TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGE
TITLE
Katakana Notation of English (Teppei Shigemoto) (日本語)
A Brief History of English Education in Japan (Yosuke Senda)
What is Japanese English? (Azusa Komaki)
（日本語）
1-7
8-12
13-17
Differences between US and British English (Yuka Ogata) （日本語）
19-22
The Scouse Language (Takahiro Moriyama)
23-26
A Cultural History of Selected British English Accents (Takahiro Moriyama)
27-31
Ulster Scots (Chiharu Sakaguchi)
32-37
English borrowed from Native American Languages (Chikako Ono)
38-41
The Grammar of Black English (AAVE) in the U.S. (Makiko Tanaka)
42-45
The History of Black English (AAVE) in the U.S. (Makiko Tanaka) （日本語）
46-49
English Education in Korea (Ryuichi Tateyama)
50-53
Linguistic and Social Factors in Chinese English Pronunciation (Koki Yamamoto)
54-59
English in Singapore (Yoko Maeda)
60-62
The English of Native Spanish Speakers (Shoko Tanaka)
63-69
Non-regional differences of English in England and America (Miho Gotoh)
70-74
Difference in the English Ability of Japanese and Europeans (Nanami Mitsutake)
75-77
Pronunciation of English-speaking Children (Miyuki Morishima)
78-81
The Importance of English in India
82-86
(Miki Matsuoka)
Comparison of proverbs in English and Japanese (Miyuki Moribe)
The English of Flight Attendants (Mai Yoshikawa)
87-95
96-101
Maori Influence on New Zealand English (Megumi Nakamura)
102-105
Japalish as an International Language (Yukari Hara)
106-109
Gestures in Japan and English-speaking countries 日本語 (Sawako Kamizato)
110-114
Hispanic society and language (Shoko Tanaka)
115-118
Polite expressions in English (Request expressions) as seen in “My Fair Lady” 日本語
(Sayako Nakao)
119-123
Thai English (Phrudtipan Glawgitigul)
124-127
Task-Based Learning: Teachers’ Challenges (Kayo Adachi)
128-132
Misunderstandings caused by Japanese English (Michiko Kobayashi)
133-135
Phonemic differences between English and Japanese English
(Mari Miyamura)
136-138
Differences in pronunciation of Japanese and US English vowels (Haruka Maeda)
English of Air Traffic Control
139-143
(Minako Kugio)
Differences in English used in America and Japan (Mayumi Murayama)
Influence of French on Middle English (Sayaka Furukawa)
English in Holland (Ayako Hayashida)
151
152-156
Katakana Notation of English (Shigemoto)
Abstract
Katakana pronunciation of English is assumed to be caused by Katakana
notation. This paper researched Katakana Notation according to three viewpoints: the
history of katakana, official rules and pronunciation.
First, Katakana’s roots were considered. Then we discuss today’s notation and
pronounces. Finally, better alternatives to Katakana are considered.
1. 始めに
日本語も他の言語の例外にもれず絶えず進化を続けている。特に明治維新以降、英語の一
般化によって、現在に至るまで英語は日本語に多大な影響を与えている。しかし一方で TOEFL
の成績の伸び悩み、会話のできない日本人、英語とカタカナの決定的な発音の違いによる誤
解などさまざまな問題もある。私はカタカナの歴史や現在使われている表記を見直すことで
日本人が今抱えている発音と表記の問題とその対策を見つめることができるのではと思い、
このテーマを設定した。
２. 日本語のかな文字化
明治時代になり本格的に欧米からの外来語の導入が始まった。それにより外来語を日本人
に読みやすいようにする取り組みもこのころから始まったのである。その変換ツールとして
カタカナが選ばれたことは言うまでもないが、そう、すんなり話は進まなかったのである。
なぜなら日本語のローマ字化とカタカナ文字化、そして漢字をもっと簡単に少なくしようと
する動きがあったからである。（出典①）
カタカナ文字化は、実業家の「山下 芳太郎」が大正９年に「カナモジカイ」を創立し、
日本語を合理化し、発音どおりに書くことを推進した。日本語のローマ字化については、田
中館愛橋(あいきょう)という人が「日本のローマ字社」を設立し、日本のローマ字化計画の
推進役となった。これは、欧文字２６文字で済み、漢字を覚える必要もなくタイプライター
で使えることが趣旨である。現在のキーボードの配置を考えたのもこの人である。（出典①）
これらの取り組みの根底には漢字は英語の導入にあたって邪魔になるという考えからであ
る。極端に言うと、漢字学習に要する時間があまりに多いことが日本語と外来語の学習にす
ごくマイナスになるので英語の流入とともに漢字を無くそうという考えからきている。この
考えは第二次大戦後の GHQ によってより推し進められこととなる。
（出典①）
ＧＨＱは、日本人の８５％は漢字が難しくて読めないと決めつけた。ローマ字での実験校
などもでき、日本語改革はほぼローマ字で決まりかけたが、ローマ字で勉強している生徒の
成績が、従来の日本語で勉強している生徒よりも明らかに学力が劣るという問題が発生した
のである。そこで、ＧＨＱは、全国２０箇所で 15～65 歳の２万人をくじ引きで選別し、日本
語のテストを行ったのである。この結果は９０点満点中８０点以上が半数、６０点以上が８
割と、漢字は民主化を阻害するものと思っていたが、アメリカ人よりも識字率がすぐれてい
たことを証明した。この結果、日本語のローマ字化は中止された。これにより、外来語には
カタカナが採用される運びとなった。これが、カタカナ語の歴史である。（出典①）
戦後、日本語のローマ字化、カタカナ語化はなくなり、カタカナは主に外来語に使うとい
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Katakana Notation of English (Shigemoto)
う取り決めがなされた。政府は国語審議会、外来語表記委員会などを開き、外来語の表記に
ついての指針を、現在に至るまで出している。
２．政府のカタカナ表記の指導
国語の音は，「ア」「イ」「ウ」「工」「オ」「キャ」「キュ」「キョ」「ジャ」「ジュ」
「ジョ」などの仮名に対応する音を基本単位とする。その種類は，現代のいわゆる和語と漢
語については，直音，拗音合わせて１００，これに撥音，促音，長音が加わる。
外国語が外来語として国語化するにあたって，基本的にはこれらの音が用いられているが，
さらに，外国語の原音に応じて，現代の和語や漢語にはない音が外来音として国語の中に取
り入れられ，それに当たる特別の仮名表記が工夫されてきた。例えば，「フィルム」の「フ
ィ」，「メロディー」の「ディ」のようなものである。また，長音については，和語や漢語
の場合と異なり，長音符号「ー」を用いることがほぼ定着している。（出典②）
このような，外来語の仮名表記については，従来，各方面で論議され，いろいろな取決め
が立案され実施されてきた。しかし，それらは必ずしも一致したものではなく，また，それ
らの取決めに合わない書き方も行われている。
平成 3 年に政府が出したカタカナ語表記の指針は仮名と音を対応させて用いるという考え
方に立つとともに，慣用を尊重することを基本的な方針としている。（出典②）そして，ど
のようなものが外来音として国語の中に取り入れられているかを実例に即して検討し，従来
の国語の音のほかに、余り無理がなく，外来音として国語の中に入っていると考えられるも
のに対応する仮名。言い分け、聞き分けの上では十分安定していないが，外来音としてある
程度国語の中に入っていると考えられるものに対応する仮名を取りあげている。現実には，
様々な状況に応じて，これら以外の音を仮名で書き表すことが必要になる場合もあるが，そ
れについては取決めを行わず，自由とすることにしている。以下一部の具体例を付録①に紹
介してある。
３．カタカナ語の表記と発音
ここでは現在使われているカタカナ語の表記を見て、英語がいかにカタカナ語として発音
されているかを見ていきたい。外国人の名前を例にとると、アンナは Anna と書くのだから本
来なら発音通りに書けばアシュリーと書くほうがよりもとの発音に近いだろう。
（以下、付録
②に示す）また、strike のようにストライクと読めば野球用語だが、ストライキと読めば労
働運動と、読み方を変えると意味が変わるものもある。（以下、付録③に示す）その他にも
break と brake のようにも日本語になると表記が違うものや smooth（スムーズ）のように変
化するものもある。
（以下付録④に示す）
以上、出典③
４．問題点と対策
以上見てきたように、カタカナが表音文字であるゆえに、外来語をカタカナで表記した際
に発音も変化していることがわかる。しかし、日本語にない発音（th）などはカタカナ表記
しづらいのもまた事実である。現在カタカナ表記の方法に外来語にできるだけ近づけようと
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Katakana Notation of English (Shigemoto)
する努力が続けられている。そのひとつの例を紹介したい。
この取り組みは表記法を改めるだけでなく、「日本語に無い発音を日本語に取り入れる」
ことが目的である。つまり、外国語発音の輸入である。もちろん、全ての外国語を忠実に再
現するのは無理であるから、国際的に当面不自由しないという意味で、英語の辞書の発音記
号の欄に出ている発音を日本語で表記することを第一に考える。従来のカタカナによる表記
法では、外国語の発音に十分に対応できないが、発想を新たにして、つまり、カタカナによ
る表記法を改善し外国語に対応出来る形を整えれば、発音に対する偏見の元となっている外
来語が「かなり便利な外来語」に変わるのである。
やり方として次のような方法がある。
・「ァィゥェォャュョ」を積極的に表記に導入する。そのためにもワープロで打ち込めるよ
うなソフトにする。
・足りない語末の子音に朝鮮語の母音を導入する。
主な具体例
[a]（ice, sky）
＝ 「ア」
[(c 左右反転)]（oil, boy）
＝ 「オァ」
[α]（alms, father）
＝ 「アォ」
[(ae)]（cat, hat）
＝ 「アェ」
[e] （end, bell）
＝ 「エ」
[e180 回転]（ability, upon） ＝ 「エォ」
[Λ]（up, blood）
＝ 「ア゜」
toilet ：トイレット→ トァイレ"ッ{ト} [tɔ ilet]
cat ：キャット → カェ{ト} [k(ae)t]
all ：オール → オァー{ル"} [ɔ :l]
attack：アタック → エォタェ{ク} [ə t(a+e)k]
カタカナ小文字の使用を可能とすれば、日本語の可能性は更に広がり、外来語を間違った
英語発音からも解放されるかもしれない。しかし、日本語に根付いた外来語はすでに地位を
確固たるものとしている。そこに、慣れない表記がでてきて素直に受け入れられることは難
しいかもしれない。もしこの新しい表記を今後採用するのであれば、政府、メディアを巻き
込んだよりいっそうの定着を図らなければならない。そのようなシステムを作っていくこと
が今後の課題であろう。
以上、出典④
5. まとめ
以上の文章はカタカナをできるだけ外来語の発音に近づけようとする取り組みの一環であ
る。こうした文章上での発音の誤りを訂正しようとする取り組みは今日でも絶えず続けられ
ているのである。しかし、外来語が和製英語として、間違った発音、間違った意味ですでに
定着している。今後、音声と絡めた和製英語の改善も含めて、私たちは外来語と接していく
べきではないだろうか。
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Katakana Notation of English (Shigemoto)
参考文献
出典①続・英語の公用語化について
http://www.asahi-net.or.jp/~vb7y-td/kak1/120223.htm
②平成３年６月２３日 内閣告示第二号
http://www.yamanouchi-yri.com/yrihp/techwrt-2-4s/t-2-4s07fb-2.htm
③ざつがく・ザツガク・雑学！（２０００．１．１）
http://www.geocities.co.jp/Bookend/4373/vol_116.htm
④作者：宇咲小恋
外国語発音を輸入する－相手国の発音を尊重するということ
（1999/7/28）
http://world-reader.ne.jp/renasci/another/uzaku-990728.html
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Katakana Notation of English (Shigemoto)
付録①：外来語をカタカナに変換する際の原則
出典：内閣告示第二号より（１９９１年）
http://www.yamanouchi-yri.com/yrihp/techwrt-2-4s/t-2-4s07fb-2.htm
＊小さいァィゥェォを使う場合とそうでない場合
・「シェ」「ジェ」と「セ」「ゼ」
〔例〕シェーカー ジェットエンジン シェークスピア ミケランジェロ
〔例〕ミルクセーキ ゼラチン
・「ティ」「ディ」と「チ」「ジ」と「テ」「デ」
〔例〕ボランティア ディーゼルエンジン ビルディング ノルマンディー
〔例〕エチケット スチーム プラスチック スタジアム エジソン
〔例〕ステッキ キャンデー デザイン
・「ファ」「フィ」「フェ」「フォ」と「ハ」「ヒ」「ヘ」「ホ」
〔例〕ファイル フィート フェンンング カリフォルニア ファーブル
〔例〕 セロハン モルヒネ プラットホーム
ホルマリン メガホン
注：「ファン」「フィルム」「フェルト」等は，「フアン」「フイルム」「フエルト」と書
く慣用もある。
・「デュ」と「ジュ」
〔例〕デュェット プロデューサー デューイ
〔例〕ジュース ジュラルミン
＊両方書けるもの
・「イェ」と「エ」
〔例〕イェルサレム イェーツ
〔例〕エルサレム イエーツ
・「ウィ」「ウェ」「ウォ」と「ウイ」「ウエ」「ウオ」
〔例〕ウィスキー ウェディングケーキ ウィルソン
〔例〕ウイスキー ウエディングケーキ ウイルソン
注１：地名・人名の場合は，「ウィ」「ウェ」「ウォ」と書く慣用が強い。
注２：「ウ」を省いて書く慣用
〔例〕サンドイッチ スイッチ スイートピー
・「クァ」「クィ」「クェ」「クォ」と「クア」「クイ」「クエ」「クオ」と「カ」「キ」
「ケ」「コ」
〔例〕クァルテット クィンテット クェスチョンマーク クォータリー
〔例〕クアルテット クインテット クエスチョンマーク クオータリー
〔例〕カルテット レモンスカッシュ キルティング イコール
注：「クァ」は，「クヮ」と書く慣用もある。
・「グァ」と「グア」と「ガ」
〔例〕グァテマラ バラグァイ
〔例〕グアテマラ バラグアイ
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Katakana Notation of English (Shigemoto)
〔例〕ガテマラ
注：「グァ」は，「グヮ」と書く慣用もある。
・「ツィ」と「チ」
〔例〕ソルジェニーツィン（人）ティツィアーノ（人）
〔例〕 ライプチヒ（地）ティチアーノ（人）
・「トゥ」「ドゥ」と「ツ」「ズ」と「ト」「ド」
〔例〕トゥールーズ（地）ハチャトゥリヤン（人）ヒンドゥー救。
〔例〕ツアー ツーピース ツールーズ ヒンズー教 ドビュッシー
・「ヴァ」「ヴィ」「ヴ」「ヴェ」「ヴォ」と「バ」「ビ」「ブ」「ベ」「ボ」
〔例〕ヴァイオリン ヴィーナス ヴェルサイユ ヴィヴァルディ
〔例〕バイオリン ビーナス べルサイユ ビバルディ
・「テュ」と「チュ」
〔例〕テューバ テュニジア
〔例〕コスチューム スチュワーデス チューバ チューブ チュニジア
・「フュ」と「ヒュ」
〔例〕フュージョン フュン島（地・デンマーク） ドレフュス（人）
〔例〕ヒューズ
・「ヴュ」と「ビュ」
〔例〕インタヴュー レヴュー ヴュイヤール（人・画家）
〔例〕インタビュー レビュー ビュイヤール
＊撥音，促音，長音その他に関するもの
・撥音は，「ン」を用いて書く。
〔例〕コンマ シャンソン トランク メンバー ランニング ランプ
ロンドン
注：撥音を入れない慣用
〔例〕イニング（←インニング）サマータイム（←サンマータイム）
・促音は，小書きの「ッ」を用いて書く。
〔例〕カップ シャッター リュックサック ロッテルダム バッハ
注 促音を入れない慣用
〔例〕アクセサリー（←アクセッサリー）フィリピン（←フィリッピン）
・長音は，原則として長音符号「ー」を用いて書く。
〔例〕エネルギー グループ ゲーム ショー
ウェールズ ポーランド ローマ
注１：長音符号の代わりに母音字を添えて書く慣用
〔例〕バレエ（舞踊）ミイラ
注２：「エー」「オー」と書かず，「エイ」「オウ」と書くような慣用
〔例〕エイト ペイント レイアウト スペイン サラダボウル ボウリング
＊英語のスペルに関するもの
・英語の語末の-er，-or，-ar などに当たるものは，原則としてア列の長音とし長音符号「－」
を用いて書き表す。ただし，慣用に応じて「一」を省くことができる。
〔例〕エレベーター ギター コンピューター
マフラー エレベータ
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スリッパ
Katakana Notation of English (Shigemoto)
・語末（特に元素名等）の-(i)um に当たるものは，原則として「-（イ）ウム」と書く。
〔例〕アルミニウム カルシウム ナトリウム
サナトリウム シンポジウム
注：「アルミニウム」を「アルミニューム」と書くような慣用もある。
・英語のつづりのｘに当たるものを「クサ」「クシ」「クス」「クソ」と書くか，「キサ」
「キシ」「キス」「キソ」と書くかは，慣用に従う。
〔例〕タクシー ボクシング ワックス オックスフォード エキストラ ミキサー
付録②：名前のカタカナ表記
カタカナ表記→英語→より英語に近い表記
・ アシュレー→Ashley→アシュリー
・ アンナ→Anna→アーナ
・ クラウディア→Claudia→クロゥディア
・ ガンジー→Gandi→ガンディー
・ サラ→Sarah→セェラ
・ マクドナルド→McDonald→マッドーノー（ド）
、メッダーノー（ド）
、ミッダーノー（ド）
以上、出典③
付録③：同じスペルで２つの読み方があって、それによって意味が変わるもの
strike:ストライク（野球）ストライキ（労働運動）
jack:ジャック（トランプ）ジャッキ（工具）
relief:リリーフ（野球）レリーフ（美術）
stick:スティック（チョコレート）ステッキ（杖）
iron:アイロン（家電）アイアン（ゴルフ）
以上、出典③
付録④：いろいろなカタカナ表記
・同じ発音でも日本語になると表記が変わるもの
break はブレイク、brake はブレーキ
stake はステーク（競馬）
、steak はステーキ
・濁音と清音の変化
smooth:スムーズ、news:ニュース、cupid:キューピット、jumper:ジャンパー、
pudding:プリン
以上、出典③
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A Brief History of English Education in Japan (Senda)
概要
このレポートは日本の英語教育について、過去、現在、に分けて構成されている。
過去のついては、英語教育の大まかな歴史や教授法、現在については、JET プログ
ラムについて述べてある。
1. Introduction
We are made to notice that English education in Japan is not good.
Japanese people learn English at least for six years. But, actually usually
Japanese can't talk to foreigners. Probably, the system in the English
education in Japan is related to the problem.
This paper will discuss the English education in Japan –past, present and
future—to try to find out why it is failing in producing English speakers.
2. History of English education in Japan
(Past)
~teaching method ~
The English education of Japan started in 1808 with the British ship
Phaeton which flew the Netherlands national flag came to Nagasaki. The
government strongly felt the necessity for the European and American
languages, especially English and Russian other than the Netherlands
language. This incident （the British warship Phaeton went into the Nagasaki
bay to take Japanese food and fuel） is called the Phaeton incident.
Since it was under national isolation, there were no teachers who naturally
had English as a native language. It became clear that Jan Cock Blomhoff of
the Netherlands trading house could also use English, and English study started
by making him into a teacher. But since English was a second foreign language
in those days not only for the Japanese but also for Jan himself, who received
instruction, serious difficulties followed in the study.
Ronald MacDonald became the first native English teacher. He was
attracted to Japan and landed in 1848. However, he was escorted, and he
taught 14 Dutch translators English, while staying seven months in Japan. The
Dutch translators read English and gave lessons to which MacDonald added
corrections and explanations.
Page 8
A Brief History of English Education in Japan (Senda)
There were two kinds of English education in the Meiji era, "positive
(formal) rule teaching methods （ 正 則 教 授 法 ） " and "irregular teaching
methods （変則教授法）". The “positive rule" is a view which thinks pronunciation
and reading is important. “Irregular teaching methods" supported the view that
the meaning should just be understood. "Irregular teaching methods" were used
in the school along with many "positive rule teaching methods" and Japanese
teachers taught in school with many foreign teachers.
New teaching methods were proposed by two Japanese in the Taisho Era
(1912~1925). One is the "English direct reading and understanding method
（ 英文直読直解法） " of Murata Yuji. He rejected the reading of English via a
Chinese writing formula and practiced the method of reading English directly.
This is still also a more effective method today and is compatible with thinking
as a native. For English progress, thinking in English is important. Therefore, it
could be said that this method is effective. The other new method was the
"group method" of the Uraguchi Bunji. This is the method of a sentence flatly
translated into the sentence group.
Harold E. Palmer visited Japan in Taisho 11(1922). He lived in Japan for
14 years and published many writings, and explained the Oral method called
new teaching method （新教授法） in Japan. His teaching methods aimed at
utilization of the spoken language.
Japan moved in the direction of banishing English study due to
anti-American feeling that developed during the change from Taisho to Showa
(about 1924~1945).
An "English boom" suddenly arose after World War II. With the new
educational system in Showa 22 (1947), a great portion of Japanese learned
English from junior high school, three years being included in compulsory
education.
3. Present English education in Japan
One of the most dramatic innovations in the present English education in
Japan is the introduction of the JET program and Assistant Language Teachers
(ALTs) from foreign countries. These programs promote the substantial foreign
language education; in addition, deepen international interchange at local level.
Page 9
A Brief History of English Education in Japan (Senda)
3.1 What is the JET Program ?
JET Program (Japan Exchange and Teaching Programme) is a project undertaken
for the purpose of inviting a foreign youth to Japan, aimed at improving foreign
language education, and increasing the mutual understanding with our country
and many foreign countries through the international exchange in a local level.
It was started in Showa 62（1987.）
There are three kinds of a foreign youth's occupational descriptions, an
international exchange member (CIR:Coordinator for International Relations), a
foreign language instruction assistant (ALT:Assistant Language Teacher), and
a sport international exchange member (SEA: Sports Exchange Advisor).
Table １． Foreign language instruction assistants in JET Program from 1992 to 2003
１９９２
Country
１９９３
１９９４
１９９５
１９９６
2003
America
１,５７７
１,７３８
２,０２１
２,２４８
２,４３３
２,７２９
England
５９０
６８４
７０９
７９０
８７２
１,２１５
Australia
１６７
１９８
２１７
２４３
２６４
４３８
New Zealand
１５９
１９２
１９３
１９４
１９７
３７５
Canada
５６２
６３０
６６２
６９２
７２５
９８１
Ireland
４１
５５
５２
６３
６９
１０９
France
７
７
８
９
１０
２２
Germany
５
４
３
４
４
２７
３,１０８
３,５０８
３,８６５
４,２４３
４,５７４
５,８９６
Total
(Promotion of the Ministry of Education foreign language education)
3.2 The future of the JET Program
The high evaluation, which JET Program has received, is maintained still
today. However, in order to have better talented people come to Japan, the
selection process of activation of JET advertisement or a participant is being
enriched. Especially, since Japanese taxes are being used, it must be assured
that the taxpayers are getting their money’s worth.
Page 10
A Brief History of English Education in Japan (Senda)
４. Conclusion
Various teaching methods were put forward by various persons in history of
Japan. The old man must have taken pains to study English farther than the
now when teaching materials and talented people were common. In recent
years, the educational method of English or view of English has also been
started improving at last. The English education in Japan must improve more.
５.
