumoniae.
23. Flavr Savr
Genetically engineered tomato with increased flavour ant long shelf life.
24. Golden rice
Vitamin A rich variety of Rice containing high amount of betacarotene.
25. Animal cloning
Animal cloning is more difficult than plant cloning since, animal cells lose their
totipotency on reaching the gastrula stage.
26. Hela cells
This is the establishment of a cell line .A heterogenous population of cells
resulting from the first subculture of a primary culture. Hela cells were obtained
in 1952, from a human cervical carcinoma. Hela cell cultures support the
replication of a wide range of viruses.
27. Hybridomas
These are produced by the cell fusion between a tumour cell and a non- tumour
cell. MAB ( Monoclonal Antibodies ) are produced using the hybridoma
technology.
28. MABs
Monoclonal antibodies are valuable for immunological and molecular reaserch.
29. Tissue plasminogen activator
It is used to produce tissue plasmin from plasminogen. Plasmin is used to
dissolve blood clots.
30. Vaccines
Genetically engineered vaccines for Measles, Small pox, Rubella, Rabies, etc. are
produced using chick or duck embryos.
31. Hepatitis vaccine
Injectable hepatitis B vaccine is produced from Yeast cells.
32. Norwalk vaccine
It is the vaccine against the Norwalk virus .
33. Travellers diarrhea
It is caused by the toxin produced by E.coli. It is Enterotoxogenic bacteria.
34. Helicobactor pylori
It is a bacterium causes ulcers in man.
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35. Edible vaccines
Vaccines produced using A. tumifaciens.
36. Organismal cloning
The first organismal cloning of a vetrebtrate ( Frog ) was done in 1960 by
Dr. J. Gurdon at Oxford University.
37. Dolly
In 1965, Dr. Ian Wlmut and his team at Rosalin Institute in Edinburg cloned a
sheep called Dolly from the Udder cells. The nucleus of the udder cell was
transplanted into a eunucleated unfertilized egg cell. The egg was then
transplanted into a surrogate sheep and Dolly was produced. It was born in
February 1996.
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DOMESTICATION OF ANIMALS
1.
2.
3.
4.
Exotic breeds of cows
Milk yielding breeds
Draught breeds
Utility breeds
Gurensey, Jersey, Holstein, Shorthorn, Brown swiss, Friesian.
Gir, Sahiwal, Red sindhi, Deoni.
Malvi, Nageri.
Ongole, Haryana.
Cattle diseases
Rinderpest
Called as Cattle plague. It is caused by a virus lived in WBCs. Symptoms are high temperature
diarrhoea.
Foot and Mouth disease
Caused by a modified virus. It is characterized by high fever and formation of blisters in the
mouth.
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