Bibliography
ABC English ABC 英語 available at
http://www.zephyr.dti.ne.jp/~runo/awasei.html (5/30/2003)
@ＴＡＫ英語情報局 ＠TAKＥｎｇｌｉｓｈInformation Board available at
http://haradakun.cool.ne.jp/slang/muteki_slang.htm (5/30/2003)
eigoTown.com
available at
http://www.partners.eigotown.com/wajuneikaiwa/JapaneseEnglish.htm
(5/30/2003)
Harold E. Palmer の 英語教授法に関する研究 (Harold E. Palmer Research
on English teaching methods) in Japanese, available at
http://home.hiroshima-u.ac.jp/forum/29-1/harold.html (11/2003)
Keiichiro's Home Page 啓一郎’Home Page available at
http://home.att.net/~keiichiro/janglish/japanese.html (5/30/2003)
Ministry of Foreign affairs Introduction to the Jet Programme, in Japanese
外務省 ジェットプログラム available at
http://www.mofa.go.jp/mofaj/annai/listen/interview/intv_18.html
Miyahara, Fumio et al. このままでよいか大学英語教室
(11/2003)
松柏社
Nagamori、Hajime History of English 永盛一
http://homepage3.nifty.com/green-laboratory/site/kyouikuhou.htm (10/2003)
News about English Education in Japan 英語教育ニュース available at
http://www.eigokyoikunews.com/essay/12.shtml (11/2003)
Saito, Yasushi
The English education of Japan is considered from analysis
of the Ministry of Education government guidelines for teaching. （文部省学
Page 11
A Brief History of English Education in Japan (Senda)
習指導要領の分析から日本の英語教育を考える）
http://www.biz.ryukoku.ac.jp/~lee/1997/sotsuken97/japanese/yasushi_j.html
(11/2003)
Society for Historical Studies of English Teaching in Japan 日本英語教育史学
会 available at
http://www.hiroshima-pu.ac.jp/~umamoto/e-kyoikushi/index.htm （７/１/2003）
The foreign youth bidding enterprise which performs linguistic instruction etc.
語学指導等を行う外国青年招致事業（ＪＥＴプログラム）
http://www.pref.iwate.jp/~hp0312/jet/jet.htm (12/2003)
The JET Programme JET プログラム available at
http://www.jetprogramme.org/j/outline/outline.html
http://www.jetprogramme.org/j/outline/data/2003page1.xls (11/2003)
The linguistic foundation of English 基礎英語言語学 available at
http://www.toyama-cmt.ac.jp/~kanagawa/paper/eigokyoiku.html (11/2003)
The training plan of "the Japanese who can use English"
「英語が使える日本人」の育成のための行動計画の策定について 文部科学省
http://www.mext.go.jp/b_menu/houdou/15/03/030318.htm (12/2003)
Page 12
What is Japanese English? (Azusa Komaki) （日本語）
Abstract
There is a lot of Japanese English in Japan. How many people are using the
meaning of Japanese English, understanding it correctly?
Many people are using
wrong Japanese English. They probably convinced are right. We using the word which
a meaning does not understand, the Japanese English of the meaning which is not
included is used in the word which has not appeared in a dictionary, and the original
meaning. This paper investigates the meaning of Japanese English and considers the
merit and demerit of Japanese English.
1. 序論
外国との間の人・物・情報の交流の増大や、様々な分野における国際化の進展などに伴い、日
本語の中での外来語の使用が増えている。専門領域で使われていた語がそのまま一般社会に流
出し、広報紙などの公的な文書や、多くの人を対象とする新聞・放送などにも目新しい外来語が出
現している。しかし、それら和製英語の意味を正しく理解して使っている人ははたして、どれくらい
いるだろうか。おそらく極わずかであろう。多くの人が「なんとなくこういう意味だろう」とか「誰かがこ
んなニュアンスで使っていた」など、和製英語に対して曖昧な理解しかしていないまま使っているの
ではないだろうか。そして、テレビや雑誌で活躍している様々な分野の人々が、とにかく外国語の
単語を並べて話しているのをよく耳にするが、一見、知識人のように見受けられる人が使うと、いか
にもそれが正しいことのような気がしてしまう。すると、わからない方がおかしいような錯覚に陥る。し
かし、意味のわからない単語を調べてみると、辞書に載っていないものや、本来の意味の中には含
まれない意味で和製英語が使われていることに気付いた。
この論文では、どのようにして和製英語が形成されているのか、そして間違った和製英語の正し
い意味などを調べ、正しい英語への理解を深めるとともに、和製英語のメリット・デメリットについて
も考察していく。
和製英語とは？
そもそも和製英語とは、もとの外国語から離れて、日本独自の形や意味を形成しているもので、
一見、英語からの借用らしく見えるが、実は単語を変形または複合させて日本語で作ったものであ
る。また、カタカナ英語というのは、外来語であるため、当然英語以外の外国語が語源である場合
がある。（料理・芸術・ファッションの言葉はフランス語、音楽・医学・登山の用語はドイツ語、音楽用
語にはイタリア語など）また、日本語は造語もうまいので、英語らしいが英語で通用しない日本語で
ある、カタカナ語が多くある。
どうして和製英語はここまで多く使われるようになったのか。その氾濫条件としては、国際化とコミュ
Page 13
What is Japanese English? (Azusa Komaki) （日本語）
ニケーションの発達、漢字の難しさと英語教育の普及、欧米文化の崇拝と自国文化への蔑視など
が考えられる。では、実際に、どのようにして和製英語がそのまま会話の中で使われるようになった
のかを考えてみると
もともと英語からきているが、日本語の中でカタカナ書きで使われ始めたときに意味が変わって
しまったケース。（例：feminist, egoism） 英語以外の外国語が原語だが、日本人使用者がそれを英
語起源だと誤解して英語の中で使ってしまうケース。（例：カステラ〈sponge cake〉、アルバイト（ドイ
ツ語 arbeit）
もともとどこの言語にも起源はなく、いずれかの外国語同士を組み合わせて日本語の中ではじめ
からカタカナ語として創られたもので、通用しているうちに英語起源だと誤解されているケース。
（例：テレビ、マイホーム、バックミラー）の三つがあげられる。
では、どのような和製英語があるのだろうか。
和製英語の種類
和製英語といっても、どのように形成されているかによって、いくつかの種類に分けることができ
る。（１）
1. 英英辞典や英和辞典に掲載されていない『純粋の和製英語』
マイペース → one’s own pase
ジーパン → jeans
フライドポテト → fresh fries
ブラインドタッチ → touch typing
2. 英英辞典や英和辞典に掲載されてはいるが、日本では発音や意味が本来のものと異なる
『準和製英語』
カンニング（cunning） → cheating
コンセント（consent） → outlet，socket
デリケート（delicate） → sensitive
エスケープ（escape） → cut class
3. 日本語の一部と英語の一部を合わせた『日英合成語』
カラオケ （空＋orchestra）
アル中（アル〈コール〉＋中〈毒〉）
トラブル （trouble＋る）
サラ金 （salaried man ＋ 金融）
4. 本来の英語を短縮した『短縮英語』
イントロ（introduction）
Page 14
What is Japanese English? (Azusa Komaki) （日本語）
インフレ（inflation）
コネ（connection）
リストラ（restructuring）
アングラ（underground）
5. 英語と他の外国語が交ざった『混血外国語』
テーマ（ドイツ語）＋ソング（英語）
シュー（フランス語）＋クリーム（英語）
6. 英語以外の外国語
アンケート（フランス語）
コップ（オランダ語）
アルバイト（ドイツ語）２
このように、和製英語は外国語にさまざまな効果を加え、形成されていることがわかる。取り入れ
た外国語をどんどん日本語として言いやすい形に改めるのは、日本語の特技であるとも言えるだろ
う。例えば、「チアガール」「エレベーターガール」という言葉はすでに日本語の中に定着した言葉
だが、「ガール」という言葉を「あのガール紹介してよ」などという形で用いることはまずない。「ガー
ル」は語の構成要素として取り入れられていても、それが単独で語としては取り入れられてはいな
いのである。
和製英語のメリット・デメリット
和製英語の増加に伴い、日本語そして日本人に対して何か変化は起きていないのだろうか。和
製英語を使用するにあたり、どのようなメリット・デメリットがあるのかを下に述べていく。
メリットは、日本人の英語力に少なからず貢献しているということ。 テーブル、ファックス、コンセ
プト、バリアフリーなど、英語起源でありながら、日本語の会話の中でもよく目（耳）にするものは多
数ある。英語が日本語の語彙として定着していることは、日本人の英単語習得にプラスの影響を与
えるということ。
英語の語彙がこれほどまでに日本語に浸透しているがゆえに、日本人が英語を学ぶ際にはいく
つかの単語を覚える手間が省ける。デザート、チョーク、チーズなどは、いずれも英語の語彙だが、
日本人にとっては非常になじみ深い。つまり、日常の日本語に英単語が浸透していることは、基本
的な英単語の学習をなじみやすくしているという点で、多くの日本人にとっては都合がいいのであ
る。
一方、デメリットとしては日本語化された英語の語彙は、発音が日本語化されているためネイ
ティブに理解してもらえないことがある。 世代間コミュニケーションの障害となる。 特に高齢者に
Page 15
What is Japanese English? (Azusa Komaki) （日本語）
は外来語や外国語の意味がわからなくて困ることがある。本来の英語では使われない、あるいは本
来の英語の意味内容がずれているものも存在する。例えば、日本語では「マンション」というと集合
住宅のことを指すが、英語の「mansion」は大邸宅という意味になる。このような和製英語は、誤解の
もとになりかねないという点で非常に危険である。
和製英語は、日本人がつくった言葉だけに、我々日本人には耳ざわりよく便利である。しかし、
そこには重大な欠陥がある。用法に間違いが多く、我が国の英語教育の大きな妨げになっている
ことである。さらに、外国人との英語によるコミュニケーションにおいて、和製英語を本物の英語と思
い込んでいると、意思の疎通がスムーズにできなかったり、ときには誤解さえ生じることがある。
結論
日本人は、文法や単語はよく知っていて（学習していて）潜在的な英語力は高いようだけれど、
話そうという意欲に欠けているといわれる。対照的に、インドの方は、独特のなまりの英語を臆する
ことなく話すと言うことが一般的に知られているが、彼らは発音だけでなく、実は単語も自己流だと
いう。一例をあげると、インド人は「授業料免除」という意味で〈freeship〉という単語を使うそうだが、こ
の単語は本来の英語にはない表現で、彼ら自身の発明によるものだそうだ。また「cope up with」
という表現はアメリカ英語、イギリス英語では正しくないとされているが、ザンビアの英語では正しい
表現だという。３
国際語としての英語がますます重要になってきた今、英語はもはやアメリカ人やイギリス人だけ
のものではない。インド人が自己流の英語を積極的に話しているように、我々自身の英語力を高め
るためにも、積極的に英語を口に出してみてはどうだろうか。読み手や聞き手に対する配慮を欠い
た外来語の使用や、不必要に表現をあいまいにするような外来語の使用はあまり望ましくない。し
かし、和製英語に触れることにより、英語を身近に感じ「英語を使ってみよう」と思えることができるよ
うになるのなら、和製英語の氾濫も悪いことばかりではないと思われる。英語で何と言ったらいいの
かわからないからといって黙っているよりも、和製英語でも何でもいいからとにかく口に出してみると
いう積極性は、今の日本人に必要なことではないだろうか。和製英語が、日本人の外国人とのコミ
ュニケーション能力を上げることにつながるのなら、和製英語の増加にも賛成できる。
英語の単語は全部でおよそ 800 万語あり、毎年約５万語の新語（特にハイテク関係の新語）が生ま
れている。変化の激しい時代には、新語が誕生する一方で古い語が次々と姿を消していく。欧米
語を大幅に取り入れている今日の日本語の変化を見ると、伝統的な日本社会の思想や、感情を表
現するのには都合のよかった古い日本語では、もはや今日の日本社会の思想や感情を表現しき
れなくなっている。和製英語は、日本文化や日本人の考え方をうまく表現してある場合も多く、和製
英語の数の多さは日本人の創造力をそのまま反映しているようにも考えられる。
今後も新しい英語やその他の外国語が相次いで日本にも入ってくるにつれて、日本人は次々と
Page 16
What is Japanese English? (Azusa Komaki) （日本語）
「新しい和製英語」を造っていくことだろう。
注
１山田雅重 『アメリカ人に通じない英語』 （丸善株式会社、1996） ｐ. 205
２ Starcat
Online,
January
2001,
Starcat
CABLE
NETWORK,
6
October
2003
〈http://www2.starcat.ne.jp〉
３All About Japan, June 2000, Recruit about .com Japan, 7 November 2003〈http://allabiut.co.jp〉
参考文献
カーク・マスデン／三浦昭 『じゃまになるカタカナ英語』 （1990） 洋販出版株式会社
ハーバード・パッシン 『英語化する日本社会』 （1982） サイマル出版会
山田雅重 『アメリカ人に通じない英語』 （1996） 丸善株式会社
山田雅重 『アメリカ人の知らない英語』 （1995） 丸善株式会社
渡辺武雄 『ジャパリッシュのすすめ』 （1983） 朝日新聞社
Page 17
Differences between British and US ENglish (Ogata)
（日本語）
概要：
Since the Anglo-Saxon race began to speak a language called English on the British
island, it has accomplished many changes in 1500 years. Now, it is the most widely
spoken language in the world, and both Britain and the United States use it. These
Englishes were compared, and emphasis was put on the culture and history suiting the
background. Many differences can be seen, especially in vocabulary and pronunciation.
1 はじめに
両国の言語の歴史は深く、特にイギリスにおける英語の歴史は長年に渡り、様ざまな形
で変化してきた。発音や語彙だけでなく、その背景にあった歴史自体にも言語は深く関わ
っていることが分かった。英語はアングロ・サクソン民族により最初の変化をとげ、それ
から現在にかけても変わり続けているのだ。
2 イギリス英語とアメリカ英語の歴史
イギリス英語は、１０６６年の Norman 征服以後、フランス語が England における貴族
の話し言葉となり、他方ラテン語が主な書き言葉として採用された。英語は社会の下層階
級ではまだ話されていたが、古い書き言葉の伝統はやがて崩壊し、１１５０年頃から２０
０年の間、英語で書かれた記録はわずかしか残っていない。フランス語は約３００年間用
いられていたが、１４世紀半ば以後しだいに英語に取って代わられた。しかし、浮上した
英語はフランス語の影響を強く受けていて、多数のフランス語の単語や言い回しを含んで
いた。フランス語の影響は１４００年に亡くなったチョーサーの言語にみられる。
英語の歴史は｢古英語｣（Old English）、｢中英語｣（Middle English）、｢近代英語｣(Modern
English)の３つに分かれ、社会変化によって様々に決定されてきた。英語は孤立して存在し
たことはなく、デンマーク語、フランス語、ラテン語から借用した単語が何千もあるなど
常に他のヨーロッパの言語と密接に接触してきたのだ。
一 方 ア メ リ カ で は 、 １ ６ ０ ７ 年 ヴ ァ ー ジ ニ ア （ Virginia ） 州 の ジ ェ イ ム ス タ ウ ン
（Jamestown）に約１００名の移住が行われたことをもって始まる。それ以来、新しい文
化が形成されていくにつれ、移住者たちの携えて行った英語は本国の英語との間に差異を
生じ、政治的独立とともに一層言語としての独立を強めていった。そして、元来植民地英
語として英語の一つの方言であったアメリカ英語（American English）はラジオや映画に
よって、かえってイギリス英語に影響を与えるようになったのだ。
アメリカ英語にはイギリス英語にすでに失われた古い言い回しが残っている。例えば「秋」
のことを autumn と言わずに fall と言い、
「蛇口」のことを tap ではなく faucet と言い、
Page 18
Differences between British and US ENglish (Ogata)
（日本語）
get の過去分詞を gotten を用いる。他にも次のような違いがある。(Katsumata, 1962, p.99
～103 )
American
British
Administration
政府
government
Apartment
アパート
flat
Back and forth
前後に
to and fro
clerk
店員
shop assistant
Glad to know you.
はじめまして
How do you do?
Pocket-book
財布
purse
Station House
警察署
Police Station
2 辞書の歴史
英語というのは一体どのくらいの言葉があるのかというと、１７５５年にサシュエル・ジ
ョンソンがイギリスで初めて編纂した辞書”A Dictionary of the English Language”には４
万３千語がのせてあり、１８２８年にノア・ウェブスターが編纂したアメリカ最初の辞
書”An American Dictionary of the English Language”には７万語、そして５０年かけて、
１９２８年にやっと完成をみたジェイムス・マレイが編纂した”The Oxford English
Dictionary”には４１万５千語がのせられていたのだ。そして、現在ではそれが６０万語を
越えている。つまり、毎年新しい言葉は１万語以上出てくるとのことだ。英語は世界でも
最も豊かな語彙を持っているという事が具体的によく分かった。
3 イギリス英語とアメリカ英語の発音と語彙の比較
英語の発音はだいたいが Anglo-Saxon 語だが、一部はデンマーク語とフランス語である。
両国を比べ、発音の違いで目立つことはアメリカ英語にはイギリス英語の標準語から消え
た古い音が残っていることである。例えば、car, bird などの母音直後の r がその例であ
る。この r はアメリカ英語では響かせて発音されているが、イギリス英語の標準語からは
８世紀に消滅した音なのである。
また、ここでもう一つ注意したのは綴りである。綴りの面では、アメリカ英語は改革主義
であり、イギリス英語では保守主義が目立つ。例えば、program, color のように比較的発音
に近い綴りが使われているが、イギリス英語では伝統的な programme, colur というつづり
が保持されている。一つの綴りが幾通りもの発音を表わし、反対に一つの音が幾通りの様
式に綴られる。
語彙・語法の面では、両英語とも古い語彙・語法を保っているが、その内容が異なってい
Page 19
Differences between British and US ENglish (Ogata)
（日本語）
る所が非常に変わっている。イギリスのイングランド北部では、シェイクスピアの時代に
使われた thou, thee などが現在でも会話で使われている。「さよなら」は”See thee soon.”
である。これはアメリカ英語にはない。また、地名はアメリカにはイギリスの地名に由来
する地名が多く見られるのに対して、イギリスにはアメリカの地名はほとんど見られない
という違いがあるのだ。アメリカは歴史が浅く、ヨーロッパなどに比べ古い文化伝統を持
たない。そこで文化的にはイギリスの影響が強かった。これらはアメリカ文学史の作品の
中でも多く取り上げられていたことだ。アメリカ英語の語彙がイギリス英語に入ることは
以前からあったようだが、２０世紀に入ってからが多く見られた。例えば、音楽や映画・
ファーストフード・科学技術などにともないアメリカ英語の語彙がイギリス英語に入った
のである。つまり、アメリカの文化とともにアメリカ英語がイギリスに伝わったのだった。
4 結論
英語は世界の広大な範囲に亘り、多くの人々によって話されている。まさに世界語の観を
呈している。そんな英語の語彙の約半分は古代ローマ帝国に発している。つまり、私たち
が英語を使う時にラテン文化が背景に置かれているというということだ。英語におけるラ
テン語は日本でいう漢文のようなものだろう。アングロ・サクソン民族の文明の教化の下
で英語に多くの語彙がもたらされたのだ。英語をもっと詳しく知るためにはラテン語に目
を向けることが重要なのだということがよく分かった。また、両国を比較し、変わってき
た傾向とはアメリカ英語の勢力は、ますます増大して行っているということだ。今や米語
は英語の方言の一つであるというよりは、むしろイギリス英語のほうが英語の方言の一つ
であると言われていてもおかしくはないだろう。
参考文献
勝俣 栄郎 (1962).イギリスの歴史 出版社: 大学省社
Eric Partridge and John W.clark (1900). British AND American English. Associate
Professor of English, University of Minnesota.
橋口 実 (1981).イギリス言語の歴史. 出版社:
中央社.
Owen Barfield (???). History in English Words. In Japanese. Publisher: a Oubun
Company.
小野
茂
(1999).A Cultural History of the English Language. In Japanese.
Publisher: a Kaibunsha compamy.
大村 義雄 (1993). 街角のイギリス英語. 出版社:丸善社
アメリカ英語とイギリス英語 http://www.kens.co.jp/r07.html
Page 20
Differences between British and US ENglish (Ogata)
（日本語）
イギリスの歴史
http://www.eigotown.com/ryugaku/special2/uk_vs_us/uk_vs_us.shtml
Page 21
The Scouse Language (Takahiro Moriyama)
概要
現在イギリス英語には、数多くの訛りと方言が存在します。テレビでよく聞かれる
標準英語（BBC）や、ロンドンの労働者階級の人々が話すコックニー訛りなど、その種類
もたくさんあります。その中で、リバプールの英語訛り“スカウス”について研究してい
きます。 リバプールは当時、ロンドンに次いで２番目に大きい港でした。そこでは、貿
易の取引、主に奴隷の売買が行なわれていました。そのため、多くの黒人がアフリカの各
地からリバプールに連れて来られました。一方で、19 世紀前半、多くの移民者が、アイル
ランドやスコットランド、ウェールズからやって来ました。彼らはそれぞれ異なる発音を
持つ英語の他に、他言語も話していました。こうした歴史的背景から、スカウスは出来上
がったと言われています。このスカウスの歴史をもっと調べると同時にその英語の特徴を
調べていきます。
1. Introduction
There are a lot of different types of English accents in Britain. The number
of that is estimated at more than a hundred kinds of accents. Each of the sound is
amazingly distinctive. Of all of them, “Scouse”, the British English accent of Liverpool
which is located in the northern part of England, is said to be one of the hardest and
the worst English accents to understand in the world, only after the Irish Brogue and
Glaswegian. Based upon personal experience as well as linguistic literature, this
paper will focus on the linguistic characteristics of this accent.
2. What is “Scouse”?
Basically, “Scouse” refers to one of the British English regional accents that
is spoken in Liverpool. It also means a person who speaks “Scouse”, or originates from
the Liverpool area. Also, it describes the city of Liverpool and its immediate
surroundings or the county of Merseyside as the place of “Scouse”.
Phonetically speaking, this accent is quite distinct from that of the
neighboring areas. It is said to have come into existence in the nineteenth century,
when there were a lot of immigrants from especially, Ireland and Wales to crave for a
job and a better life than in their countries. This was the start of story about the
working-class people in the north of England. Their English had or has been spoken
in Liverpool for a long time.
In the late 19th century, Liverpool was famous as the second port in Britain,
only after London. Many people were sold and bought as slaves, not only from many
countries of Africa but also from some parts of Dublin, Ireland. Because of this, many
merchants came up to Liverpool from London. Some of them lived there permanently,
and were speaking “Cockney”, which is even now spoken in most of the parts of London,
but was especially the English of the working-class in London. In other words,
“Scouse” has been also influenced by “Cockney”.
“Scouse” also means a traditional Liverpool dish. It’s something like a stew.
When celebrating something special, such as, Christmas and the New Year’s Day,
someone often plays the host at his house and holds a party. People, who are his
friends and his relatives etc., are invited to the venue and eat the stew altogether. It
is cooked a few times a year, but recently people don’t seem to cook it very much. This
is because it takes a whole day or two days to make.
3. The Phonetic Features.
Several phonetic features of “Scouse” can be seen. They are apparently
different from those of the other accents. In the case of “Scouse”, the accents are not
readily understandable, because according to the book called “Lean Yerself Scouse
-How to talk proper in Liverpool-, it is thought of as a different language. Other
Page 22
The Scouse Language (Takahiro Moriyama)
accents of English don’t have much in common with “Scouse” very much, in terms of
phonetic similarity.
Examples of the phonetic difference between Scouse and RP (the Standard
English) are shown in the table below;
Table１．Examples of Phonetic Features of Scouse
Phonetic Features
EXAMPLES
“take”/tehik/
“back”/bhak/
“ｈ” included
“h” instead of “f”
“fair”/he:/
“fur”/hu:/
“f” instead of “th”
“think”/fink/
“Thursday”/fa:zdei/
(Excerpt from Page 100－103, LERN YERSEFL SCOUSE)（10/11/03）
4. Scouse Expressions
In “Scouse”, there are many jokes and slang other than the proper English
expressions. These expressions are used in a daily conversation as the colloquial
expressions in Liverpool. The following table should completely clarify most “Scouse”
expressions.
Table ２．Slang of Scouse
Scouse
da’ (pronounced dar)
getting off at Edge
English
Father
simple inexpensive method of contraception
Hill
Jigger
knee-trembler
Scran
wear the fox hat
beer can head
typical location for knee-trembler
vertically experienced brief liaison
food ( junk food, like fish and chips)
enquiry as to geographical location
town south of the River Mersey opposite Liverpool
and linked by a tunnel
blind scouse
quasi-vegetarian stew
bone orchard
Cemetery
ta la, mate
see you later, thank you (cheers, mate)
sound as a pound
fine, very good
made-up
fine, very good
Pukka
Delicious
(Excerpt from ‘http://www.24carat.co.uk/scousedictionary.html) (10/11/03)
According to the “Anglo - Scouse Dictionary (online), the “Scouse”
expressions are said to be very good words, but sometimes rude.
One very common expression in Liverpool is “looks busy, Jesus coming”.
This means that many commuters rush to get on a bus or train on the way to work
every morning, and then look so busy and tired, but they can’t help doing that.
Sarcastically, this expression describes those people as poor people. In addition, it
implies that they could jeopardize their life. Liverpool used to be famous for many
workers in the mid 19th century, but these days, such an expression as above
sometimes is coming out, including an ironic meaning, because of the recent business
conditions and the high unemployment rate in Britain.
5. Words in “Scouse”
Firstly, in “Scouse”, people tend to speak it by abbreviating many words.
For example, people’s names are quite often abbreviated. This characteristics is
Page 23
The Scouse Language (Takahiro Moriyama)
similar to that of the other English accents for the working-class people, like Brummy
(Birmingham), Glaswegian and Geordie (Newcastle).
As they speak English
informally, their English is slightly changing from time to time, and tend to speak it
faster than people from the south of England. The abbreviations are below;
Table 3．The Abbreviated Words in Scouse
Abbreviated Words
Proper-Spelling Words
Bril
Brilliant
Poss
Possible
Te
terry (a person’s name)
Footy
football (soccer)
(Excerpt from Page 43－46, LERN YERSEFL SCOUSE) (12/11/03)
Secondly, there are some Liverpudlian derivatives of people’s names.
Table 4．Christian names and Surnames of People in Liverpool
Christian names
Surnames
Peter
Pop
Dalton
Tom
Tosh
Morris
Frank
Yank
Hughes
Philip
Filly
Murphy
George
Judda
Ferguson
(Excerpt from Page 38-39, LERN YERSEFL SCOUSE) (12/11/03)
Dollo
Moggsy
Yozzer
Muff
Fair go
6. Conclusions
Scouse has been spoken in Liverpool for a long time. In the past history, it
has changed dramatically. Even now, it is changing. Sometimes, Scouse could be
influenced by the other accents. In other words, other sounds and intonations as well
as special expressions such as slang could get into it from them though broadcasting
and so forth. Eventually, Scouse is going to change into a new accent and dialect.
Conversely, it could influence other accents. They could be also changing into new
ones.
It seems difficult to study Scouse and the other British English Accents. This is
because they usually change and they are not coherent. That is to say, they are
scattering indefinitely and it is impossible to think how they are going to change from
time to time. Studying accents and dialects are endless.
７. Bibliography
<Books>
Manard, Brian. (1972) Lean Yerself Scouse-How to talk to proper in Liverpool.
Liverpool, Britain : Scouse Press
Snowden, Paul. & Otake, Masatsugu. (1997) Society in Britain. Tokyo: Waseda
University Publication
WELLS, J.C. (1982) Accents of English 2 -The British Isles-. Britain :
Cambridge University Press
<Internet>
BBC RADIO 4. The Routes Of England. Available at;
http://www.bbc.co.uk/radio4/routesofengilsh/storysofar/programme1_6.shtml
(15/12/03)
International Scouse Day News. Available at;
http://www.scouser.com/scouseday/index.html (30/10/03)
Page 24
The Scouse Language (Takahiro Moriyama)
Scouse Humour. Available at;
http://www.scouser.com.humour/index.html (11/11/03)
Scouse is threatened by the rising tide of Estuary English.
Available at;
http://www.phon.ucl.ac.uk/home/estuary/marks.htm (11/12/03)
The Very Highest Quality Information- Anglo-Scouse Dictionary-. Available at;
http://www.24carat.co.uk/scousedictionary.html (01/12/03)
Page 25
A Cultural History of Selected British English Accents (Takahiro Moriyama)
Abstract
イギリス英語には 100 種類以上の訛りと方言があると言われています。
その中でも、
音声学の分野で最も研究されており、イギリス国内でも多くの人々に知られている方言が
あるそうです。それは、コックニー、RP、スカウス、ジョーディー、スコットランド訛り
とアイルランド訛りです。これらが歴史的観点からどのように形成されたのかを研究して
行きます。
1. Introduction
The history of English is divided into 3 periods; the period of “Old English”,
“Middle English” and “Modern English”. Over the last 500 years of that of “Modern
English”, English has been dramatically changing, particularly the sounds, or the
accents in Britain. The British English has many kinds of regional accents, which are
related to each place where the English with them is spoken, in terms of the cultural
history. One thing that is important to very English people is “where they are from” to
recognize their birthplace or where they are right now. The focus is on their personal
identity. For many of them an important component of this local identity is the way
they speak. In this essay, I am willing to study the relation between the British
English accents and the cultural history, which would have affected the accents for a
while.
2. What is Cultural History?
English is constantly changing from time to time. The first dramatic
change was brought by the Norman Conquest of England by French-speaking rulers in
1066. Very large numbers of originally French words were adopted into English. At
the same time, pronunciation and grammar as well as vocabulary also changed.
Eventually, “Old English” turned into “Middle English”.
In the meantime, English had been affected by the other languages. They were
Swedish, Danish, Norwegian, Icelandic, German, Dutch and Frisian, around 2000
years of so ago, which were all the same languages in the field of the Germanic
Language. This original Germanic language is derived from an ancestor language
which is often called Indo-European language, which was spoken somewhere in
Eurasia about 6000 years ago.
Both of the influences as above changed “Middle English” into “Modern English”.
In the late 16th century, within Britain, these influences were strongly given to the
accents of English, and British English was changing into like a familiar language
which has clear pronunciations and is easily understandable. This is because “Middle
English” was different from “Modern English”, in terms of pronunciations, spelling of
words and word orders. People used the former English before the latter English.
In addition, Britain has its own hierarchy or ranking of people in terms of social
status. People in the upper-class were so well-educated at school that they could
speak English as we are familiar in general. They were from the south of England.
There, English can be divided into “Cockney” and “RP”. “Cockney” is a working-class
dialect, and “RP” is the Standard English in Britain.
On the other hand, people in the working-class were usually too poor to get a good
education. Most of them were illiterate, and couldn’t speak English very well-especially those people lived in the north of England, such as Liverpool, Manchester,
Newcastle and Carlisle. There were a lot of immigrants in those areas as well. They
were Welsh, Scottish, Ireland (Dublin) and Northern Ireland (Belfast and Londonderry).
Apart from English, they spoke their own mother tongues. The working-class English
was affected by those different languages especially in terms of pronunciation. Now,
people from the north are speaking English with unfamiliar sounds. The English
Page 26
A Cultural History of Selected British English Accents (Takahiro Moriyama)
dialects “Geordie”, ”Scouse”, “Glaswegian” and so forth are all spoken in the north of
England.
3. Typical English Accents
Now, in Britain, there are more than 100 kinds of England dialects. Each of
those has its own histories. Here, there are 6 dialects; Cockney, RP, Scouse, Geordie,
Scots and Irish Brogue, which all are well-known in the world. They are also studied
by people, such as scholars and professors in the field of English Phonetics. These
English dialects have been affected
by the social background of the United Kingdom.
. Cockney
In view of the position in England as the political capital and the largest city,
London is also the place where the accents of British English have been studied
linguistically. Not only for did its courtly and upper-class speech lay the historical
basis for Standard English and for RP, but its working-class accent is the most
influential source of phonological introduction in England.
The traditional working-class dialect is known as Cockney, which is spoken in
the suburbs of east London. A true Cockney speaker is supposed to be someone born
in London as a child of working-class people. As a dialect, Cockney has an extensive
development of rhyming slang. Examples of this slang are shown in the table below:
Table 1. Examples of Cockney Rhyming Slang
Cockney Slang
The meaning
Apple and Pears
Stairs
Bacon and Eggs
Legs
Bangers and Mash
Cash
Bat and Wicket
Ticket
Biscuits and Cheese
Knees
Bubble Bath
Laugh
Dog and Bone
Phone
(Excerpts from ‘http://www5c.biglobe.ne.jp/s_box/movie/jason/cockney3.htm’)
By the 20th century, London had become a vast city 60 kilometers across, and
there was a socially mixed population. Throughout, the working-class English was
spoken by a lot of people, especially merchants in London. This merchant accent
shared the general characteristics of Cockney. This type of accent is slightly closer to
RP, “Received Pronunciation”.
Received Pronunciation (RP)
“RP” is said to be the Standard English in Britain. Everyone can hear it
constantly from radio and television announcers and new readers and from many other
public figures. This English is adopted by the BBC and is called Advanced RP. Many
people, on the other hand, also regularly speak it in personal face-to-face contact.
RP used to be spoken by the upper-class people like the educated from Oxford
and Cambridge. A.S.C.Ross (1954) and Nancy Mitford (1956) referred to this as
Upper-Crust RP to distinguish upper-middle class RP.
This is usually well-known as RP or Oxford RP, or the Standard English of
Britain in the world. RP is related to the social status of people. In other words, it is
recognized as “educated”, “well-spoken”,”middle-class or higher”.
Middle-class speakers typically use Oxford RP, but they have some regional
characteristics. This kind of accent may be referred to as “South-Eastern London
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A Cultural History of Selected British English Accents (Takahiro Moriyama)
Accent”. This tends to be close to English of Australia, New Zealand and South Africa,
in terms of some phonetic features. These countries used to be colonized by the
British power. Perhaps, this concept of colonialism might be connected with that of
how Oxford RP expanded in those countries.
Scouse
Basically, “Scouse” refers to one of the British English regional accents that is
spoken in Liverpool. It not only means people who speak Scouse, but also people who
originate from the Liverpool area. It also describes the city of Liverpool itself and its
immediate surroundings or the county of Merseyside as the place of Scouse.
Phonetically speaking, this accent is quite distinct from that of the
neighboring areas. It is said to have come into existence in the 19th century, when
there were a lot of immigrants from especially Ireland and Wales who came to look for
a job and a better life than in their countries. This was the start of the story about the
working-class people in the north of England. Their English has been spoken in
Liverpool for a long time.
In the late 19th century, Liverpool was famous as the second largest port in
Britain, only after London. Many people were sold and bought as slaves, not only
from many countries of Africa but also from some parts of Dublin, Ireland. Because of
this, many merchants came up to Liverpool from London. Some of them lived there
permanently, and were speaking “Cockney”. In other words, Scouse has been also
greatly affected by Cockney, in terms of a kind of the working-class English.
In Scouse, there are many jokes and slang instead of proper English
expressions. These expressions are used in everyday conversation as colloquial
expressions in Liverpool. The following table should clarify most of them.
Table 2. Examples of Scouse English
Scouse
English
da’ (pronounced “dar”)
Father
getting off at Edge Hill
simple inexpensive method of contraception
Jigger
typical location for knee-trembler
Scran
food (junk food, like fish and chips)
wear the fox hat
enquiry as to geographical location
blind scouse
quasi-vegetarian stew
Bone orchard
Cemetery
ta la, mate
see you later, thank you (cheers, mate)
sound as a pound
fine, very good
(Excerpts from ‘http://24carat.co.uk/scousedcitionary.html)
According to the “Anglo-Scouse Dictionary (online)”, Scouse expressions are
said to be very good words usually, but sometimes rude.
Geordie
Newcastle-upon-Tyne, which is a town or a city upon a big river, is in the
northeast of England.
It is near the border between County Durham and
Northumberland, but now constitutes the metropolitan county of Tyne and Wear. Its
accent is known as Geordie, which also means anyone who comes from Newcastle.
One of the best-known characteristics of the modern Northeast pronunciation
is that the accent doesn’t have the diphthongal pronunciations of the long ‘a’ and ‘o’
vowels in ‘made, gate, face’. (These long pronunciations can be heard in the south of
England.) Instead, in Newcastle, these words tend to be pronounced with a vowel of
the type ‘ee-a’. Thus, these words could be pronounced like, ‘meead, geeate, feeace’.
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A Cultural History of Selected British English Accents (Takahiro Moriyama)
The long ’i’ vowel sounds like the long ‘a’. For example, ‘bite’ could be heard like ‘bait’.
Scots
Generally, the Scottish English accent is called “Scots”. This is quite
different from RP, because this has been influenced by Scottish Gaelic which is a Celtic
language closely related to Irish.
Anglo-Saxons captured Edinburgh in the 7th century, and ever since then,
some parts of Scotland has spoken a Germanic language and the Anglo-Saxons spoke a
northern dialect of Old English. In the 15th century, the Old English was known as
Inglis, which had become the official language of the Kingdom of Scotland, and was
renamed Scottis or Scots.
Since the 16th century, the status of Scots has gradually declined. The
language of English Bible became the language of religion and serious thoughts. The
official written language of the whole country came to be the English of England in the
Union of the Crowns of England and Scotland in 1603. The official language of
Scotland has been Standard English (with a Scottish accent) for 3 centuries. Even
now, this Scottish English coexists with Scots.
The distinction between accent and dialect is even more important in
Scotland than in England. Many non-Gaelic-speaking Scottish people have a
command of 2 types of English. One of them is Scottish English—Standard English
spoken with a Scottish accent. The other one is Scots, which is the traditional dialect
spoken in southern, central, and northeastern Scottish. In rural areas, the distinction
between Scots and Scottish English may be very sharp. In urban areas, there is a
tendency that some people can’t speak Scots clearly. For example, in Glasgow, it is
said that authentic Scots has died out, but working-class Glasgow accent, which is
called “Glaswegian”, includes many features which would be considered characteristic
of Scots.
Irish Brogue
Irish Brogue actually means 2 types of Irish English accents; Ulster Scots
(Scotch Irish) and Ulster English (Anglo-Irish).
The Scotch-Irish area is spread across the north of the island, which includes
the towns of Letterkenny, Coleraine, Ballymena, Larne and Newtownards. There is a
traditional dialect and accent similar to that found in Scotland. For example, ‘dead’ is
[did] in the rural traditional dialect, but [de:d] in the urban accent. Some other
examples are below:
Table 3. Examples of Rural vs. Urban Scotch-Irish
Rural Scotch-Irish
Urban Scotch-Irish
dialect
dialect
more
me:r
mo:r
blaze
bli:z
ble:z
make
ma:k
me:k
(Excerpts from, Page 449, -Accents of English 2- The British Isles)
4. Conclusions
Linguists recognize many kinds of accents and dialects of English in Britain and
each of these accents has its own history depending not only on the place but also the
ranks of people, or say, hierarchy.
.
The upper-class people had so much money that they could get a good
education. On the other hand, the working-class people were very poor so they
Page 29
A Cultural History of Selected British English Accents (Takahiro Moriyama)
couldn’t get a good education at school. Those people were especially from the north of
England, such as Liverpool and Manchester. A lot of people migrated to those areas to
look for a job. They came from Wales, Scotland, Ireland and so forth. They were
speaking different languages in the north. Thus, the working-class English was
influenced by them.
Historically, British English has been also influenced not only by the
domestic background but also by the surrounding countries’ languages. The time
when it has been influenced by them is quite a long time and is much longer than that
of American English. Even now, many kinds of dialects are changing slowly, but
surely. For example, Cockney is getting similar to Estuary English, which is said to
be the English of David Beckham.
Studying the accents of British English is endless, because they are changing
indefinitely and it is impossible to think how it is going to change from time to time.
Eventually, English itself tends to be greatly influenced by cultural situations, so the
question of how the accents of British English are related to their cultural history is
difficult to clarify accurately.
5. Bibliography
<Books>
Minard, Brian. (1972) LERN YERSELF SCOUSE-How to talk to proper In
Liverpool. Liverpool, Britain: Scouse Press.
Petyt, K.Y. (1980) The Study Of Dialect - An Introduction to dialectology.
Britain : Andre Deutsch Limited.
Trudgill, Peter (1990) The Dialects Of England. Britain: Basil Blackwell, Ltd.
Wells, J.C. (1996) Accents of English 2- The British Isles-. Britain: Cambridge
University Press.
<Internet>
UK NOW. Available at; http://www.uknow.or.jp/uk_now/index.html (25/11/03)
BBC
Radio
4.
The
routes
of
England.
Available
at;
http://www.bbc.co.uk/radio4/routesofenglish/storysofar/programme1_6.shtml
(25/11/03)
Marks, Kathy. Scouse is threatened by the rising tide of Estuary English.
Available at;
http://www.phon.ucl.ac.uk/home/estuary/marks.htm (01/12/03)
コックニー・スラング Available at;
http://www5c.biglobe.ne.jp/~s_box/movie/jason/cockney3.htm (12/12/03)
Page 30
Ulster Scots (Chiharu Sakaguchi)
概要
このエッセイは、北アイルランドで話されているアルスタースコッツについて述べてい
ます。もともとスコットランドで話されていた言葉なのですが、アイルランド全域がイギ
リスの支配下にあったとき、アイルランドへのスコットランド人の移住とともに、この言
葉もアイルランド、特に北アイルランドに持ち込まれました。ゲルマン語族に属しており、
非常に英語に似ています。このエッセイではこの言葉の歴史、文法と表現、そして最後に、
イギリスとアイルランドにおけるこの言葉の現在の状況について考察していきたいと思い
ます。
1. Introduction
The aim of this paper is to describe Ulster-Scots. This speech is spoken in
Northern Ireland and similar to English. The historical root of this dialect provides a
much better understanding of conflict between Ireland and the United Kingdom.
Roots and beginnings of Ulster-Scots will first be presented. Next, differences from
standard English, for example, grammar and expression, will be examined. Finally,
nowadays how the speech is treated in the United Kingdom, Scotland, Northern
Ireland and Ireland will be discussed.
2. Roots and beginnings of Ulster-Scots
Ulster-Scots is the varieties of Scots language spoken in Northern Ireland,
which is currently part of the United Kingdom and called traditionally Ulster (Antrim,
Amagh, Down, Fermanagh, Londonderry and Tyrone). Originally Scots was spoken in
the Lowlands of Scotland and it is also spoken there today. According to www.ULLANS.
com, “The history of Ulster-Scots starts with the language of Scots. Scots is over 600
years old and is a variant of Old English.”1 Scots is a Germanic language, which comes
from the same family as German, Dutch and English. According to WIKIPEDIA, “Scots
is the member of the Germanic language family most closely related to English”.2
Why did this speech come to Ireland? As you know, there has been conflict in
Northern Ireland since Ireland was separated into two Irelands; one is Republic of
Ireland and the other is Northern Ireland. When Ireland was once under the control of
British, many Scottish people, migrating from Scotland, came to live in Ireland,
especially Northern Ireland. Although Northern Ireland was originally a part of
Ireland and Gaelic was spoken, these Scottish people brought their own language. So,
the term Ulster-Scots was born along with the Plantation scheme which brought the
1
2
http://www.ullans.com/dialect/UllansHistory.shtml
http://www.scots-online.org.grammar.uscots.htm
Page 31
Ulster Scots (Chiharu Sakaguchi)
Scottish people.
Eventually Ireland declared independence from Britain in 1949. Northern
Ireland, however, remained in the Britain in Northern Ireland and it is still a part of
Britain now. At present, people in Ulster are descendents of the Ulster-Scots and they
speak Ulster-Scots.
http://www.nidex.com/map1.htm Fig1 map of Northern Ireland
http://www.ullans.com/dialect/UllansHistory.shtml Fig2 Scots is the closest to English.
Page 32
Ulster Scots (Chiharu Sakaguchi)
3. Characteristics of Ulster-Scots
3.1. Grammatical characteristics of Ulster-Scots
Scots uses –it (or –t), not –ed on the end of the words for past tense. For
example, ‘kilt (killed)’, ‘foundert (frozen)’, ‘champ-champit (mashed)’. Also, verbs tend
to drift toward the end of the sentence; for example, ‘In you go’.
The use of ‘see’ is to introduce somebody or something. For example, ‘See my
brother? He’s never home for his tea’. We also see the common use of ‘the’ in front of
place names; for example, ‘The Falls’, ‘The Lisburn Road’.
3.2. Vocabulary and expressions
There are some Ulster-Scots vocabularies here.
Ulster-Scots
English
ay
yes
blether
to talk nonsense
clod
throw
dotin
senile
eejit
fool or simpleton
founder
be chilled
gunked
shocked
hash
make a mess of something
insense
to explain
jeuk
duck down or avoid
keek
peep
lauch
laugh
mynn
remember
nae
none
owre
over
Page 33
Ulster Scots (Chiharu Sakaguchi)
pouk
pluck or tug
quare
considerable
red
clean
skunner
icken or annoy
thonner
over there
wean
a child
yella
a man confectionery like honeycomb
There are some Ulster-Scots expressions here.
That ole fields all clarry.
That filed is really mucky.
That bits only for weans.
That place is only for children.
She’s a gype.
She’s a fool.
All those boys are eejits.
All those boys are fools.
Do you wanna a skite?
Do you want a slap or thumb?
Give us a wheen of them I am Give me some of those I am hungry.
raven.
Watch he’s cloden stones.
Watch he’s throwing stones.
Houl yir whist!
Please be quiet!
What’s the crack?
What’s up?
4. The present status of Ulster Scots.
In the United Kingdom, Ulster-Scots is not accepted as an official language
and as a language subject in secondary education. This speech is also excluded from
curriculum including university and is treated as a low status or bad English by the
British. According to Scotch Irish, “In primary education, young children who use
Page 34
Ulster Scots (Chiharu Sakaguchi)
Ulster Scots speech are subject to correction causing terrible embarrassment.”
3
Ulster
Scots is the language of life, for example, pub, street and home, not classroom and it
has no access of television and radio, and no newspapers deal in the language.
However, it is used publicly in Northern Ireland. According to Minorities in
Europe, “The Arts Council of Northern Ireland has supported the publication of new
writing Ulster-Scots in 1996.”4 Moreover there are a lot of Ulster-Scots literature and
Ulster-Scots music, a mixture of Scottish, English and Irish folk music, are well-known.
The most famous Ulster-Scots pet is Robert Burns, who wrote the Song ‘Auld Lang
Syne’ (for old times sake). At present, Ulster-Scots is making progress and people in
Northern Ireland and Republic of Ireland well recognize the term Ulster-Scots.
According to Ulster Scots Agency, “most important of all is the Good Friday Agreement
of April 1998, the first official document to mention Ulster Scots, stating that it
represents part of the cultural wealth of the island of Ireland.”5
5. Conclusions
Ulster-Scots is complex in that there has been in conflict in Northern Ireland
since Ireland was separated into two islands. Speeches and languages used in
Northern Ireland such as Ulster-Scots and Gaelic have a political meaning. According
to WIKIPEDIA, “In the same way that use of Irish Gaelic in Northern Ireland is
sometimes a political sign of the faction that desires all of Ireland to be united and
sovereign, use of Scots in Ulster is sometimes a sign of the faction that desires
Northern Ireland to remain in the union with Great Britain”.
However, Ulster-Scots is important for us to understand the history of Ireland
and it is a fact that culture such as music and literature was created by it. For these
reasons, it is worthy to conserve Ulster-Scots as an important part of the culture in
Northern Ireland.
6. Bibliography
Clive, U & David, P (1994) Survey of English dialects: the dictionary and grammar.
London; New York: Routledge.
Eire. Available at; http://www.geocities.com/Athens/9479/eire.html (9/30/03)
3
4
5
http://www.nidex.com/map1.htm
http://www.minority2000.net/Gr-75/t72gb.htm
http://www.ulsterscotsagency.com/WhatisUlster-Scots.asp
Page 35
Ulster Scots (Chiharu Sakaguchi)
Home of the Scotch Irish (Ulster Scots).
Available at; http://www.ulsterloyalist.co.uk/navagation.htm (11/1/03)
Itaru, U. and Irurando bunka kenkyukai (1999) Zusetsu Irurando (Figure Ireland).
Tokyo: Kawade shoho shinsha.
Minorities in Europe. Available at; http://www.minority2000.net/Gr-75/t72gb.htm
(10/23/03)
Nidex－Map of Northern Ireland. Available at; http://www.nidex.com/map.htm (11/1/03)
Peter, t. (1994) Dialect. London; New York: Routledge.
Scotch Irish. Available at; http://www.scotchirish.net/Ulster%20Scots.php4 (9/30/03)
Steve Edwards’ web site.
Available at; http://www.geocities.com/stevenedw/index.html (10/5/03)
ULSTER NATIONALIST.
Available at; http://www.ulsternationalist.freeservers.com/index.html (10/5/03)
Welcome to electricscotland.com.
Available
at;
http://www.electricscotland.com/history/ulster_scots/ulster2.htm
(10/25/03)
Welcome to www. ULLANS. Com !.
Available at; http://www.ullans.com/dialect/UllansHistory.shtml (10/25/03)
WIKIPEDIA The Free Encyclopedia.
Available at; http://en2.wikipedia.org/wiki/Main+Page (9/30/2003)
Available athttp://www.geocities.com/stevenedw/irisheng
Page 36
12. English borrowed from Native American Languages (Chikako Ono)
概要
英語は歴史の中で、
様々な国や地域との文化交流や商業の行き来を通して他言語との接触を
行ってきた。英語は元々アングロサクソン族の言語だったが、のちにたくさんの言語と交わり合い吸
収し、現在の英語へと成長していく。英語がアメリカ大陸へ持ち出されると、更にネイティブアメリ
カン族の言語に触れることとなる。英語はたくさんの国からいくつもの単語を借用してきた。西洋人
がアメリカ大陸に着き、ネイティブアメリカンと生活を共有していく中で、英語は更にたくさんのネ
イティブアメリカン語を借用語として使うことになる。本論では、ネイティブアメリカンの歴史や西
洋人とのやり取り、またネイティブアメリカンからの借用英単語を紹介したいと思う。
1.
Introduction
English has imported a variety of vocabulary from many countries in its history.
When colonists settle their new country in the United States, they had no words for many
objects and new experience that they underwent. There were many living and growing things
that were peculiar to the New World. Accordingly, not only English but also other colonial
languages imported many terms. English imported terms from Latin, French, Greek, Italian, and
Spanish language freely. Above all, however the languages from which English borrowed firstly
was Native American language that were spoken by original habitants in the Unite States.
Contact with Native Americans brought into English a number of words having reference to their
life. In this paper, Vocabulary from Native American languages will be discussed from the
viewpoint of the history between European colonists and Native Americans.
2.1. History of Native American
Europeans tend to think America was discovered by European countries, but there had
already been Native Americans who formed their life in the American continent long before
Europeans arrived. The Native Americans were considered to be Asian tribes who crossed the
Bering Strait from Siberia to Alaska between 18000BC and 14000BC. After that, Native people
spread over North America, Central America and South America. Prior to 8000 BC the Native
Americans reached the southern part of South America. People were organized socially and
politically gradually by 3000 BC.
2.2. Discovery of Native American
In 1492, Christopher Columbus sailed west from Spain looking for a direct and shorter
route to the Indies. Instead, the land on which he landed was American continent. He thought it
was India so he called the Native people Indians.The Discovery of native people by Christopher
Columbus was the first contact between Native American and Europeans. By the time he came to
the New World, the native population of North America was estimated at about 500,000 people
and there were about 500 tribes.
According to Welker (2002), “at the time of first European contact, probably close to
1,000 American Indian languages were spoken in North, Central, and South America. Although
the number of languages in daily use has declined because of persecution and pressures on the
Indians to adopt English, Spanish, and other original European languages. Perhaps 300
languages were spoken in Canada and the United States when the first Europeans arrived, and
about 200 are still spoken by some 300,000 people.”6
2.3. Cultural and Colonial areas
6
From http://www.indigenouspeople.net/americas/americas.htm
Page 37
12. English borrowed from Native American Languages (Chikako Ono)
The areas which were occupied by Native Americans with similar cultures are divided
into ten areas. They are the Northwest coast, California, Northeast, Southeast, Great Plains,
Plateau, Great Basin, Southwest, Arctic and Subarctic areas. As the Europeans arrived, Russian
explorers came to occupy most of the southern coast of what is now Alaska. French expansion
started from Quebec in Canada and went over Mississippi River areas. English settlement
founded on New England areas and some southeast areas. Dutch explored Hudson Bay areas of
east coast. Spanish explorers had the greatest power of any European explorers and occupied
Southwest areas which are now Mexico, California areas and Florida.
2.4. Cultural Exchange
Contact between Europeans and Native peoples began in the early 1500s and continued
for a century before European started to make settlements. This is the first opportunity for
English to have direct contact with North American languages that is Native American languages.
They contributed to a great expansion of knowledge, which was reflected in the linguistic
borrowings. Through living with Native Americans, Columbus and other Europeans made
discoveries of new plants, animals, customs, buildings and living sources that they had not
known.
3.1. Native American Vocabulary Loans in English
Vocabulary from Native American languages was mostly borrowed in the seventeenth
and eighteenth centuries. After the nineteenth century, words were rarely loaned. Indian’s living
styles are reflected in English vocabulary. Plants and animals words from Native Americans are
often loaned to other languages as well. Indian languages are powerful language which reflected
plants and animal names in American English. It is also significant that many place names in the
United States are based on Native American vocabulary.
Native American languages are often agglutinative languages like Japanese, Korean,
and Altai language. Prefixes, infixes and suffixes are often used. They are not a single language
but consist of many languages. During seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, a group of
Algonquian languages was often the source of loan words. This is because Algonquians were
distributed over the eastern area, which was being settled by Europeans. Other Indian terms
were loaned after nineteenth century. As Europeans exploited the west, loan words of different
languages were introduced.
3.2. Cultural loan words
From their earliest contact with early traders and explorers, Native Americans taught
them new words often to describe things and food. The following gives specific examples of
vocabulary which was loaned by Native Americans. These examples are divided into six
categories: animals, plants, buildings, tools, food and miscellaneous.
1.Animals:
skunk, moose, raccoon, opossum, menhaden, terrapin, woodchuck, muskellunge, wapiti,
chipmunk, cayuse
2.Plants:
persimmon, chinquapin, hickory, squash, catalpa, tamarack, sequoia
3.Buildings:
wigwam, tepee, hogan
4.Tools:
moccasin, tomahawk, totem, parka, atlatl
5.Food:
pone, hominy, hoochinoo, bean, peanut, tomato, papaya, pineapple, avocado, chile pepper,
Page 38
12. English borrowed from Native American Languages (Chikako Ono)
cocoa, maize
6.Other:
sachem, powwow, papoose, squaw, mugwump, potlatch, chautauqua
3.3. Place Names
In addition, many American places have been named after Indian words. Places
including some states, rivers, lakes and cities in the United States are originally from Native
American languages. Actually thousands of place names including Ottawa, Toronto,
Saskatchewan and the names of more than half of the states of the US come from Native
American languages. More than a thousand rivers also have names of Native American origin.
Indian languages had a great influence on place names. The following state names, city names
and river name and lake names are from Indian words.
States
Indiana → “land of Indians”
Iowa → “this is the place”, “the beautiful
land”
Kansas → “people of the south wind”
Kentucky → “land of tomorrow”
Michigan → “great or large lake”
Ohio → “great river”
Texas → “friends”
Utah → “people of the mountains”
Cities
Chicago → “garlic field”
Manhattan → “isolated thing in water”
Milwaukee → “a good spot or place”
Pensacola (Florida) → “hair” “people”
Saratoga (New York) → “springs from the hillside”
Rivers and lakes
Mississippi → “father of waters”
Lake Tahoe → “big water”
Except Superior, all of the great lakes of Michigan, Erie, Ontario and Huron have
Native American names. The Adirondack Mountains, Appalachian Mountains, Chesapeake Bay,
Penobscot Bay, Mohave Desert, Yosemite National Park and Niagara falls are also originally from
Indian words.7
4.
Conclusion
Native American language have contributed to the vocabularies of English and many
other Old World languages, especially words for animals, plants and culture traits unknown to
Europeans before the discovery of the New World. Native American life styles are reflected in
English Vocabulary. Among many Native American languages, most words are borrowed from
Algonquian language. Today interest in Native American language is increasing. Indeed, some
Native American languages are becoming culturally and politically important. Wherever you go
in the US, you will see a lot of Native American words there, especially place names.
5. Bibliography
Nagai, Y (0000) Amerika no hougen.（American English Dialect , in Japanese）.Tokyo:
Nanundou.
Takahasi, T (0000) Amerika Eigo (American English , in Japanese).Tokyo: Saimaru shuppansha.
Takebayasi, J (0000) Amerika Eigo gaisetu (American English Introduction, in Japanese).Tokyo:
7
http://www.factmonster.com/spot/aihmnames1.html
Page 39
12. English borrowed from Native American Languages (Chikako Ono)
Taishukan shoten.
Trudgill Peter, Hannah Jean (1982) International English . New York: Edward Arnold.
Varieties of English “American Indian English”
Available at, http://www.ic.arizona.edu/~lsp/index.html (12/11/2003)
Infoplease.com. All the knowledge you need “American Indian Loan Words”
Available at, http://www.infoplease.com/spot/aihmwords1.html (12/11/2003)
Words in English (2003) “Loanwords”
Available at, http://www.ruf.rice.edu/~kemmer/Words/loanwords.html (12/11/2003)
The Metaverse “Words in English from Amerindian Languages”
Available at, http://www.zompist.com/indianwd.html (12/11/2003)
Wikipedia.The free encyclopedia (2003) “English language”
Available at, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_language (12/11/2003)
Smithsonian Institution “Paleoamerican Origins”
Available at, http://www.si.edu/history_and_culture/american_indian/(11/01/2003
Ampersand “Indian”
Available at, http://www.ampersand.jp/indian.html(11/01/2003)
Eastern Algonquian Language Revitalization: A Chronology of Change
Available at,
http://www.bluekungfu.com/archaeological/Native-American/Algonquin-Language-Revatilization.
html (11/01/2003)
Fact Monster. Information Please “American Indian Place Names”
Available at, http://www.factmonster.com/spot/aihmnames1.html (12/10/2003)
Indigenous peoples literature “Native American Languages”
Available at, http://www.indigenouspeople.net/americas/americas.htm (11/01/2003)
Page 40
The Grammar of Black English (AAVE) in the U.S. (M. Tanaka)
概要
アメリカで話されている英語にはたくさんの種類があり、黒人英語もその中の日撮
る出ある。黒人英語はさまざまな歴史と差別に巻き込まれ、現在に存在する。同じアメ
リカという国に住んでいても、その黒人英語を話さない人たちには理解できない文法が
今でも存在している。そこでこのペーパーでは、動詞、代名詞、不定詞を中心にまとめ
てみた。黒人の使っている英語は確かに白人英語とは異なる作りをしていることが分か
るだろう。
1. Introduction
English is the most popular and important language in the world now. There are
a lot of dialects of English. In the United States, the term Black English usually refers
to the everyday spoken varieties of English used by African Americans, especially of the
working class in urban neighborhoods or rural communities. This is also referred to as
AAVE. 12% of the American population is African American and 80% of black people in
America speak Black English. It is often thought White American speaks correct
English and Black Americans speak slang, because we learn about white American
English at the school, but not Black English. But that’s not true. This paper will review
about “verbs”, “pronouns” and other grammars of Black English.
2. Verbs in Black English
2.1 “ain’t”
It is commonly known that “ain’t” is used as “are not”, am not, is not, have not, and has not.
In addition, Black people use “ain’t” for don’t, doesn’t and sometimes didn’t. It doesn’t matter
whether the subject is singular or plural. “Ain’t” is negative present tense. They also use warn’t
as a negative past tense. Here are some examples of ain’t and warn’t.
・There ain’t a thing you can do about it. → There isn’t a thing you can do about it.
・We ain’t got nothing to eat. → We haven’t got nothing to eat.
・ He warn’t afraid. → He wasn’t afraid.
Are not
Am not
Is not
→
Have not
Has not
→ Ain’t
→ Ain’t
Ain’t
Was not
→ Warn’t (wa’n’t)
Were not
→ Warn’t (wa’n’t)
Page 41
The Grammar of Black English (AAVE) in the U.S. (M. Tanaka)
2.2 Use of “done”
There is a difference in the use of “done” between Black English and Standard English. In
Black English, “done” can be used an auxiliary verb, adverb, verb, or infinitive and there are
three grammar patterns: ① have+done+p.p. ② done+p.p ③ be+done+p.p. (Fujii, 1984,,
p145)
① have+done+p.p.
・ I’ve done quit.
・ You’ve done come back different. (Fujii, 1984, p145)
② done+p.p.
・ You done angered them.
・ I done lived with him. (Fujii, 1984, p146)
③ be+done+p.p.
・ He’s done satisfied.
・ They’s all done gone. (Fujii, 1984, p146)
2.3 gwine, gwyne, guine, ghy
The Standard English ‘going’ in Black English has many forms: “gwine”, “gwyne”,
“guine”, and “ghy”. Not only black people but also white people use these words. Here are
some examples:
・ It ain’t gwine rain.
・ Whar you gwine? ( where are going?)
・ I’m guine buy a car.
・ If you ain’t ghy say nothing about it…(Fujii, 1984, p66)
2.4 “going on”
‘In Black English, “going on” means the same as nearly, almost, and approaching. (about age
or time). For example, we have
・ A man going on sixty.
・ I’ve knowed you for going on twenty years. ( I’ve known you….)
・ I got a niece who is going on seventeen. (Schneider, p207)
2.5 lack of the 3rd person sg/g/
Black English lacks the 3rd person singular -s. Here are some examples
・ She want to go.
・ He need a book. (http://www.ling.ohio-state.edu/~hana/201/HO10-BE.pdf)
3. Pronouns
There are some differences of pronoun between Standard English and Back English.
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The Grammar of Black English (AAVE) in the U.S. (M. Tanaka)
3.1 “hisself”, “theirselves” in Black English
“hisself” and “theirselves” are often used instead of himself and themselves. For example
・ He ought to be ashamed of hisself.
・ Go tell the men-folks to wash theirselves.
There are other examples about the absolute possessive case. Generally we use ‘ours’,
‘yours’ , ‘his’, ‘hers’ and ‘theirs’. But in Black English use “ourn”, “yourn”, “hism”, “hern”,
“theirn” is used.
・ These uncles of yourn ain’t no uncles at all
・ He just looks at me with them queer eyes of hisn.
3.2 “You all” ( you-all, y’all, or yawl)
The pronoun “you all” means more than two people. Sometimes it is represented “you-all”,
“y’all”, or “yawl”. The following are some examples:
・ You all must go to bed.
・ I been working for yawl along.
・ You all can eat now. (Poplack, 2000, p155)
4. Other
4.1 for to～ (= to)
In Black English in the southern part of America, “for to” is often used instead of “to”. For
example
・ I’m going for to see my friend.
・ He is going out to the London for to live.
・ I didn’t go for to do it. (Fujii, 1984, p138)
We also see this in the famous lyrics of “Oh Susanna”: “I come from Alabama with my banjo on
my knee; I'm goin' to Lou'siana my true love for to see.”
4.2 Multiple negation
Black English also employs a pattern of multiple negation. Here are some examples of multiple
negation.
・ Nobody can’t do it.
・ They won’t nothing hurt you. (Fujii, 1984, p220)
・ I don’t know nothing (http://www.ling.ohio-state.edu/~hana/201/HO10-BE.pdf)
1. Conclusion
Black English has a lot of differences from Standard English because Black people have their
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The Grammar of Black English (AAVE) in the U.S. (M. Tanaka)
own history, culture, and language. However, Black English is one of the most important
English in America. Black English is not wrong English. It just different from Standard English.
6. Bibliography
‘Center for applied linguistics’ Available at http://www.cal.org/ebonics/ (12/10/03)
Dillard. J (1972) Black English; Its History and Usage in the United States. Tokyo: Kensyusha
‘Ebonics and Black English.’ Available at
http://www.questia.com/popularSearches/ebonics_and_black_english.jsp (12/13/03)
Fujii. K (1984) America Nabuhougen no Gohou. Tokyo: Sansyu-sha
‘Identifying Features of American Black English.’ Available at
http://www.uta.fi/FAST/US1/P1/if-of-be.html (12/16/03)
Poplack. S (2000) THE ENGLISH HISTORY OF AFRICAN AMERICAN ENGLISH Massachusetts:
Blackwell Publishers Ltd
Schneider. E (1989) American Earlier Black English. Alabama: The University of Alabama Press
‘Some Aspects of Black English Grammer.’ Available at
http://www.ling.ohio-state.edu/~hana/201/HO10-BE.pdf (12/16/03)
Page 44
The History of Black English (AAVE) in the U.S. (Makiko Tanaka) （日本語）
Abstract
There are a lot of kinds of Englishes in the world. This paper will focus on
the history of Black English (also called African American Vernacular
English or AAVE) in America, which has a complicated history. For
example, it was highly affected by the Civil War in 1861 and the
Emancipation Proclamation in 1863. This paper will review the history of
Black English.
１、紹介
黒人英語というものは、ありがち違った見方でみられる事が多いのではないだ
ろうか。昔は、黒人も白人も一緒に働き、今のような黒人英語と白人英語の差
は少なかったのである。しかし、そこに歴史的要因や差別というものの介入に
よって、その距離が時間と共に広がっていったのである。特に、黒人英語の孤
立は、アメリカの歴史と深く関わっている。現在でも差別がまったくなくなっ
たわけではないが、近年黒人英語に対する見方が少しずつ変わってきている。
２、歴史的三つの要素
まず、現代の南部に住む黒人英語を話す人たちの方言についての歴史を述べて
みたい。必ずしも南部に住んでいる人達が黒人英語を話しているわけではなく、
歴史的因果関係によりそれがまだ残っているという状況である。まずは、アメ
リカ南部の歴史にしぼってみると、南部の黒人英語には三つの要素が見える。
（ここで触れるアメリカ南部というのは、Mississippi, Georgia, Louisiana,
Alabama, Florida, Texas, North Carolina, South Carolina, Kentucky,
Missouri 州のことである）。
アメリカ南部の歴史は、１７世紀初頭にイギリスが植民地を開拓したことに始
まる。その後、イギリスが植民地の地域を拡大するのと共に、労働人口の需要
が高まっていき、白人労働者だけでは、その需要が満たされなくなっていった。
そこに導入されたのが、黒人奴隷達であった。その当時、白人と黒人が一緒に
働くという事は稀な事ではなく、むしろ一般的だったといえる。ここで、白人
英語と黒人英語が日常的に接触することになったのである。
その後１８世紀に入ると、大量のアイルランド人が移住してきた。１３世紀以
来、イギリスに支配されていたアイルランドの人たちは、他のヨーロッパの地
域、もしくはアメリカへ移住する他に選択がなくなっていたのである。アイル
ランド人が持ってきた言語は Irish-English である。それは、ゲール語を母国語
とするアイルランド人が覚えたイギリス英語で、独特な英語である。アイルラ
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The History of Black English (AAVE) in the U.S. (Makiko Tanaka) （日本語）
ンドからは、その後も１９世紀に大量の移民が入ってくる事になる。要するに、
アメリカ南部に住む黒人が話す英語の方言には、黒人奴隷の英語、白人英語、
Irish-English の三つの大きな要素があったのである。
３、奴隷解放宣言
１８６１年共和党のリンカーンが大統領に当選したのをきっかけに、南部は合
衆国からの分離を宣言し、南北戦争が始まった。初めは南部軍が優勢だった。
そこで、リンカーンは合衆国を救うのには、奴隷制度廃止が重要だと考え、１
８６３年に奴隷解放宣言を出した。結局、四年間の戦争の末、北軍が勝利した8。
１８６３年に出された、奴隷解放宣言。これは、単に形式的なだけであり、実
質的にはすぐに人種差別が削除されたわけではない。
3.1. 方言矯正教育
奴隷解放宣言から百年経った１９６０年代初頭までは、学校では黒人英語を直
す「方言矯正教育」が行われていた。やはり、すぐに実質的な人種差別が削除
されたわけではなく、それまでの百年間、黒人に対する差別や偏見は変わるこ
となく続いていた。「方言矯正教育」は読んで字のごとく、黒人英語を話してい
る黒人の子供達に対し、正しい英語、つまり“白人英語”を教え込む教育であ
る。しかし、１９６４年の公民権法が議会を通過、成立した事など、黒人解放
運動に大きな転機がおとずれ、学者の間で黒人英語を含む“非標準的方言”は、
完全な言語体系として認められるようになった。9 その後、何年にもわたって
都会方言に関する言語学会が開かれ、二重方言使用対策の推進が進められた。
二重方言教育対策は、家庭内、友達同士の会話での非標準英語の使用に関して、
教師が蔑視したり、やめさせたりしない。しかし授業の時は、生徒の進学、就
職、出世に影響を及ぼさないように、標準英語で行うこと、というものであっ
た。しかし、何十年もの間、それを確定づける決議は何一つ決まらなかった。
そして、１９６４年の公民権法の議会通過から三十年後の１９９６年に、革新
的な決議がおこった。
１９９６年１２月１８日、カリフォルニア州オークランドの教育委員会で、エ
ボニクス（黒人英語）を第二言語として使用する事が決議された。オークラン
ド教育委員会では、「正しい英語を話すことのできない黒人の学生達に、エボニ
クスを使用して会話することによって、彼らに正しい英語を理解してもらうよ
うにつとめたいが故に、エボニクスを第二言語として認めた」としている。10
http://www/hi-ho.ne.jp/ogiso/kazuya/america/index.htm
http://privatewww.essex.ac.uk/~ykawat/Seminar/USAhistory/weeksj.html
10 http://members.jcom.home.ne.jp/slang/whatisebonics.htm
8
9
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The History of Black English (AAVE) in the U.S. (Makiko Tanaka) （日本語）
ようするに、委員会はエボニクスが遺伝的に決定された、またアフリカに起源
をもつ、異なる言語だとする説をもちだしたのである。
そもそも、エボニクスとは、「エボニー（黒人）」と「フォ二ックス（音声）」
を掛け合わせて作られた、黒人英語を意味する造語である。１９７３年に黒人
心理学者のロバート・ウィリアムス博士によって提唱された、黒人英語を自分
達の文化として尊重しようとする積極的な意味を持つものだった。しかし、上
記に述べたオークランドでの決定は、この言葉とまったく異なる意味合いを持
つものになってしまったのである。エボニクスは、自分達の文化として尊重し
ようとする意味をもつのにも関わらず、この決議では、エボニクスは標準英語
の方言ではなく、アフリカに起源を持つ異なる言語、つまりエボニクスを話す
黒人達を、外国語を話すグループとして位置付けたからである。
しかし、この決定にはオークランドの同地区での黒人生徒の成績の伸び悩みも
関わっている。黒人生徒の平均成績は、人種別で最低である。また、標準テス
トの成績も落ちつづけていた。同教育委員会では、これは黒人生徒の話す言葉
を教師が理解できないために生じる問題だと考えた。そこで、黒人生徒と教師
のコミュニケーション能力を高める目的で、教師にエボニクスを教えるプログ
ラム確立のために連邦政府の資金援助を求めた。ヒスパニックやアジア人製と
は、バイリンガル用のプログラム資金援助を受けて成績を伸ばしている。黒人
に対しても、同様の資金援助を受ける権利があると考えたのだ。しかし、その
援助を得る方法としてエボニクスが異言語なので、教師はこれを学習すべきだ
とする同委員会の論理に対して、主流メディアは反発を感じ否定的にこれを報
道した。
3.2 黒人標準英語
１９７７年から７９年にかけてミシガン州で、黒人学生１５人が成績の悪さか
ら教師に精神薄弱者とみなされ、無視される事件が起こった。これに対して、
黒人学生の親達は、黒人英語と標準英語、いわゆる白人英語との違いを考慮し
た教育を行う事を要求した。現在、黒人の間では「黒人俗英語」と「黒人標準
英語」の二重方言が使用されている。「黒人標準英語」とは､標準英語の構文に
黒人俗英語の母音体系、音律、語彙が加わったものである。これは、黒人とし
ての人格を保ちながら、社会的な出世のために標準英語に近づくものであると
いえる。
4.結論
これまで、黒人英語というものは「間違った英語」という見られ方をしてきた。
色々な歴史の中で、教える側の教師がまだまだ黒人生徒への差別や偏見をすて
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The History of Black English (AAVE) in the U.S. (Makiko Tanaka) （日本語）
きれず、それによって黒人生徒の中にも、黒人英語を話すことへの劣等感が生
まれてくるのである。これは、単に学校のみの問題ではなく、アメリカ社会全
体の問題である。黒人英語という言葉が異言語なのかということより、この言
葉を受け入れるという世論ができあがるのが重要である。それによって、また
新たな黒人英語の歴史は作られていくのである。
参考文献
「アメリカの黒人について勉強しよう」
http://www5d.biglobe.ne.jp/~yoko-c/hobby/black/
「アメリカの歴史」
(2003/12/10 アクセス)
http://privatewww.essex.ac.uk/~ykawat/Seminar/USAhistory/weeksj.html
（2003/10/20 アクセス）
「エボニクス研究所」http://members.jcom.home.ne.jp/slang/ebonics1.htm
(2003/10/20 アクセス)
ディラード J.L （１９８７）『黒人英語 その歴史と語法』 東京 研究社
Schneider, E.（１９８９）American Earlier Black English Alabama: The
University of Alabama Press
「南北戦争」 http://www.hi-ho.ne.jp/ogiso/kazuya/america/index2.htm
(2003/10/15 アクセス)
藤井 健三 （１９８４）『アメリカ南部方言の語法』 東京 三修社
Poplack. S （１９９９） The English History Of African American English,
Massachusetts:
Blackwell Publisher Ltd.
Page 48
English Education in Korea (Ryuichi Tateyama)
Abstract
概要
このレポートでは韓国における英語について述べていく。韓国での英語熱はすさま
じいほどで、近年英語に非常に力を入れている、そのことについて主に子供達の英語の取
り組みを教育を通して、文化的背景やお国柄も取り入れ、韓国における英語ブームを述べ
ていく。
1. Introduction
There are many countries which do not use English as an official language in the
world. Japan is also a non-native English speaker’s country. In recent years, however,
English has become an official language in many parts of the world. Therefore the
countries of Asia are putting power into English.
This paper will describe the position of English in the nearest country from
Japan-- South Korea. The focus will be on history of English in Korea, English
education for children and Konglish or Korean English.
2. English education in Korea
2.1
History of English Education in Korea
Public study of English started from 1883 in Korea. Lessons started with a
British teacher and two Chinese teachers at school, and these were called
DOUBUNNGAKU. Their method of instruction was the direct method. The curriculum
came to be taught in English at school called IKUEIKOUIN from 1886. In this school
students had to memorize 3000 words in ten months.
Korea was under the occupation of Japan from 1910 to 1945, and at this time
English lessons were decreased to twice a week while Japanese lessons were performed
four times a week..
2.2 English in Elementary School today
English had been taught in a part of English class since 1981. Afterwards, Korea
launched English education in elementary schools in March 1997. Lessons are now
given twice a week for third grade students. The then president Kim young-sam began
a plan for reform of education to add English as a regular lesson in elementary school
curriculum.
The government phased in the reformation: from 1998 for grades 3 and 4, 1999
for grades 3-5, and 2000 for grades 3-6. Lessons aimed to teach English with pleasure,
and focused on activities like songs and games, devised using balls, roulette boards, etc.
Teachers respond with humor in English. Students learn listening and speaking at 3
grade, add reading at 4 and 5 grade, and add writing at 6 grade.
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English Education in Korea (Tateyama)
Besides there are courtyards called “English Zones” on the school grounds where
written explanations are posted for each buildings in English. The purpose of English
education that language is learns though a life, which emphasizes listening and
speaking and rouses students’ interest in English from childhood.
2.3. Lack of Elementary School English teachers in Korea
Now there is a problem of lack of teachers because of the increasing hours of
children’s English education, therefore the government has begun to emphasize teacher
training. An English induction course for 120 hours has been in place since 1985.
Moreover many teachers are ranked and sent overseas for study. Up to 2000, it has
enforced such programs for 22,500 people. Currently, 60% of English classes are taught
by homeroom teachers, and teachers of English teach 40 percent. Native speakers are
not employed generally in elementary school, because of the cost. However 800 native
speakers were invited in 1997 to teach together with homeroom teacher by
team-teaching, but Korea was hit by an economic crisis consequently and the teachers
had to return home. In 2000 these teachers were decreased by about two hundred
people.
2.4 Extracurricular English Activities
According to a report in Pusan, 60% of students attend an English cram school.
To improve public education, the Government announced a prohibition on attending
cram schools for public elementary school students.
Similarly rising in popularity is
an experience-English program in summer vacation called “English camp” within the
country. In an English camp, students must use English for twenty-four hours by strict
administration. Teachers are professors, foreign teachers and university students. The
ratio of students to teachers is ten-one. Another extracurricular program by Samsung
in Soeul that an exhibition of English education. Many education aids could be seen
and listened to for children to learn English pronunciation
3. Korean English
3.1
English vs. Korean pronunciation
Japanese people are often astonished by Korean English pronunciation ability.
This is because Korean has fourteen consonants and ten vowels with long and short
variations, so Koreans can listen to English pronunciation accurately and pronounce
them more faithfully than Japanese. This advantage works to learn any language.
However, there are still many difficulties in pronunciation, and sometimes
Koreans may go to extremes to correct them. Early autumn in this year, there was a
Page 50
English Education in Korea (Tateyama)
surprising piece of news that a mother made her son undergo an operation for cutting
his tongue. Koreans have difficulty in pronouncing L & R, and this is said to be because
of a too-long tongue. This operation
is called “Tongue-tie” for children who can’t
pronounce a sound for physical reason. Nobody conjecture to operate normal
tongue
in order to improve English pronunciation.
3.2 Korean Culture in English
Koreans prize their own surname. Consequently many people preserve order
of surname and first name. 金大中大統領 is written president Kim Dae Jung in the
world English-language news paper. Moreover, it is said that Koreans esteem courtesy,
that attitude is unchanged even when speaking English. For examples [ Keep out ] is
said [ Let us keep your grass ] . [ Please don’t smoke ] is said [ Please refrain from
smoking ]. Korean say these as set expressions.
3.3 Konglish
One problem in Korea is that there now exists a special variety of Korean
English called Konglish. That is a part of Korea already. Examples of Konglish are
Hand-phone (cellular phone).
Remocon (remote control). Super (supermarket).
Canning (cheating). Hochikisu (stapler) . coffee time (coffee brake) , omurice ( an
omelet with a filling of ketchup-seasoned fried rice), all back (hair combed straight
back from forehead), etc.
Many of these examples of Konglish actually come from Japanese English.
Another example of Korean English is FIGHT, that in used everywhere in Korea to
mean “work hard” (as in Japan). This often causes misunderstanding when
Westerners hear FIGHT shouted by Koreans, who misunderstand it to be offensive.
4. Conclusion
As we see from the above, English is encouraged exceedingly in Korea. When we
compare it with Japan, we see that English education in elementary school was
introduced much earlier. Increasingly, children study English like an American school
even in a kindergarten.
English skill is very important for employment. Almost all companies make a
system that English skill is reflected in promotion. Therefore people exert themselves
much to learn English in Korea.
5. References
現代教育新聞
http://www.gks.co.jp/NM71-5.html
Interculture discussion 2001 autumn
Page 51
English Education in Korea (Tateyama)
http://www.naruto-u.ac.jp/~ykimura/Interculture_discussion_20.html
「みらい」 英語教育にがんばる国事情
「韓国の初等学校における英語教育」
中国・韓国への教職員派遣事業
２００１年秋号
鳴門英語研究 木村裕三
池添 敬道
２００１
July 2003
http://www.accu.or.jp/jp/profile/accunews/news339/339-03.doc
Ahn, Young Hee. Report of
Korea
available
http://jmm.cogen.co.jp/jmmarchive/index_korea.html#r003094
現在の教育制度と教育課程
Overseas vocational training association
http://www.ovta.or.jp/info/asia/korea/oldhrddb/kor-h002.html
Page 52
Linguistic and Social Factors in Chinese English Pronunciation (Yamamoto)
Page 54
Linguistic and Social Factors in Chinese English Pronunciation (Yamamoto)
Page 59
English in Singapore (Yoko Maeda)
Abstract
シンガポールは、他民族・多文化・多言語社会の国である。シンガポールで
は、マレー語、華語、タミール語、英語を公用語として定めている。その中で
も英語は行政、教育などあらゆる面で使用されている。シンガポールにおいて
英語は、民族間相互のコミュニケーション手段としてなくてはならない言語で
ある。シンガポール人の話す英語には独自の語句や文法、発音などの特徴があ
るのでその英語はシングリッシュと呼ばれている。ここでは、シンガポール英
語の歴史、語句、文法、発音の特徴について調べてみたいと思う。
1. Introduction
Singapore has original English. This is called Singlish. This is made from
Singapore people. Almost people don’t use English for mother land language. It is
interesting point.
2. History of Singlish
Singapore is known as a country of many nations, cultures, languages. It
constitutes Chinese, Malay, Indian, Eurasian people. Chinese is 77 percent, Malay is
15 percent, Indian is 6 percent, and Eurasian is 2 percent. Therefore they speak many
languages and dialects.
Since its independence, Singapore government decided to have 4 official
languages: Malay, Chinese, Tamil, and English. Malay is the homeland language, but
English is most dominant language in Singapore society. It is used in various
situations: for example, politics, justice, economy, and education. English is
necessary for Singapore, because it is useful for communication between the different
nationalities in Singapore.
3. Characteristics of Singlish
English in Singapore is often called Singlish. It has an original character. This
is commoner English in Singapore.
The most famous Singlish word is “lah”. This is used for termination at the end
of a sentence. This can mean “ne” “yo” “sa” or “zo” in Japanese. For exampl , “Relax
lah.” , “Hurry up lah.” , “Sushi and sashimi are different lah.” It makes an open
atmosphere.
3.1 Singlish vocabulary
Page 60
English in Singapore (Yoko Maeda)
Next, Singlish has many interesting vocabulary words. For example, “coffee
shop” means luncheon bar. Also “market” is used as a verb to mean shopping. This is
used like this, “Where do you market?”
There are many words originate from Chinese and Malay. “kiasu” is a typical
word, meaning feeling of unyielding. This is used like this. “Why are you so kiasu?”
Other words are “amah”, “wayang”, “kachang”, and “shake legs”. “amah” means
maid. “wayang” means Chinese opera. These words originate from Chinese.
“kachang” means beans. “shake legs” means relax or loiter. These words originate
from Malay. Also “Alamar” is often used. This is interjection.
3.2. Singlish grammar
Singlish has many different grammar elements from Standard English. For
example, it is interesting how to use can/cannot, as in:
“Can I keep it in the refrigerator?” “Can!”
“Can” or “Cannot” are independent words in Singlish. To answer the question,
“You speak English, can or not?” the answer is “Can.”, “Cannot.”, or “No can.” Also
they often repeat twice. For example, “If you go to Seiyu, everything is cheap cheap.”
“Don’t play play ho.” “Thursday can-can.” “I like to wear big big.” “My friend from
Canada, she likes shop-shop.” This is Singlish conversation.
A: You spend me drink, can or not?
(Spend: treat)
B: Can.
A: Thanks. Man.
(man: in Japanese “ne”, “yo”, “sa”)
B: I see you with girl at hawker centre last night. Your classmate, is it?
(hawker centre: food centre)
A: Friends only. Friday, she got off-day. Usually we take makan and go to
disco-la. (makan: eat) (la: in Japanese “ne”, “yo”, “sa”)
B: You are going steady?
A: Not actually, but very closely.
B: She is still schooling?
(schooling: go to school)
A: No, working-la.
Honna Nobuyuki (1999) “Ajia wo tsunagu Eigo” (in Japanese), Alc
3.3 Singlish pronunciation
Singlish has an original accent as well. Especially 4 characteristics stand out.
(1) First and second accents are treated equally
Example: cé-lé-brá-tíon, án-ní-vér-sá-ry.
Page 61
English in Singapore (Yoko Maeda)
(2) Verbs and nouns are not distinguished.
Example: incréase, óbject.
(3)The accent is put on different syllables standard English.
Example: associáted, charácter, colléague, distribútor, ecónomic, educatéd, facúlty,
spécific.
(4)Contrastive emphasis is used.
Example: shópping bág
( British English put accent for shopping.)
4. Conclusion
Thus Singlish has an original character. It is becoming localization and
nativization. Singlish can think one of the New Englishes. It is not mistake. In
Singapore, it is natural for them to develop useful usage. English is not for international
communication language. It is necessary language to communicate with island people.
Singaporean often says “Singlish is official language in Singapore.” Singlish is not
admitted for official language, but it is certain that Singlish is spreading.
Bibliography
“Aya’s Yasashii Singlish”, available
http://www.geocities.com/aya_ka/singapore/singlish.html (in Japanese)
(16/12/2003)
Honna Nobuyuki (1999) Ajia wo tunagu Eigo (in Japanese), Tokyo: Aluku
Honna Nobuyuki (2002) Jiten Ajia no saishin Eigo jijyo (in Japanese), Tokyo:
Taisyukansyoten
Honna Nobuyuki hen (1990) Ajia no Eigo (in Japanese), Tokyo: Kuroshio
Syuppan
“Let’s Speak Singlish Lah”, available
http://home.att.ne.jp/star/kumiko/sin1.html (in Japanese) (16/12/2003)
Singlish Ni tsuite, from Ajia Joho Bank, Ajia Labo, available
http://www.asiantec.com/asialabo/singapore/s004.html (in Japanese)
(16/12/2003)
Page 62
The English of Native Spanish Speakers (Shoko Tanaka)
概要
今日、最も多くの国で話されている言語はスペイン語である。スペインだけではなくラテンア
メリカの国々、さらにアメリカの国土でも多様に使われている。アメリカにおけるヒスパニック
の数は２千８００万人にものぼり、その数はいまだに増え続けている。アメリカの統計では２０
５０年には９千６００万人にもなると言われている。英語は歴史の中でスペイン語からの借用
語を取り入れているため、互いに類似した言葉が見られる。それぞれの地域や文化の中で言
葉は変化していき独自の特徴を生み出している。
1. Introduction
All over the world English is used as an important language in
various fields, such as business or communications. However, Spanish has
been growing recently. Today Spanish is spoken not only in Spain, but also
in Latin America. Even in the United States there are a lot of Hispanic
people in California or Texas. The statistics of U.S. department of commerce
in 1997 showed that 28,680,000 Hispanic people and this population is
10.7% of the total population. By 2050 the number of this population will be
three times more than today. There will be 96,508,000 Hispanic people and
this rate will be 24.5% of the total population.
Hispanics came especially from Mexico, Puerto Rico, and Cuba as
immigrants. Most Mexican immigrants live in California, Arizona, and
Texas. On the other hand, people from Puerto Rico live in New York and
people from Cuba live in Florida. Many immigrants living in the U.S. use
English too. People who speak Spanish have a special pronunciation,
vocabulary and grammar.
2.
Spanish pronunciation
First of all, English and Spanish have each different phonetic
inventories. Spanish has five vowel sounds (“a” “i” “u” “e” “o”) and Spanish
words are made by using these 5 vowels. These following words are minimal
pairs made by changing vowels in each words: piso ‘flat’, peso ‘weight’, paso
‘step’, poso ‘sediment’ and puso ‘he/she put’. This is the classification of
vowels in terms of the tongue position. According to Mackenzie, the five
vowels of Spanish can be pronounced in the following way:
Page - 63 -
The English of Native Spanish Speakers (Shoko Tanaka)
Front
Central
Back
High
[i]
[u]
Mid
[e]
[o]
Low
[a]
(Spanish vowels)
On the other hand, English has twelve vowels and each sound is spread
more than Spanish. For example, there are two “high front” sounds “i” (tense) and
“I” (lax). These twelve vowels of English can be pronounced in the following way: (A
Web-Based Course from the class of “The Structure of English Words” at the
Department of Linguistics, University of Oregon.)
(English vowels)
Differences in consonants of each language can also be seen by
comparing them. Spanish has particular sounds such as “rr”, “ň ”, “y”,
“ll”, ”h”, “j”, “h”, and “v”. Even in same language, Spanish, differences are
seen in pronunciation of certain letters. The following chart shows the
differences between English and Spanish pronunciation of letters.
letter
c
g
h
j
ll
ň
rr
v
y
English pronunciation
cat, cute, come /k/
city, century /c/
gate, give,guard, gear, go /g/
happy, hit, human, head, hobby /h/
jacket, jibe, June, jeep, job
/ʤ/
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------vacation, victim, vulture, vegetable,voice /v/
yard, yield, Yugoslavia, yes, yoghurt
/y/
Page - 64 -
The English of Native Spanish Speakers (Shoko Tanaka)
z
Zambia, zipper, zucchini, zeal, zoo
/z/
letter
Spanish pronunciation
c
g
h
j
ll
ň
rr
v
y
z
carta, curso, coche, crema /k/ cine, centro /s/ or /θ/
gafas, guitarra, gustar, guerra, gordo, grande /g/ gimnasio, general /x/ or /h/
hambre, historia, humor, hermano, hora
/They do not pronunce "h" sound.
Japon, jinete, jugo, jesus, joven, reloj
/x/
llamar, alli, lluvia, llegar, llorar /ʎ/, y/ĵ/ or j /ʤ/
maňana, niňo, ňu, compaňero, espaňol
/ɲ/
tierra, arriba, interrumpir, torre, barro
/ř/
vaca, visitar, vuelta, ventana, volumen
/b/
ya, desayuno, ayer, mayo
/ŷ/ /ʤ/
zapoto, Zinbabue, zumo, zata, zona, feliz
/θ/
(Different sounds with letters )
Second, some Spanish letters have different pronunciations of some
consonants because they have different Spanish in each place such as Spain
and Latin America. There are no “ð”and “θ”sounds in Spanish in South or
Latin America, so they use “T” and “D” sounds for them. For example, while
cinco ‘five’ is pronounced as “θίnko” in Spain, they pronounce it “sίnko” in
Latin America. Then, Spanish in Spain suppose to distinguish to pronounce
“ll” /ʎ/ and “y” /ŷ/. Besides, in central Latin America: Peru, Ecuador,
Colombia, Paraguay, Bolivia, and north part of Chili and Argentina, they
pronounce those sounds differently. However, these days some people in
some cities do not have different sounds of “ll” and “y” even in Spain.
(Terasaki. 1999)
Spanish Consonants
voiceless
Stop
voiced
Bilabial
[p]
capa
[b]
ambos
[f]
café
voiceless
Fricative
voiced
Approx.
Labiodental
[B]
lobo
Dental
[t]
pata
[d]
lindo
[T]
caza
[D]
cada
voiced
Page - 65 -
Alveolar
[s]
casa
[z]
mismo
[˜]
Israel
Palato-Alveolar
Palatal
[Ǽ]
ayer
Velar
[k]
pico
[g]
vengo
[x]
caja
[Ǎ]
lago
The English of Native Spanish Speakers (Shoko Tanaka)
[tS]
chico
[dZ]
ya
voiceless
Affricate
voiced
[m]
cama
Nasal
[M]
nimfa
[ǿ]
caña
[̀]
calla
[n]
cana
[l]
cala
[R]
caro
[rr]
carro
Lateral
voiced
Tap
Trill
[N]
tengo
(Spanish consonants)
(English consonants)
From the charts of consonants of both English and Spanish above, it
can be seen that Spanish does not have “ʃ ”. When Spanish speakers speak
English, they substitute “ʧ ” for it. Then, sometimes Spanish speakers also
pronounce English words in Spanish way because they have the same
letters but different pronunciations. Here are some examples of these cases.
words
IPA of English of people who speak
IPA of English of people who speak
American English in Kentucky, New Spanish (They do not pronounce it
York, California and so on.
with this way exactly, but they have
been influenced by Spanish sounds.)
(http://classweb.gmu.edu/accent/)
yes,
yellow
/y s/
/y lou/
Page - 66 -
(http://classweb.gmu.edu/accent/)
(From my experience in TX)
/ʣ es/
/ʣ eloʊ /
The English of Native Spanish Speakers (Shoko Tanaka)
shampoo
/ʃ ĕ mpu:/
/ʦ ámpǔ/
/ji:p/
jeep
/xi:p/
gun, bus
/g∧n/
/b∧s/
/ g n/
/b s/
three
/θɻ i /
/θri/ /θri:/ /tri/
station,
/steІ ʃ ĕ n/ /steІ ʃ In/
/spǔ:n/
/ə steʃ І n/ /ə spǔn/
spoon
(English words with Spanish sounds)
3. Words
Third, English has some similar words to Spanish. Spanish and
English share many of the same root words due to the fact that Spanish is a
Latin based language and English borrowed heavily from Latin and French
in its earlier days. Words that are the same in two languages or very similar
are called cognates.
(http://www.palomar.edu/etv/courseinfo/summer2002/span50handouts.pdf)
English
Spanish
music
música
guitar
guitarra
culture
culutura
fruit
fruta
tiger
tigre
car
carro
(Similar words between English and Spanish)
Latin words have increased in English history and these days over
50% of English vocabulary is from Latin. English adopted words from Latin
a long time ago. In 5 A.C. Anglo Saxon people had trade with Roman people
already, then they borrowed Latin words from Roman people at that time.
Words which are connected with trade such as street, wall, wine, cheese,
butter, dish, cup, silk, inch, pound, and mile are examples of this situation.
After the Anglo-Saxon people settled Great Britain, Christianity came from
Ireland. They learned the alphabet from missionaries in Ireland at the end
of the 6th century A.D. Through influence of many Latin words that had
been borrowed, prefixes, suffixes, and affixes came to be used in English.
Here are suffixes of Latin words in Spanish and English. (Umeda 1990, p30)
(http://www.palomar.edu/etv/courseinfo/summer2002/span50handouts.pdf)
Page - 67 -
The English of Native Spanish Speakers (Shoko Tanaka)
Latin words
Spanish
English
--sion/tion
--cion/sion estasion
--sion
station
--ence/ent
--ente
inteligente
--ent
inteligent
------------tad/dad
oportumidad
--ity opportunity
------------ismo
cominismo
--ism
communism
------------ivo/iva
pasivo
--ive passive
------------ico/ica
politico
--ic
politic
-----------ura
culutura
--ure
culture
-----------eria
panaderia
--ery
bakery
While there are many similar words between English and Spanish,
here are some words which look similar but have different meanings. They
are called “False friends” and are pairs of words in two languages that look
or sound similar but differ in meaning. (From Wikipedia, the free
encyclopedia.)
Spanish
English
soccer, not football
fútbol
embarazada
pregnant, not embarrassed
pena
embarrassment, not pain
ropa
clothing, not rope
sopa
soup, not soap
contestar
to answer, not a contest
book store, not library
librería
(False friends)
4. Conclusion
In conclusion, people who speak Spanish natively are influenced by
the particularity of Spanish when they speak English. Because English had
been grown borrowing many words from other languages like Latin,
Spanish, French, Greek and so on, there are a lot of words which are similar
between English and Spanish. Even today English have similar words like
false friends with Spanish. These words make people who speak Spanish
confused when they speak English. Their own Spanish culture influences
speaking English.
Bibliography
Berns, Margie and Patricia Friedrich. (2003) World Englishes, Special Issue on
English in South America: A Different Kind of Differences, Oxford UK and Boston
USA: Blackwell Publishing
George Mason University. Available at; http://classweb.gmu.edu/accent/ (12/11/2003)
Page - 68 -
The English of Native Spanish Speakers (Shoko Tanaka)
Hayashi, Teturou, Tadao Andou. ( 1985 ) A History of English Linguistics (Eigo gaku
no rekisi), Tokyo: Eityousha shinsha
Morimoto, Rinpe. (1979) Eigo kara Supeingo e, (Learning Spanish from learning
English, in Japanese) Tokyo: Daigaku shorin
Palomar College. Available at;
Terasaki, Hideki (1999) Spanish World (supeingo no sekai), Kyoto: sekai shisou
Umeda, Osamu. (1990) Origins and Cultures behind English words (Eigo no Gogen
Jiten), Tokyo: Taishukan shoten
http://www.palomar.edu/etv/courseinfo/summer2002/span50handouts.pdf (11/02/2003)
Gail McEachron. Available at;
http://gamcea.people.wm.edu/ESL%20K-3%20Lessons/Mexico.htm (12/ 11/2003)
The University of Iowa. Available at;
http://www.uiowa.edu/~acadtech/phonetics/about.html# (12/11/2003)
The University of Newcastle upon Tyne. Available at;
http://www.staff.ncl.ac.uk/i.e.mackenzie/phonetic.htm
(12/11/2003)
The Department of Linguistics, University of Oregon, The Structure of English Words
http://www.uoregon.edu/~l150web/index.html
Page - 69 -
(12/11/2003)
Non-regional differences of English in England and America (Miho Gotoh)
概要
私たちが普段話しているものは日本語と言われているものだが、日本語の中
にもいろいろある。日本語と言う括りの中にも多くの種類があるのだ。その違
いは人によって違う。なぜならば、話している人の持っている背景が違うから
だ。そういうと、まず頭に浮かぶのが“方言”というものだろう。方言と一言
にいってもたくさんの種類がある。住んでいる地域による違い、そしてその人
の育った環境などによって左右される社会方言というものがある。この論文は
英語におけるそのような社会方言を階級、性別、年齢に分けて違いを調べてい
る。
1.
Introduction
The language used in Japan is generally called “Japanese”. But
there are many types of Japanese; for example, “Kansai-ben”
and”Kumamoto-ben”. These are called “dialects”. They each have
differences in pronunciation, grammar and conjugation, and vocabulary.
These dialects were created by geographical conditions. So, people
who use these dialects lived near each other for a long time.
But sometimes people who live in the same place don’t speak
the same dialect. There are differences according to the speaker’s class,
gender, age and so on. That is to say, these dialects are based on social
differences. These dialects are also called “dialects”, but are different
from the regional dialects discussed above. The social dialect changes
according to the speaker’s background. When we say “dialect”, this
word means both the geographical and regional differences of
language.
In this paper, I’ll introduce several social dialects, especially with
respect to class, gender and age.
2.
Class-based dialects
The English which is used in England is called British English. However,
class-consciousness still remains very clearly in England. This
class-consciousness appears in many situations, including the language.
There are three major classes in England: upper, middle and lower. These
three classes have many differences. They don’t use same English.
In the upper class, the English which is spoken is called Queen’s
English or King’s English. And another class is the middle class. The last
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Non-regional differences of English in England and America (Miho Gotoh)
class is the lower class. In the lower class people use Cockney English.
These three Englishes aren’t the same. They each have their own
characteristics. Above all, the differences in pronunciation are quite big.
In this part, I’ll talk about Queen’s English and Cockney. The
Queen’s English is also called RP or Received Pronunciation (the model
of good pronunciation) in England. People who have education speak it.
The announcers of BBC and the public schools use this pronunciation, for
example.
On the other hand, Cockney is known as the language of
workers in the East End of London. It is famous as the language used by
Eliza in the movie “My Fair Lady”. Cockney has a distinctive
pronunciation, as follows:
1, They don’t pronounce initial “h”
2, They pronounce diphthong [ei] as [ai].
These two distinctions are very famous, and the latter can be seen in the
famous song from “My Fair Lady”.
The rain in Spain stays mainly in the plain. (RP)
[rein]
[spein][steiz][meinli] [plein]
The rain in Spain stays mainly in the plain. (Cockney)
[rain] [spain][staiz][mainli]
[plain]
3, They pronounce “t” as a glottal stop between and at the end of a
word.
Ex. Network → ne’work
A drink of water → a drin’ a wa’er
A little sugar → a li’ le bi’
4, They pronounce [th] as [f] and [v].
Ex. Father → farver
Everything → everyfink
Cockney not only has these distinctions of pronunciation; it also
has a very interesting slang called “rhyming slang”. In the old days, the
tradesmen who sold fruits and vegetables in London used it when they
did illegal business. Because of the illegality, they use word which could
only be understood between them, like a secret code. The following are
examples:
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Non-regional differences of English in England and America (Miho Gotoh)
Ex. Apple and pears = up-stairs
Sugar and honey = money
Winona Ryder = Cider
Blitney Spears = Beer
Pig’s ear = Beer
Trouble and strife = wife
This slang is still being created today.
Recently, there is a new variety of English in England called
“Estuary English”. Estuary means the Thames River, and this English is
spoken near the Thames River. But now, it is used in a wide area around
the middle of the London. This dialect was born in 1980s, and is a
midpoint between the Queen’s English and Cockney. The distinction of
the pronunciation is similar to Cockney:
1, They pronounce “t” as a glottal stop between and at the end of a
word.
2, They pronounce ending “I” as “W”.
Ex. Tell → tew
Kill → kiw
3. Gender-based dialects
There are many differences in words between men and women
in Japanese, and these differences can be divided into２types. One
type is sex-exclusive. It is used only for one gender. The other type is sexpreferential. This type can be used by both genders. But it is more
commonly used by either men or women. For example, the word “I” in
Japanese has many terms. ”Watashi”, “Boku”, “Ore” and “Watakushi”.
but “Watashi”, “Boku”, and “Ore” are sex-exclusive. (watashi is used by
women, whereas boku and ore are used by men). Although recently
these are becoming sex-preferential rather than sex-exclusive!
There aren’t many sex- exclusive words in English. However, there
are some gender differences in intonation and expression, which are
peculiar to women. Women usually use bigger intonation than men.
When a woman speaks a declarative sentence, the end of the sentence
is often raised and uses many patterns.
Furthermore, the following vocabulary words tend to be
sex-preferential, used more by women than by men: （Inaki 2002, p. ）
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Non-regional differences of English in England and America (Miho Gotoh)
1. vocabulary about fashion, cooking and decoration:
Begin, mauve, lavender, shirr, dart
2. descriptive adjectives:
Adorable, charming, cute, darling, diving, fascinating, sweet, gorgeous,
pretty.
3. Hedges and expression of relaxation
You know, well, kind of, sort of, more or less, like, I guess, I wonder, I
mean,
4. Expression of Admiration
Oh dear! , My goodness, Fudge!, Dear me!
4. Age-based dialects
Language is always changing. In the past, words which were
used in Japan are called Koten (classical) now. If we don’t study it, we
can’t read and write it.
English is the same. English changed from Old English and Middle
English into Modern English. We also can’t read and write Old English and
Middle English. We speak Modern Japanese and English now. But
sometimes young people and their parents or grandparents don’t speak
the same words.
A few years ago, some of the expressions used by young people
were said to be incorrect in Japanese. Now, these expressions are said to
be correct. One example is “Koreru”. ”Koreru” isn’t an accurate
expression in standard Japanese. The accurate expression is “Korareru”.
But we feel strange feelings when we hear “Korareru”.
In other words, “Koreru” has been recently accepted as an accurate
word. These words, which omit “ra”, are called “Ranukekotoba” and
they are increasing. They are used regardless of age. But in general,
these words tend to be used more by young people than old people.
Generally, old people use “light” Japanese than young people. Some
older people said, ”Young Japanese people’s language is becoming
foul.”
In English, there are also age-based differences. One interesting
example is “Valspeak”. This is a language of young girls who live in San
Fernando Valley in Southern California. They are called “Valley Girls”.
They are very trendy. This Valley English spread through the U.S.
Page 73
Non-regional differences of English in England and America (Miho Gotoh)
especially in 1982 and 1983. Their English is very particular and there is
some slang: for example, grody, awesome, tubular, bitchin’, to the max,
totally.
Frank Zappa who is a musician made a song, which turned their
particular words and gesture into a joke. The singer was his daughter
Moon Zappa, who spoke in Valspeak in the song. This song sold very well.
But after 1983, these words became less noticeable.
4. Conclusion
It is same that there are many types of dialects in both Japanese
and English. Everyone speaks their own language. So there are many
types of language. If we speak a dialect which was born by the
geographical condition, we don’t speak the same words. Similarly, we
speak differently according to class, gender, age and so on.
This is not true only for English. If there are ten people, there are
ten languages. That is to say, the language isn’t one way. So many
people, so many languages. The speakers change it according to their
situations.
Bibliography
@TAKeigojyouhoukyoku available at http://haradakun.cool.ne.jp,
12/2003.
Inaki Shouko, Hotta Tomoko and Okita Tomoko (2002) Shin Eigo
Eigogaku. Tokyo: Shohakusha
Esuchuri Eigo available at
http://www3.famille.ne.jp/~chikashi/emille/estuary.html
Cockneyno Eigo available at
http://www3.famille.ne.jp/~chikashi/emille/cockney.html
Cockneywo obennkyou available at
http://www5c.biglobe.ne.jp/~s_box/movie/jason/cockney3.htm
Sadaaki Inoue Americaeigono kisotisiki
http://www.iic.tuis.ac.jp/edoc/journal/ron/r1-1-5/r1-1-5dy.html
Page 74
Difference in the English Ability of Japanese and Europeans (Nanami Mitsutake)
Abstract
私たち日本人はヨーロッパの非英語圏の人々と比較したら英語能力が低い。それに
はいくつかの理由がある。日本人が育つ環境の問題、日本語の母音の問題、日本の
英語教育の問題、外来語やローマ字の早期学習問題このようなことをとりあげ、ヨー
ロッパ人との間になぜ差がでてくるのか比較していこうと思う。またヨーロッパ人の英
語能力が高い理由には、ヨーロッパの言語と英語の関係の問題、地理的な問題など
があげられる。
1. Introduction
If a Japanese and a European start learning English at the same time,
which of the two will able to learn English faster? It depends on how much
they study English but most people would probably choose the European
because of linguistic and geographical advantages.
It is said that Japanese focus on grammar when they study English, so
we tend to think this is the reason why Japanese are poor at English. Yes,
that is one of problems, but there are some other problems besides it.
Specifically we will focus on why Japanese are poor at English speaking and
English listening, the bad influence of the Roman alphabet and foreign
words on Japanese, what English means for Europeans, and why their
English ability is higher than Japanese in this paper.
2. Why Japanese are bad at English
It is always said that Japanese are poor at English especially speaking
and listening. The ability of listening is the most important thing when we
learn a foreign language but compared to other countries Japanese are not
so good at it. There are some reasons behind it.
The first reason is that there is almost no opportunity to hear language
other than Japanese in Japan and Japan is a single race and single
language mostly. Compared with it, Europe has many races mixed in a
great portion of countries, and various languages occur. For example,
many Swiss people speak three languages, French, Italian, and German in
Switzerland and it is because these three languages are daily heard from
infancy.
Page 75
Difference in the English Ability of Japanese and Europeans (Nanami Mitsutake)
The second reason is that Japanese is one of the languages which has a
very small number of phonemes. For example, we have only 5 vowels
which are ‘aiueo’ in Japan. Compared to Japanese, English has 20 vowels
including simple vowel and diphthongs. In addition the intonation of
Japanese is much less complicated than English.
The third reason is that most Japanese start learning English when
they become junior high school students and they don’t have time to enjoy
English because it is demanded that students get high knowledge and keep
studying for examinations.
It seems that early study of the Roman alphabet for Japanese words
(romaji) and Katakana expression of foreign words has had a bad influence
on Japanese English capability considerably. Japanese people learn romaji
shortly after learning the Roman alphabet, and they learn English after it.
Probably, this is not desirable, because we come to pronounce Roman
alphabet style, i.e., in the style of Japanese, when reading English.
Finally, there is the problem of waseieigo, or Japanese English.
Although it is partly satisfactory to use foreign words within the Japanese
context, it is also disadvantageous when speaking or writing English
because some foreign words are understandable in English, but the
remaining foreign words are wrong English or other foreign languages.
3. Why Europeans are good at English
European people are good at English compared with Japanese people.
The level of the command of English of European people is superior by far.
One reason for this is that the languages of Europe and English have a
relationship like brothers and sisters or cousins. Since they have the
same origin of words, many words are alike and they can look at the word
and can understand to some extent what meaning it is.
Moreover, in Europe, there is traffic between neighboring countries
frequently so that they may understand also geographically and they have
many opportunities to communicate in English as a common language and
usually use English by practice. These things can also be called factors
for which the command of English of European people becomes high.
Page 76
Difference in the English Ability of Japanese and Europeans (Nanami Mitsutake)
4. Conclusion
The various reasons discussed above show why Japanese English
ability is lower than Europeans. The biggest reason is probably due
especially to the difference in environment. Therefore, it will be
difficult to change the environment immediately now. However, if we
study hard, Japanese can also surely surpass Europeans.
5.
Bibliography
Watashitatinihonjinnoeigo
(Our
Japanese
English)
http://www.win.ne.jp/~academ/GoodTip/NihonjinEng.html
Eigo no susume
Available at;
(in Japanese) (27/06/2003)
(recommendation of English) Available at;
http://www6.ocn.ne.jp/~tll/take_eng/t_eng02.html
Nihonjin no eigo no reberu
(in Japanese)
(The level of Japanese English)
(27/06/2003)
Available at;
http://www.biz.ryukoku.ac.jp/~lee/sotsuken97/Japanese/toyoki_j.html (in Japanese)
(27/06/2003)
Nihonjin no eigo onti 3dairriyuu
English well)
(Three reason which Japanese can’t speak
Available at;
http://www.izumishobo.co.jp/onlinebook/kodomo/kakumei7.html (in Japanese)(29/05/2003)
Nihonjin no eigo no hatsuon wo yoku suru niha
Japanese English)
(How to improve pronunciation of
Available at; http://www.bh.wakwak.com/~howtoeigo/pro33.html
(in
Japanese)(29/05/2003)
Its or It’s Available at; http://pro.tok2.com/^tokyonature/engclass.lesson/its.htm (in
Japanese)(27/06/2003)
Mimori、 Kazuhiko
(2003)
watashi
ha
gaikokugo
de
sa wo
tukeru nihon
keizaisyuppansya.
Nihonjin
no
eigo
(Japanese
English)
Available at;
http://www005.upp.so-net.ne.jp/yama24/Japanese/jipneng.htm (in Japanese)(12/12/2003)
Australia
ryuugaku eigogakkousa-ti「gskkounohiroba」tukaeru
Available at; http://school.o-su.com.au/howto/howto_3.html
EigokasuruEUken
Japanese)
Available
(in Japanese)
eigoryoku
(12/12/2003)
at; http://www.tkumagai.de/eigo%20EU.htm
(12/12/2003)
Page 77
(in
Pronunciation of English-speaking Children (Miyuki Morishima)
概要
英語を母国語とする子供には、成長していく段階で一般的におかす発音の間違い
がある。 有声音が無声化したり、二重子音の前方の子音が発音されなかったりする
のがその例である。 これらの間違いはそれぞれある一定の年齢まで引き起こされ、
5 歳前後になるとほぼ大人と同様に発音できるようになる。 以下、これらについて述
べる。
1. Introduction
Children whose mother tongue is English have been known to have different
pronunciation patterns from adults. These patterns may be considered mistakes by
children, but many children have similar mistakes.
There are several types of pronunciation differences in child language. These
three differences especially are very common:
1: exchange of voiced sounds and voiceless sounds (“pig” becomes “big” or “red”
becomes “ret”)
2: deletion of a consonant (“home” becomes “hoe” or “spider” becomes “pider”)
3: substitution of more difficult phonemes for easier phonemes (“kiss” becomes
“tiss” or “real” becomes “weal”)
This paper will review these three types of pronunciation in detail.
2. What types of pronunciation patterns are there in English children’s speech?
There is a gradual process of acquiring adult speech patterns called
“phonological development”. All children make pronunciation errors when they are
learning to talk like adults. These errors are called phonological processes, or
phonological deviations. Children speech is normally 75-100 percent intelligible by
thirty-six months.
The web site “Normal speech development-Caroline Bowen” shows the
common phonological processes found in children’s speech while they are learning the
adult sound-system of English. This paper will refer especially to the following three
points: exchange of voiced sounds and voiceless sounds, consonant deletion, and
phoneme substitutions.
First, we will look at the process in which a voiced sound or voiceless sound is
replaced with its counterpart. Second, we discuss the process of consonant deletion.
Finally, this will show the words whom pronunciations are so difficult for children.
Phonological processes have usually gone by the time a child is five years old,
though there is individual variation between children. This paper will review child
pronunciation from these viewpoints.
Page 78
Pronunciation of English-speaking Children (Miyuki Morishima)
2.1.
Replaced voiced sound or voiceless sound
Children often make a mistake when they pronounce consonants. They tend to
replace a voiceless word to a voiced word, like “pig” to “big”. Bowen says “A voiceless
sound is replaced by a voiced sound. In the examples given, /p/ is replaced by /b/. Other
examples might include /k/ replaced by /g/, /t/ being replaced by /d/, or /f/ being replaced
by /v/.”(Bowen 2003, online)
A final voiced consonant in a word is also replaced by a voiceless consonant,
like “red” to “ret”. /d/ has been replaced by /t/, and /g/ has been replaced by /k/, like
“bag” to “bak”.
These mistakes happen to children by approximately 3 years old. Children
don’t know how they should pronounce them.
2.2. Consonant deletion
Children often delete a consonant in their speech. They can’t say final
consonant in the words, like “home” to “hoe” and “calf” to “car”. The final consonant in
the word is omitted. In these examples, /m/ is omitted (or deleted) from “home” and /f/
is omitted from “calf”.
They also often omit cluster which occurs when two or three consonants occur
in a sequence in a word. They often delete one of consonant in cluster, like “spider” to
“pider” and “ant” to “at”. In cluster reduction part of the cluster is omitted. In these
examples /s/ has been deleted form “spider” and /n/ from “ant”.
Final consonant deletions happen to children by three years three months, and
cluster reduction happen to them by four years old.
2.3. Consonant substitution
It is difficult for children to pronounce velar consonants and palatal
consonants. A velar consonant is replaced with consonant produced at the front of the
mouth. “Kiss” is pronounced as “tiss”, “give” is pronounced as “div”, and “wing” is
pronounced as “win”. A velar consonant is a sound normally made with the middle of
the tongue in contact with the palate towards the back of the mouth, like /k/, /g/, and /ŋ/.
Therefore, /k/ is replaced by /t/, /g/ is replaced by /d/, and /ŋ/is replaced by /n/.
The post alveolar fricative consonants /ʃ / and /ʒ / are replaced by alveolar
fricatives that are made further forward on the palate, towards the front teeth. These
are examples; “ship” is pronounces as /sip/ and “measure” is pronounced as /mezza/. /ʃ /
is replaced by /s/, and /ʒ / is replaced by /z/.
The liquid consonants /l/ and /r/ are replaced by /w/ or /y/. “Real” is pronounced
Page 79
Pronunciation of English-speaking Children (Miyuki Morishima)
ax “weal” and “leg” is pronounced as “yeg”. And a fricative consonant (/f/, /v/, /s/, /z/, /ʃ /,
/ʒ /, /Ѳ/, or /h/), or an affricate consonant (/ʧ / or /ʤ /) is replaced by a stop consonant
(/p/, /b/, /t/, /d/, /k/ or /g/). “Funny” is pronounced as /puni/ and “jump” is pronounced as
/dump/. In these examples, /f/ in “funny” is replaced by /p/, and /ʤ / in “jump” is
replaced by /d/.
The mistakes of velar and fricative fronting happen to children by three years
six months. The gliding of liquids is the most difficult word, so it happens to children
by five years old. And stopping happens to them from three years old to five years old.
The most difficult phoneme of them is pronunciation of “th” (/Ѳ/ or /ð/). They
pronounce “thing” as /ting/, or “them” pronounce as /dem/. /Ѳ/ is substituted by /t/ or /s/,
and /ð/ is substituted by /d/ or /z/.
3. Conclusion
There are some common children pronunciation mistakes in English, and
these occur at almost regular ages. The age which is the easiest to be infringed is until
three years old. The children have Phonological Processes like “Context sensitive
voicing”, “Word-final de-voicing”, “Final consonant deletion”, “Fronting”, “Consonant
harmony”, and “Stopping (/f/, /s/, /v/, /z/)”.
Most of these processes will disappear by five years old. The processes
remaining in children to the last are “Gliding of liquids”, and “Stopping (/Ѳ/ and /ð/).
Indeed, these phonemes are difficult even for adult people—especially learners of
English. Most of languages don’t have these phonemes, so they have difficulty with
them. But they don’t have to pronounce these words like people whose mother tongue is
English. Because native children made these pronunciation mistakes in their childhood,
they can understand them well.
4. References
Dyslexia
in
Ireland.
Available
at;
http://www.clubi.ie/dyslexia/charactr.html
-history(28/09/2003)
How Does a Child Learn To Talk. Available at;
http://www.mpshu.on.ca/CDS/childlearntalk.htm(28/11/2003)
India Parenting.com. Available at;
http://www.indiaparenting.com/develop/data/develop09_01.shtml(15/12/2003)
Language Acquisition. Available at; http://www.ling.udel.edu/arena/acquisition.html
(28/11/2003)
Ling 101-Kabak Winter 2002 Lecture 2. Available at;
Page 80
Pronunciation of English-speaking Children (Miyuki Morishima)
http://www.ling.udel.edu/kabak/Ling101/winter02/lectures/2.PDF(30/10/2003)
Normal Speech Development-Caroline Bowen. Available at;
http://www.google.co.jp/search?q=cache:rD5PXBITW5UJ:members.tripod.com/Caroline
_Bowen/acquisition.html+child+word+poon&hl=ja&ie=UTF-8(15/12/2003)
Speech Delay. Available at; http://www.bayareaspeech.com/html/speech_delay.html
(28/09/2003)
When Does a Child Learn To Talk. Available at;
http://www.mpshu.on.ca/CDS/learnto.htm(29/11/2003)
Page 81
The Importance of English in India
(Miki Matsuoka)
概要
インドの英語の歴史は思いのほか古い。イギリスのイエズス会の宣教師トーマス・
スティーブンスが 1759 年に渡印して以来、イギリスは 1757 年にはインドに対する植
民地支配を始めた。1854 年にはマドラス、カルカッタ、ボンベイに大学を設立し、英語
を教育言語として使い始めた。インドが独立したあとも英語は、18 種の公用語に加え
て準公用語として残り、政治、経済、通商、教育、文化の面で重要な働きをしている。
教育を受けたインド人のなかには、非常に流暢な英語を話す人が多い。しかし彼ら
は独特の発音・抑揚を使う。この一例が「文字通りの発音」である。
現在の標準英語の中に、インド諸言語を語源とする単語がたくさんある。また他言
語を経由して英語に加えられたものもいくつかある。また文化と強く結びついているた
め、英語には対応する単語がないものも多い。
インド人は文学を愛する人々である。英語の学習でも、18 世紀や 19 世紀の英文学
を教材にするそうだ。それゆえ彼らは古典的で文学的な言葉を好む。
インド人は礼儀を重んじ、謙虚な態度をよしとする。またインドには厳密な地位体系
が存在する。英語にもこの傾向は反映され、複雑な敬語のルールが存在している。
インド人は習慣的にオックスフォード英語辞典などを使うが、話すとなると、まわり
の教育を受けたインド人の英語を模範とする。彼らは英語の母語者の規範を参考に
するが、それを完全に受け入れているわけではない。インドは英語の変種を維持する
ために、英語を母語とする人に頼っていないのである。この意味でインドの英語は１
つの自律した変種といえる。
インドの英語は適度に自律しており、また大切なことは、インド人自身にとってのコ
ミュニケーションの道具だということである。インド人はイギリス人やアメリカ人とコミュ
ニケーションするためにではなく、自分たちの間でのコミュニケーションのために英語
を使っているのだ。
Page 82
The Importance of English in India
(Miki Matsuoka)
1. Introduction
In India, English is one of the 17 official languages. There are over a
billion people in India now, but only 20 % of population can speak English.
They are the middle class people who are educated. In India, people speak
English in their own way, for example, vocabulary, pronunciation. It seems
that Indian have their own English.
In this paper, I will write about importance of Indian English. I
will start with the background of English in India, then go on to discuss
some characteristics of Indian English (pronunciation, vocabulary, literary
expressions and politeness) and finally explore the issue of English and
Indian identity.
2. Background
The spread of English in India is almost a direct result of Britain’s
control in India for 300 years. Without the colonial rule by Britain, India
would have been a region consisting of independent nations that have
different languages. In fact, India had never been consisted of a single
nation until it became independent from Britain in 1947.
Before Britain invaded India, there were some kingdoms in the
continent of Indian Asia. By the end of the colonial period, there were over
500 small kingdoms. Indian people lived together with different religions,
races, cultures and castes from that period to present time. At that time,
Britain played an important role in organizing the various races.
The history of English in India is very old. Since Thomas Stevens, a
missionary of the British Society of Jesus, had come to India in 1579,
Britain has already governed India as part of a colonial policy. In 1854, they
founded universities in Madras, Calcutta and Bombay, and started to use
English as a language for education.
After India became independent, English remained as one of the
official languages. It has been used in political, economical, business,
educational and cultural situations.
3. Characteristics of Indian English
Page 83
The Importance of English in India
(Miki Matsuoka)
There are many unique characteristics in Indian English. In this
section, characteristics are introduced in four parts: pronunciation,
vocabulary, elegant expressions and expressions for politeness.
3.1 Pronunciation ~literal pronunciation~
In India, English was spoken about 200 years ago, and most educated Indian
people speak English very fluently. However they use a unique pronunciation and
intonation on the whole. It is called “literal pronunciation”. They don’t pronounce
English words as same as native English speakers do. Instead of that, they pronounce
them just like how they are spelled, for example, Wednesday → 「ウェドゥネズデー」or
「ウェドゥンズデー」,University → 「ユニヴァルスィティー」. Other examples are as
follows.
[z]→ [s] e.g. John’s, reads, needles
[t] →[d]
e.g. kicked, picked, attacked
mechanism [メカニズム] → [メカニスム]
(Honna, 1999:49,50)
3.2 Vocabulary
There are many English words from some Indian languages--for
example, bungalow, calico, chintz, chutney, juggernaut, jungle, khaki, loot,
catamaran, mulligatawny, pajamas and pundit. There are other words
which were added to English via other languages as well: for example, conch,
ginger, orange, mango, pepper, rice and teak. (Honna, 1990:54)
In Indian English, they have lots of other special words that Indian
people quite often use in daily life. Most of them are closely related to their
cultures, so there are no English words that fit perfectly to Indian original
meaning.
3.3 Literary expressions
Indian people love literature. They use English literature from the
18th
and 19th century for study of English. Therefore they like classical and
literary words. It is said that their English is polite and beautiful. Here
are some examples.
「死ぬ」→×die, ×pass away
Page 84
The Importance of English in India
(Miki Matsuoka)
○ breathe one’s last, leave for heavenly abode
old → ancient, pretty → comely, happy → blithe,
eat → consume, home → place of residence
“Life is not a bed of roses, but a hard nut to crack.”
(人生はバラの床にあらずして、艱難辛苦にあり)
(Honna, 1999:50,51)
3.4 Expressions for politeness
Indian people place importance on courtesy and a modest attitude,
so they often use the word ‘kind’; for example, kind information, kind
consideration, kind presence, kind encouragement, kind notice, kind
attention and kind interest. (Honna, 1999:52)
Moreover, there are complicated rules for politeness in English
reflecting the original strict caste structure. It means that Indian culture
goes well with Indian English. As an example, if you want your boss to
grant something, you should use the word ‘request’ not to ‘ask’.
＊ When you apply for a vacation
× ”Could I ask you to grant me to leave?”
○ “I request you to grant me to leave.”
＊ complicated rules about ‘request ’
subordinate → boss “I request you to look into the case.”
the active
boss → subordinate “You are requested to look into the case.”
the passive
[If subordinates use the passive to their boss, it means that subordinates
insult boss.] (Honna, 1999:53)
4. Indian English Identity
Indian English is an autonomous variety of English. Indian people
customarily use dictionaries; for example, Oxford English dictionary and
Johns English Pronunciation dictionary. However they model educated
Indian’s English when they speak. They refer to native speakers’ English,
but they don’t completely accept it. Indian people don’t rely on native
Page 85
The Importance of English in India
(Miki Matsuoka)
speakers to maintain their variety of English, therefore it is said that their
English is autonomous.
Indian English is moderately autonomous, and the important thing
is that English is ‘as an additional linguistic tool in their multilingual
repertoire’ (Kachru, 1996:24) for them. They use English to communicate
between themselves, not only to communicate with English or Americans or
Australians. Therefore Indian English has a meaning of existence in India.
5. Conclusion
As we can see, Indian English has various sides. Some 20 % of
Indian people use English in India. Therefore Indian English has regional
aspects from region to region. Indian English is important for local people in
India. It’s especially unique that Indian English has ‘local initiatives’.
(Kachru, 1996:26). When Indian English teachers and scholars discuss the
direction for education of English, now it is discussed ‘not only at an
abstract level but even in discussions of matters related to the classroom’.
(Kachru, 1996:26) Because most of English speakers in India are in local
regions.
Bibliography
Honna, Nobuyuki (1999) Ajia no Eigo Tokyo: Kuroshio publishing
Honna, Nobuyuki (1990) Ajia wo Tsunagu Eigo
Tokyo: Alc publishing
Kachru, Braj.B, (1996) “South Asian English: Toward an Identity in
Diaspora” in Baugardner. Robert J. (1996) South Asian English
Structure, Use, and Users
Page 86
Comparison of proverbs in English and Japanese (Miyuki Moribe)
Abstract
世界のほとんどの国には、多くのことわざが存在している。このことわざには、たく
さんの表現があり、又その国の国民の思想や文化などの様々な要素が組み込まれ
ている。それらの多種多様な表現を知ることによって、私たちは異国のことを、そして
その人々の考え方を理解することが可能になるであろう。 お互いを知り、理解し合う
ことは、大きく見ると国際化に繋がる第一歩である。
そこで、英語と日本語のことわざに着目して、両者の比較の中から、英語世界の考え
方と日本の考え方がその中にどのように反映しているのかを調べていきたいと思う。
Introduction
A variety of human beings exist in this world. In that connection,
various cultures, lifestyle, customs, sense of values and languages also exist.
In everyday life, we are living in contact to different people. Coming in
contact with them, we exchange words in general. That is one of the means
of communicating with others and understanding them well.
Languages have lots of expressions, idioms and proverbs
which make the words more abundant. These proverbs have many
expressions and reflect the culture, thought, sense of values and so forth of
each country. Getting to know various expressions will help us to
understand different countries and their people. It is thought to be the first
step which leads to internationalization to know each other and to
understand each other.
In this paper, I investigate the feature
ｓ of the proverbｓ of English and Japanese, especially with respect to their
cultural relevance and differenceｓ. Specifically I focus on their relation
with national traits, culture and expression forms in each language.
1. About proverb
The proverb is defined as follows by various English dictionaries:
A short pithy saying in common and recognized use: a concise
sentence, often metaphorical or alliterative in form, which is
held to express some truth ascertained by experience or
observation and familiar to all. (The Oxford English Dictionary)
Page 87
Comparison of proverbs in English and Japanese (Miyuki Moribe)
A short, memorable, and often highly condensed saying
embodying, esp. with bold imagery, some commonplace fact of
experience.
(Collins English Dictionary)
A short popular saying, usually of unknown and ancient origin,
that expresses effectively some commonplace truth or useful
thought.
(Random House Dictionary of the English Language)
These three definitions have similar features. “Short, pithy, concise,
condensed” are in common.
However it’s not enough that a proverb is just brief. One of the things
required as an element of a saying which becomes a proverb is rhythm.
Rhythmical saying have good possibilities of becoming proverbs. If they are
very rhythmical, they tend to be used widely among many people and to
spread.
Moreover, the contents are another element required for a proverb. In
many cases, a proverb gives advice and encouragement about the universal
truth of this world, or the wisdom of life. Also, it is important that a proverb
is a brief and light expression, having become known widely to people.
Universal truths, teachings, etc. are very important for a saying to be
materialized as a proverb.
2. Proverbs common to English and Japanese
There may be few proverbs which we hear or are using usually
that were born in Japan. That’s because many proverbs that are similar in
Japanese and English were English proverbs originally. In addition, many
English proverbs are translated into Japanese; they naturally joined in
Japanese and seem to be proverbs which were used from ancient times.
There is a proverb which says “Practice makes perfect” by way of
example. Similar examples are as follows:
 A bad workman always blames his tools. (弘法も筆の誤り)
 Kill two birds with one stone. (一石二鳥)
 Time is money. (時は金なり)
Page 88
Comparison of proverbs in English and Japanese (Miyuki Moribe)









A drowning man will catch at a straw. (溺れる者は藁をもつかむ)
He that hunts two hares loses both. (二兎を追う者は一兎をも得ず)
Love is blind. (恋は盲目)
Truth is stranger than fiction. (事実は小説よりも奇なり)
More haste, less speed. (急がば回れ)
The early bird catches the worm. (早起きは三文の徳)
There’s no smoke without fire. (火のないところに煙は立たぬ)
Time and tide wait for no man. (歳月人を待たず)
Time flies. (光陰矢のごとし)







Walls have ears. (壁に耳あり、障子に目あり)
Where ignorance is bliss, ’tis folly to be wise. (知らぬが仏)
There is no rule without exceptions. (例外のない規則はない)
The style is the man himself. (文は人なり)
To cast pearls before swine. (豚に真珠)
An eye for an eye, and a tooth for a tooth. (目には目を、歯には歯を)
All’s well that ends well. (終わり良ければ全てよし)
(Yamada, 1997 and Okustu, 2000)
As already explained above, most proverbs in Japanese were not
originated in Japan. There will surely be many Japanese who do not know
that these proverbs are foreign born.
As one reason for this, the tone of the language can be considered.
Most Japanese proverbs have a good combination of sounds. Therefore,
many people can memorize those proverbs. So the tendency for the Japanese
proverb to value the tone is seen, there is greatly a possibility that many
people mistake that those proverbs are Japanese born since the English
proverb is well translated into Japanese, preserving the tone of the
Japanese language. That is to say, these proverbs were naturalized in
Japanese.
3. Differences in proverbs in English and Japanese
First of all, one difference that has appeared notably between
the Japanese proverb and the English proverb has to do with the form of the
proverb. Japanese has many negative expressions; on the other hand,
English tends to use affirmation expressions. It is thought that this shows
differences in the way of thinking or national traits.
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Comparison of proverbs in English and Japanese (Miyuki Moribe)
About Japanese, generally, in public, they do not boast of their
capabilities or talents, but instead they tend to hide them. To do so is honest,
modest and cooperative, even if they are poor at self-asserting and lack
independence. Englishmen and Americans, on the other hand, tend not to
hide their capabilities or talents. They have the desire to show people those
capabilities positively, and want to be accepted by people. The differences in
positive vs. negative expressions of proverbs may have arisen from the
differences between these national traits.
English proverbs
Japanese proverbs
He that hunts two hares loses both.
二兎を追う者は一兎をも得ず
虻蜂取らず
Time and tide wait for no man.
歳月人を待たず
Hunger is the best sauce.
ひもじい時にまずいものなし
What is learned in the cradle is スズメ百まで踊り忘れぬ
carried to the tomb.
Seeing is believing.
百聞は一見にしかず
Strike while the iron is hot.
好機逃すべからず(鉄は熱いうちに打て)
There are other national traits in the background of Japanese
proverbs and English proverbs. Generally it is said that Japanese are
group-oriented and Americans’ autonomy is strong. Because Japan regards
groups as important, proverbs which are accepted only in Japan exist. On
the other hand, since the United States thinks a great deal of individuals,
the English proverbs are optimistic, expressions are rich in change, and
positive ness is felt.
3.1.
Group orientation in Japanese Proverbs
For example, “揚げ足を取る” (find fault with A) is a proverb peculiar
to Japan. It shows that Japan is group-oriented. That’s because Japan is the
country of a demerit system. The main feature of a group principle society is
in the tendency to unite with the surroundings, without sticking out of the
crowd. That is to say, autonomy is lacking and people move according to
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Comparison of proverbs in English and Japanese (Miyuki Moribe)
authority. In such a society, since people unite with everybody, they cannot
have predominating consciousness easily. Therefore, they don’t have sense
of superiority by lowering others intentionally. The proverbs which press
down autonomy are as follows.
 Bad company ruins good morals. （朱に交われば赤くなる）
 Look for a big tree when you seek shelter. （寄らば大樹のかげ）
 Stand out from the crowd and you just invite trouble for yourself.
（出る杭は打たれる）
 When in Rome, do as the Romans do. （郷に入っては郷に従え）
(Mitoma, 1997)
These are proverbs which cannot exist in a country of the merit
system and individualism.
The reason Japanese people obey authority and settle in a group is
hidden in its past history. It is because an overwhelming authority in the
Edo period in old Japan 200 years or more existed. There were various
statutes which were full of severe oppression and prohibition, and did not
accept individual freedom in this time. In such society, of course, people had
the feeling of rebounding and search for freedom and a feeling of freedom. In
Japan, since it was impossible to have started a revolution like the West to
acquire freedom. Instead, people chose the way of gentle obedience.
While people followed the government, however, they cherished
another feeling in their heart. Another feeling hidden to their heart exists as
real intention and soul of principle now. This soul makes Japanese culture
still deeper. “Love your neighbors， yet pull not down your hedge” (親しき仲
にも礼儀あり) is the typical example. Japanese people use real intention and
principle properly by Time, Place and Occasion.
3.2. Independence in English Proverbs
“ Eagles fly alone ” ( 鷹 は 一 羽 で 飛 ぶ ) is a proverb peculiar to
English. This shows that the United States and Britain are individualistic.
Thinking by oneself and acting alone is one of their features.
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Comparison of proverbs in English and Japanese (Miyuki Moribe)
However, the egoism to which it acts by its profits priority is
completely different. Religion, i.e., Christianity, is strongly connected with
the background of this independence. Religion supports people's heart just
because it is the individualism for which it cannot depend on others. In
addition, a society which regards autonomy as important does not spend
time on others' speech-and-conducting criticism. Because of this, proverbs
which put weight on oneself rather than others are conspicuous. “Wink at
small faults”, “Meddle not with another man’s matter” and “Mind your own
business” are examples. (Mitoma, 1997)
Since it is closely connected with religion as other features, use of
religious words, such as God, Heaven, Hell, sin and religion, are conspicuous.
The proverbs in which the sign of religion are appearing are as follows.
 Crosses are ladders that lead to heaven. (苦難は天国へのはしご)
 Every sin brings its punishment with it. (罪はすべて罰をもたらす)
 Fear nothing but sin. (罪の他は何も恐れるな)
 Faith without actions is dead. (行いのない信仰は死んだもの)
 God helps them that help themselves. (神は自分の事を自分でやる人間を助け
る)
 Hell is always open. (地獄はいつも開いている)
 Religion is the rule of life. (宗教は人生の法則である)
(Mitoma, 1997)
4. Differences in interpretation of the same proverb
Many people assume that the interpretation of a proverb is eternal,
since a proverbial meaning is one. However, there are some proverbs which
have two or more interpretations. One example is the proverb "秋鯖嫁に食
わ す な "(Akisaba Yomeni Kuwasuna). If this is literally translated into
English, it can be expressed as follows. Don't let a daughter-in-law eat the
mackerel caught in autumn. This has two meanings. One means that a
mother-in-law does not want the hateful daughter-in-law to eat delicious
mackerel. Another means that she doesn’t want the sweet daughter to do it
since mackerel's fall of freshness is early and it tends to cause poisoning.
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Comparison of proverbs in English and Japanese (Miyuki Moribe)
The meaning of other proverbs has changed as times change. “Spare
the rod and spoil the child” (可愛い子に旅させよ) is a good example. It meant
originally that the best education was to make a child experience a hot
thought of a trip and to make public severity experience. That’s because at
one time, a trip represented a very difficult experience. However, since
transportation is very much developed now, the trip has changed to become
a comfortable thing. Consequently, the meaning of original proverb was lost
with change of social life or a sense of values.
Incidentally, “travel” had the meaning of 'pain' in English a long
time ago as well. The origin of a word was the tool of torture by Latin
'trepalium'. That is to say, not only in Japan but also in foreign countries,
the trip was hard.
In addition, it is also interesting for the word which is having this
proverb used to pay its attention, and to compare. This is a proverb about
education and upbringing of a child, and the language relevant to a trip is
not used for the English proverb. The word ‘Rod’with the meaning of
punishment or castigation is used instead of a trip. Therefore, upbringing of
a child is considered to be severer than Japan in the United States.
As times change, people and environment where a proverb is used
also change. History is minced in the short word "proverb" by this change.
Future generations study the fact of various past hidden in the proverb etc.
In the years ahead, a newer interpretation may be produced in such a
process.
5. Conclusion
In this paper, I learned a lot of things by comparing English
proverbs and Japanese ones. The first big discovery was that Japanese
usually use many proverbs that came from the English-speaking world.
There was wonderfulness of Japanese power of expression as one of the
reasons which misunderstood the English proverb as Japan had from the
first.
In addition, when comparing English and Japanese proverbs,
differences in expression form and the way of thinking, etc. were found.
Especially, negative forms were used for the Japanese proverbs, and the
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Comparison of proverbs in English and Japanese (Miyuki Moribe)
tone was thought of as important. This may be because Japanese people are
moderate and poor at self-expression. That is to say, there is a tendency for
them to take a negative and self-defense-attitude. It can be said that such
national traits are reflected in Japanese proverbs.
On the other hand, in the form of the English proverb, affirmative
expression was conspicuous. Moreover, the proverbial contents were
theoretical compared with Japanese proverbs, and the relation to religion
had come out strongly. This may be because European and American people
are positive and excel in self-power of expression. In short, they are positive
and have a tendency to take an attitude of positive thinking. Such national
traits can be said to be reflected in English proverbs.
Although proverbs are expressions of brief short language, they are
also very deep. If we study not only proverbs but also the many meanings
hidden in the proverbs, our expression and way of thinking would spread
increasingly. Many proverbs give us advice in various scenes, such as
society and human relations.
6. References
Gaines, Barbara K. (1999) Beigo Idiom 600 (American-English idiom
600, in Japanese). Tokyo: Kodan-sha International Ltd..
Kagawa, H. (1997) Gokai sareru Nihonjin (The Inscrutable Japanese, in
Japanese). Tokyo: Kodan-sha.
Kodansha International Ltd. (1996) Eigo de Hanasu Nihon no Kokoro
(Keys to the Japanese Heart and Soul, in Japanese) Tokyo: Kodan-sha.
Masashige, Y. (1997) Nihongo no Hassou Eigo no Hassou (The way of
thinking of Japanese ・ the way of thinking and English, in Japanese).
Tokyo: Maruzen Library.
Mitio, M. (1985) Kotowaza no Bunkajinruigaku (Proverbial cultural
anthropology, in Japanese). Tokyo:Kenkyu-sha.
Mitoma,
N.
(1997)
Kokusaika
ha
Eigo
no
Kotowaza
kara
(Internationalization is from English proverbs, in Japanese). Tokyo:
Shinpu-sha.
Page 94
Comparison of proverbs in English and Japanese (Miyuki Moribe)
Mitsuru, S. (1999) Eigo no Hassou to Hyougen (The English way of
thinking and English expression, in Japanese). Tokyo: Maruzen Library.
Miura, K. (1968) Eigo Kanyouku no Pointo (The point of English
idioms, in Japanese). Tokyo: Nanundo.
Naomitsu,
M.
(1997)
Kokusaika
ha
Eigo
no
Kotowaza
kara
(Internationalization is from English proverbs, in Japanese). Tokyo:
Shinpu-sha.
Okutsu, F. (1994) Eigo no Kotowaza (English proverb, in Japanese).
Tokyo: Nihonjitsugyosyuppan-sha.
Okutsu, F. (2000) Nichiei Kotowaza no Hikakubunka (Comparison
culture of Japanese-English proverbs, in Japanese). Tokyo: Taishukan
Takamura, Masayo. Interesting Japanese Idioms. Available at;
http://comm.hum.ibaraki.ac.jp/ibunka/2000/03/index.HTM (in Japanese)
(23/05/2003)
Page 95
The English of Flight Attendants (Mai Yoshikawa)
概要
世界中には国によって色々なタイプの英語が分かった。客室乗務員が使う英語も実は普
段使う英語と異なる。この論文では、客室乗務員が使う英語を調べていく。付け加えて、機内
アナウンスのフレーズ、イントネーションも調べることにする。
1. Introduction
It was in 1930 that the position of flight attendant was born for the first
time in the world, and soon thereafter the flight attendant became a popular
occupation also in Japan. Now, the flight attendant is one not for woman but men as
well.
In this paper, the English of the flight attendant is investigated and reported.
Many of these materials come from IAA (International Air Academy) handouts, a
vocational school located in Fukuoka, Japan, for those who want to become flight
attendants, ground staff, or hotel workers.
2. Vocabulary of FA English
Probably a flight attendant's everyday conversation does not have many
differences from other everyday conversation. However, as there are special terms
in every occupation, there are also technical terms in the aviation industry. For flight
attendants, many of these terms are acronyms or abbreviations, expressed with the
alphabet. Some technical acronyms used by flight attendants are listed below.
INAD
INDL
ETA
ETD
ARR
ATB
CIQ
WCHR
CNX
E/M CK
“Inadmissible Passenger” The visitor denied entrance into a country by
the reasons of judgment of the immigration management authorities.
“International Date Line”
“Estimated Time of Arrival” ⇔ “ETD”
“Estimated Time of Departure” ⇔ “ETA”
“Arrival”
“Air Turn Back” The airplane which flew returns.
“Custom Immigration Quarantine” Explanation about the procedure of
entry into and departure from the country and duty-free goods.
“Wheel Chair Passenger”
“Connection”
“Emergency Check” The check of the equipments for emergencies. The
check of an equipment article inside the plane or a dangerous object is
carried out before boarding of visitors.
Reference: http://dokidokiradio.info/trans/air_material/yougo.html
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The English of Flight Attendants (Mai Yoshikawa)
These are only examples and there are many flight attendants' technical
terms. The following home pages provide many more examples:
Ⅰ: http://www.ne.jp/asahi/world/bunbun/html/travel_air_words.htm
Ⅱ: http://odn.excite.co.jp/autos/airplane_helicopter/integrated_guide/
Ⅲ: www.houshoku.net/k/essay/yougo.html
Ⅳ: http://dokidokiradio.info/trans/air_material/yougo.html
3.1 Set phrases—announcements
If an announcement is heard in an airplane, what do you imagine will be said?
Probably, most people will think of ‘Attention please’. However it seems that this
phrase now is not used. Since some announcements are introduced, when you take
an airplane next time, please ask yourself whether it is actually announced in this
way.11
(Ⅰ) Greeting upon boarding
This announcement is a boarding greeting. At this time, the introduction of the pilot
and purser, seat belt instructions, explanation of smoking, etc. are announced.
Moreover, the flight time is also announced at this time.
Good evening, Ladies and Gentlemen, We welcome you aboard Japan Air Line.
This is flight 72 bound for Honolulu.
Your flight crew is commanded by Captain Yamamoto, and this is your purser Motoyama.
Will you please fasten your seat belt, and observe the no smoking sign until it is turned off.
We would like to do all we can to make your flight a pleasant one.
So, please feel free to call on us at anytime. Our flying time to Honolulu will be six hours
and twenty minutes.
Thank
you.
From: IAA handout, 2003
(Ⅱ) Greeting announcing arrival
This is a sample arrival announcement. The time to the destination, the time of the
destination, temperature, etc. are announced. When the International Date Line is
crossed, this is also invariably announced.12
I think that the announcement here is not used at this time.
Although "Centigrade" was used in expressions and called ‘C’ till before, now,
usually, the term "Celsius" is used.
11
12
Page 97
The English of Flight Attendants (Mai Yoshikawa)
Ladies and Gentlemen, we’ll be landing at Honolulu International Airport in about
30 minutes. The time in Honolulu right now is half past 9 in the morning.
The latest weather forecast from Honolulu reports clear sky with the temperature at 82
degrees F (Fahrenheit), 25 degrees C (Celsius).
We crossed the International Date Line 2 hours ago.
The actual time of crossing was 7:30 in the morning in Honolulu.
Thank you.
From: IAA handout, 2003
These are only two examples, but there are many more set announcements made in
airplanes, such as safety demonstrations, takeoff guidance, flight schedules, etc...
These are introduced in the appendix. (P. 7)
3.2 Intonation
Everyone knows that the method of announcement changes with the
occupation. Many people are afraid of riding in airplanes, so flight attendant
announcements are carried out in a tone of voice designed to make passengers feel
relaxed.
Although it is handwritten, the intonation of a greeting of boarding is introduced in
the following. Before words signaling important information, there is an approximately
1 second pause. There is a 0.5 second pause before a number. Additionally, the pitch
is raised when a phrase is finished with a comma, and the pitch is lowered when
finishing it with a period. Strength of voice
L: (Loud) 大
M: (Medium) 中
W: (Low) 小
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The English of Flight Attendants (Mai Yoshikawa)
There are several web sites where one can actually hear announcements of
each airline with ones own ears. These websites are introduced in this home page
below. On these sites, the announcements can be heard from various different
countries; thus one can also listen to different varieties of English at the same time.
.
Please listen to an announcement and
enjoy a trip of a comfortable sky! Good Luck!
www.nhirai.com/wave.htm
4. Conclusion
First, although English of each country had been studied at Judy’s seminar, it
realized anew that a flight attendant's English also changes with each country.
This paper investigated the English of the aviation industry and a flight attendant.
While investigating, it was helpful for myself. However, it is a really very deep subject,
and there are still many more things which are not written here. For example,
introduction of more aviation industry terms and a flight attendant's technical
vocabulary, about various types of occupations of the aviation industry, etc.
But, if this paper is of help to those who have interest in the aviation industry or a
flight attendant, I think that it is good.
5. Bibliography
AIRSTAGE (Useful Air Industry job hunting, in Japanese), available at
mo-on.com/airstage
AIR STAGE Ikaros publisher (2003/Oct-2003/Dec)
BUNBUN Co, Ltd. (1999-2003) 基礎的航空業界用語 (Useful Air Industry
Vocabulary, (in Japanese), available at
http://www.ne.jp/asahi/world/bunbun/html/travel_air_words.htm
Excite Japan Co, Ltd. (1997-2003) ODN: 自動車＞飛行機＆ヘリコプター＞総合ガイ
ド (Useful Air Industry, in Japanese), available at
Page 99
The English of Flight Attendants (Mai Yoshikawa)
http://odn.excite.co.jp/autos/airplane_helicopter/integrated_guide/
Hirai, Nobuhiko (1995-2003) N.Hirai Homepage: 飛行機大図鑑サウンド館(Useful Air
Industry announcements, in Japanese, English and other languages), available at
www.nhirai.com/wave.htm
“K” (1998-2003) 役に立つかもしれない航空業界用語集(Useful Air Industry
Vocabulary, in Japanese), available at www.houshoku.net/k/essay/yougo.html
Recruit About.com Japan, Inc (2001-2003) 航空に関わる仕事、あれこれ。［飛行機］
All About Japan (Useful Air Industry, in Japanese), available at
http://allabout.co.jp/travel/airplane/subject/msub_aviation-job.htm
T.O PLANNING. (2001-2003) 航空資料室: キャビンアテンダント業界用語集 (Useful
Air Industry Vocabulary, in Japanese), available at
http://dokidokiradio.info/trans/air_material/yougo.html
(Since 29APR 1999) スチュワーデスになりたいあなたへ～フライトアテンダントのペ
ージ～ (Useful Air Industry job hunting), available at
http://www.geocities.co.jp/Milkyway-Orion/8808/index.html
Tokuyama. (2002-2003) Various handouts distributed in IAA. Probably, it is thought
that the manuscript of an announcement is gotten from the active flight attendant.
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The English of Flight Attendants (Mai Yoshikawa)
Appendix
(Ⅲ) Demonstration
This announcement gives explanation of a life vest, the method of the oxygen mask
beginning, and an emergency exit.
Ladies and Gentlemen, at this time we would like to explain the use of the life vest, oxygen
mask and location of exits.
Your life vest located under your seat.To put the vest on, slip it over your head. Then fasten
the buckles and pull the straps tight around your waist. To inflate it, pull down firmly on the
snaps. If your vest does not inflate enough you can also inflate it by blowing into the
mouthpieces.
Your oxygen mask is in the compartment over your head, and it will appear automatically
when needed. When it does, please put out your cigarettes, take the nearest mark, put
towards you, and place it over your nose and mouth. This will turn on the oxygen.
There are emergency exits on both sides of the aircraft in addition to the main entrance
doors, and all exits are clearly marked. For further information, you will find a leaflet or
safety
instructions
in
the
seat
pocket
in
front
of
you.
Thank you.
(Ⅳ) Takeoff guidance
Guidance of a takeoff and the check of a belt are carried out in this announcement.
Ladies and Gentlemen, we will be taking off in a few seconds. Please make sure that your
seatbelt is fastened.
Thank you.
(Ⅴ) Flight schedule
The altitude of an airplane, speed, flight time, etc. is guided in this announcement.
Furthermore, time difference, the time of the arrival ground, etc. are announced.
Ladies and Gentlemen, we will be flying at an altitude of thirty three thousand feet or ten
thousand meters, and at the ground speed of five hundred sixty miles or nine hundred and
twenty kilometers per hour. We’ll be in the air approximately six hours and twenty minutes.
The time difference between Tokyo and Honolulu is five hours. If you’d like to set your
watch, it is now we will cross the National Date Line three hours and ten minutes after take
off. Therefore, when we will reach Honolulu, it will be around ten o’clock in the morning,
Tuesday July the 13th.
Thank you.
Page 101
Maori Influence on New Zealand English (Megumi Nakamura)
Abstract
この論文は、ニュージーランドのマオリ人の英語について述べてあります。まず、マ
オリ語はどういうものか。マオリ人の話す英語はマオリ語にどのように基づいている
か。そして、マオリ語がニュージーランド英語にどう影響をあたえたかの３つについて
調べました。
1. Introduction
2. What is Maori language?
3. What is Maori English pronunciation?
4. How Maori English influence New Zealand English?
5. Conclusion
6. References
3. Introduction
New Zealanders’ English is quite different from American English
which Japanese people study for years. For example, when New Zealanders
ask something, they put the word “eh?” at the end of their sentences. This
is only one example. There are a lot of differences compared with British
English or American English.
Moreover, in New Zealand, white people’s English and Maori people’s
English are different, too. This paper will introduce Maori language and
Maori English which influences New Zealand English today, and how Maori
people speak English in New Zealand.
2. What is Maori language?
Maori language is still in daily use among some Maori people, but
most Maori people speak English today. Together with English, it is an
official language of New Zealand.
Maori language has 15 phonemes and stress on each syllable. Like
Japanese, it is Open Syllable (Open Syllable is that the words finish by
vowels). The vowels are “a, e, i o u” and consonants are “h” “k” “m” “n” “p” “r”
“t” “w” “ng” “wh”. “ng” and “wh” are digraphs; i.e. one sound written with
Page 102
two letters. This is very similar to Japanese, therefore for Japanese people it
is very easy to pronounce their language.
Ex. Ko Megumi toku ingua. (My name is Megumi.)
According to “Wikipedia” (online),
“Prior to the arrival of missionaries in New Zealand, Maori was an oral
language only. It was recorded in a regular and scientific manner by the
missionary linguists and is spelled phonetically with one letter symbol for each
sound. All syllables end in a vowel or consist of a vowel alone. The nearest
sounding English language letters were used to represent Maori language
sounds. Although the phonetic match is not exact, an unfamiliar Maori word
can normally be competently and understandably rendered by any English
speaker, at first encounter, by following the general rule.”
3. What is Maori English pronunciation?
Since Maori language has fewer vowels and consonants than English,
Maori people’s English pronunciation is different from white people’s.
Vowels
The Maori language has only 5 vowels (and phonemic length).
Therefore, when Maori people speak English, they don’t use the 14 English
vowels. This is one of the reasons why it is sometimes very hard to
distinguish what Maori people are saying. There are examples here.13
a but
ā father
e pen
ē pair
i
ī beet
bit
o fort
ō store
u put
ū boot
Consonants
Compared to English, Maori consonants don’t have “b, d, g, f, v, θ, ð, l, ƒ, j,
s, z “.14 So when Maori people speak
13
14
Te Reo Maori, in Wikipedia, available http://en2.wikipedia.org/wiki/Te_Reo_Maori
IDEA available http://www.ukans.edu/%7Eidea/index2.html
Page 103
“bed” /bεd/, pronunciation is /bet/.
“police” /p∂lis/ pronunciation is /pois/
“north” /nэrθ/ pronunciation is /nōs/
However, even though the Maori language doesn’t have some English
consonants, they still can pronounce them perfectly, such as “expensive”,
“chocks.” ( I am sorry I couldn’t find this reasons.)
2.3 How did Maori language influence New Zealand English?
Not only British English but also Maori Language influences KIWI
English. Two specific areas of influence are interjections at the end of
sentences and vocabulary.
End of English sentences
When New Zealand people ask something, they put the word “eh?” at
the end of their sentences. For example, “This present would be good for him,
eh?” instead of saying, “ Do you think this present would be good for him?”
This comes from the influence of Maori language, as they put the word “ne”
at the end of their sentences. Therefore, it is said that they use the same
pattern for English, too.
Vocabulary
There are many common NZ English words taken from Maori
language. Most of these words describe either natural things or things
clearly connected with Maori culture:
Native birds ( kiwi, kea, tui..)
Native trees (kauri, rimu..)
Maori culture ( haka, hangi…)
Another common Maori expression used in NZ English is Kia ora,
which means “hello”, “good evening”. On KIWI news programs, the
announcer starts with this greeting every time. In general, white people
don’t use this greeting often, but Maori people use this anytime. When they
meet someone for the first time, they use this instead of saying “nice to meet
you”. And when they hung up the phone, they say “kia ora”. This is a very
famous phrase in New Zealand,
However, according to Sawada (1988, page 4) Maori language
influenced KIWI English only a little. One of the biggest reasons for this is
Page 104
that the culture of Maori people is in decline compared with that of English
people. So white people didn’t want to use their vocabulary in English.
5. Conclusion
Maori culture and Maori language have been very important for
New Zealand economy for tourism these days. When people visit New
Zealand from abroad, they will notice that much of New Zealand culture is
Maori culture. So to know New Zealand, we should know the Maori
language, Maori people, Maori history, Maori culture so on, then we can see
what New Zealand is like.
After this paper has finished, there is one question. The Maori
language is very similar to Japanese pronunciation, but even for Japanese
people, it is very hard to understand their English. Next time, I hope to be
able to solve this question.
7. References
Amelia Kiwi English, available http://www.amelia.ne.jp/reading/labo10_a03.php
(2003/07/03)
Hanada Tak NZ Japanized project, available http://lovenz.netfirms.com/index.html
(2003/07/03)
IDEA available http://www.ukans.edu/%7Eidea/index2.html (2003/12/12)
Kiwi Web available http://www.chemistry.co.nz/kiwi.htm (2003/07/03)
Sawada, Y. (1988), English of New Zealand
Oceania publisher
Te Reo Maori, in Wikipedia, available http://en2.wikipedia.org/wiki/Te_Reo_Maori
(2003/12/12)
The difference between American English and NZ English, available
http://www.geocities.jp/momongamama/page007.html (2003/07/03)
Page 105
概要
今日、英語は世界で国際的な言葉である。世界中の多くの人が英語を
学んでいる。日本では中学校から本格的に英語を学び始めるが、学校を
卒業しても英語が話せなかったり、文法がよく理解できていない人が多
い。その結果、英語に対して臆病になりやすく、話すことや学習するこ
とから遠ざかってしまう人も少なくない。
しかし、それでは今日の国際社会に生きる私たちにとって不都合であ
る。英語が話せなければ外国人とコミュニケーションを図るのも困難で
ある。国際化が進む現代社会において、私たちは日本人としてもっと英
語を身に付ける必要がある。
その英語は文法や発音が正しいものである必要はなく、日本人として使
う英語で良いのだ。世界における日本人の英語として、自信を持って英
語を学習し、話す英語。これをジャパリッシュと呼ぶ。
Outline
1. What is Japalish?
2. Japalish as an International subsidiary language
3. Japalish vocabulary
4. Japalish education
5. Conclusion
1. What is Japalish?
Japalish is an old name for what can be considered a new variety
of English. It is the English for Japanese. It’s for Japanese to learn
English easily, and to have courage of talking English. Today, we have
many chances to talk foreigners. Japanese should speak English more
actively.
According to Watanabe (1983, p.65), one of the first men to
suggest the idea of Japalish was A. Mori （ 1847 ～ 1889 ） . The
characteristics of Japalish are
1. thinking of English as a Japanese language.
2. using English as an international language. English is not only
American, British, and other mother tongue language.
3. putting less emphasis on English grammar, plural words, spelling
and so on.
We can compare English and Japalish in the following respects:
1. pronunciation
2. accent
3. rhythm
Page 106
4. speed
5. idiomatic and reduced expressions
1.
[pronunciation]
In Japanese, we don’t have pronunciation of [th] So, If Japanese say
‘think’, it will heard ‘sink’. ‘sit’ will be heard ‘shit’. But, even we pronounce it
the wrong way, other English speakers can understand according to the
situation. Or, we can use other expression.
2. [accent]
English and Japanese have different accents. For example,‘desert’
[dēzet] means sabaku, [dize:t] means misuteru. But, like pronunciation, this
can also be understood in the context.
3. [rhythm]
About rhythm, we don’t need to be careful. It doesn’t matter that
Japanese can speak English in their own rhythm.
4. [speed]
In English, the normal speed of speech is a hundred words a minute, but
in Japalish, it takes one minute and thirty seconds to speak the same
number of words.
5. [idiomatic and reduced expressions]
In English, ‘is not ‘can be ‘isn’t’, ‘going to’ can say ‘gonna’ But Japalish
doesn’t have such expressions.
Japalish is English with Japanese pronunciation and Japanese
characteristic culture, Japanese writing style. It just like Japanese spoken
by foreigners.
2. Background to international subsidiary languages
Today, English is a world language. But, it not fair for people whose
country’s language is not English.
Before, there were some artificial languages created with the idea of
fairness in international communication. Esperanto is one of these.
Esperanto was made as an international subsidiary language by Zamenhof
in 1887. He was from Poland and he was an ophthalmologist. Esperanto
means the man who hopes in romance languages. The reason it was made
was to avoid giving advantage to certain peoples of Europe. But it does not
take Asian languages into account.
Page 107
Esperanto is based on some languages of Indo-European, and
it is simplified by leaving off irregular grammar, spelling, and so on.
Esperanto is a common language for Indo-Europeans. This
comparison between English and Esperanto is according to Watanabe,
(p,81)
Example
[English/ Esperanto]
Bird / birdo
Moon / luno
Flower / floro
Go / ir-i
Other international subsidiary languages are Volapűk by J・M・
shulair (1880), Ido by Vohulon (1890), Novial by Jespersen (1928).
3. Japalish vocabulary
According to Watanabe, (1983,P. 88) there are many Japanese
English words. Most came from English, but through using in
Japanese of katakana, the meaning has changed. Look at these
examples.
Japanese / English
‘Feminist’
(Japalish) a man who understands women.
(English) a person who aims at equality of men and
women.
‘Egoism’
(Japalish) Egoistic
(English) respect of personal rights
Also, Japanese tend to use words in Japalish that are not from
English. We should be aware of their origins. For example,
‘Kasutera’ ….This came from Portuguese, Dutch (castella).
‘Alubaito’…..This came from German (arbeiten).
Sometimes, we use these words in English.
There are also some words that combine 2 more languages and
made into katakana in Japanese. They are also not English, but can
be considered Japalish.
Terevi (Television), masukomi (Mass communication), bakkumira
(Rear view mirror)
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4. Education of Japalish
How should Japanese study Japalish? According to Watanabe, (1983,P.
96~109)
1.
2.
3.
4.
Learn English grammar and pronunciation through easy
words.
Practice expressions about Japan in English.
Practice expressions about foreign countries in English.
Practice debate, reading and writing fluently.
5. Conclusion
English is the international language today. But it’s only one
of the natural languages in the world. English is not most widely
spoken native language. There are about only 5 hundred million
people who speak English natively. It means that 10 percent of
English speakers in the world. Most spoken language is Chinese,
about 10 hundred million populations.
But we don’t have any universal language except for English
not Chinese, so English is important in today’s society. We should
have or make Japanese own English. We need not to be serious, not to
be ashamed to speak English. Having confidence in our English as
Japanese, then we can be true international people. The English we
speak and learn as Japanese can be called Japalish.
Japalish is a language for Japanese. The pronunciation and
grammar does not have to be just like native speakers of English. It is
too hard to pronounce like native speakers. And grammar is not so
important for communication. There are many people who don’t know
correct grammar, not even native speakers.
This idea is a little abstract one, but we can adopt it in our mind.
If we do so, Japalish can be established as Japanese English.
Bibliography
Honna, Nobuyuki. (1999) Ajia wo tsunagu Eigo (in Japanese) Tokyo:
Akashi shoten.
Watanabe, Takesato (1983) Recommend of Japalish. : Asahi shinbun shoten.
Yamada, Masahige (1998) English who don’t know American: maruzen
library.
Yamada, Masahige (1999) English can’t be understood to American:
maruzen library
Page 109
Comparison of Gestures in Japan and English-speaking countries 日本語 (Sawako Kamizato)
非言語コミュニケーションの文化的違い：日本と英語圏のジェスチャーについて
Abstract
We think communication is conversation, and conversation is language. However,
language is only one of the means of communication. Communication is important "to
tell" and " transmit." Therefore, communication may not necessarily be "language." I
considered nonverbal communication is aiming at this point.
In this paper, I review nine types of nonverbal personal communication, which are
connected with gestures. Next I compare the nonverbal communication between Japan
and English speaking countries. I consider the similarities and differences in cultural
and linguistic the background of gestures: Japanese peculiar gestures, an English
country peculiar gestures, similar gesture, and different gesture, are taken up as
examples.
Gestures have the same meaning in many cases. However, some gestures are
influenced by the culture used only in the country. If each other’s gestures can be read
correctly, we can reduce misunderstanding.
１．Introduction
私たちは生まれて、話すことができるようになる前から、無意識に習得され話すとき
にはたいてい何らかの身振りがともなっている。また、話を伴わない身振りもたくさん使
っている。頭をそらす、首をかしげる、手を振るなどそれだけで意味を持っている。挨拶
を例にとって見る。国際的には握手が主流であるが、ロシア人の場合は抱き合いお互いの
頬にキスをする。日本人は、お辞儀をする。言葉とともにこれらの動作が行われて初めて
挨拶が成立する。私達は、コミュニケーションというと、会話。会話というと、言葉とな
りがちだが、言葉の変わりに、絵に描いて見せることも、身振り手振りでも伝えられる。
言葉は、コミュニケーションの手段の内の一つにすぎないのだ。コミュニケーションは「伝
えること」と「伝わること」その手段は、必ずしも「言葉」でなくても良いのではないだ
ろうか。
この論文では、９種類の言葉以外の対人コミュニケーション用の非言語のうち、ジェ
スチャーに関係があるものについて考察する。次に、日本と英語話者とのノンバーバルコ
ミュニケーションについて比較する。文化や言語の違いなどを考慮に入れながら、ジェス
チャーのバックグランドにある文化的・言語的な類似や相違について例を基に考える。日
本特有のジェスチャー、英語国特有のジェスチャー、類似しているジェスチャー、違いが
あるジェスチャーを例に取り上げる。
２．ノンバーバルコミュニケーション（Nonverbal Communication）について
人間がコミュニケーションをとる方法は、大きく二つに分けられる。一つは会話を通し
たバーバル（言語的）コミュニケーション、もう一つは身振り、しぐさ、目配りなど、言
語を通さないノンバーバル（非言語的）コミュニケーションだ。
『人がコミュニケーションをする上で、バーバルコミュニケーションとノンバーバルコミ
ュニケーションのどちらを重要視しているのか？』という心理学の研究では様々な実験結
果が出されている。（御手洗（2000）、上田、「非言語コミュニケーション」）研究方法によ
って多少結果が違うが、ノンバーバルコミュニケーションのウエイトは８５％から９５％
という結果が多いようだ。言葉が意味する内容は、１５％からわずか５％ほどしか、重要
視されていないということである。また、ほかの研究では、人間の態度や性格を推定する
場合、言葉によって判断されるのはわずか７％で、残りの 93%のうち、38%は声の大きさ、
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Comparison of Gestures in Japan and English-speaking countries 日本語 (Sawako Kamizato)
話の速度などの周辺言語、55%は、顔の表情によるとされている。つまり「何を言ったのか」
ではなく「どのように言ったのか」が重要だということだ。
ノンバーバルコミュニケーションの例として、ある人が、にこにこしながら「怒った」
と言った時、言語的には「怒った」と言っている。ところが、非言語的には「怒っていな
いよ」と言っていると受け取れる。なぜなら、言葉では怒ったといいながら、態度では怒
っていないからだ。つまり、ノンバーバルコミュニケーションとは、その言葉ではなく、
その時の顔の表情や態度全般を意味する。
また、非言語コミュニケーションも、大きく二つに分ける事が出来る。音声を伴うもの
と音声を伴わないものだ。音声的なものは、「パラ言語」、または「周辺言語」と呼ばれて
いるもので、言語に伴っている「非言語現象」のことだ。パラ言語とは、声の特徴、話し
方をさす。話す時の声の高低、抑揚（語調）、声量（大きさ）、速さ、間などがこれにあた
る。それから、舌打ち、せき払いなども非言語的で副次的な発音といえる。一方、音声を
伴わない（非音声的）動作（しぐさ）や顔の表情を使う非言語コミュニケーションは、一
般的に「身振り言語」といわれる。さまざまなジェスチャー、顔の表情、目の使い方（ア
イコンタクト）などがこれに含まれる。
2－1. ノンバーバルコミュニケーションの種類
多くの学者達（御手洗（2000）
、古賀（2003）
、
「非言語コミュニケーション」
）の研究結
果では、次の９種類が言葉以外の対人コミュニケーション用の信号として使われている。
１．身体 身体的な特徴（性別年齢、体格、皮膚の色など）
２．動作と表情 動きや姿勢、顔も含めた表情で表現されるもの
３．アイコンタクト(目)
４．周辺言語 言葉の音声上の性状と特徴
５．沈黙 沈黙もまた１つの表現手段
６．身体接触 相手の身体に接触すること、またはその代わる行為による表現
７．対人的空間 コミュニケーションのために人が利用する空間
８．時間 文化形態と生理学の 2 つの次元
９．色彩 光りあるところに色があり、絶えずメッセージを伝達している
上記の２・３・5 が主に非音声的非言語コミュニケーションにあたる。これらの種類のノ
ンバーバルコミュニケーションには文化的・宗教的・民族的に違いがあるもの共通するも
のがある。
3.
動作と表情：アメリカと日本の比較
上記のノンバーバルコミュニケーションの種類の中に動作と表現があるが、そのカテ
ゴリーの中にはジェスチャーも含まれる。世界のジェスチャーの中には共通でないものも
多くある。文化、言葉、人種が違えば、同じ動作でも、違った意味になる。日本国内でも
場所によっては違ってくる。ここでは、国や文化によって違いが出るジェスチャーに焦点
を当てる。特に、日本と英語話者とのノンバーバルコミュニケーションについて比較しな
がらそのバックグランドにある文化的・言語的な類似や相違について例を元に考察する。
比較の対象の英語話者は、主にアメリカ合衆国を中心とした英語話者とする。
①日本特有のジェスチャー
・ 小指を立てる仕草をした場合、日本では「女性・恋人・彼女」の意味で理解される。親
指を立てると「男性」で小指を立てると「女性」という意味は日本と韓国では共通して
いるが、他の国では同じような意味を持って使用される事はほとんどない。
・ 日本の「来なさい」という仕草は様々な高さで行われ、頭上にかざすこともあるが、英
語国の「さよなら」の手振りと似ている。日本人は、時には頭上で指先を接して両腕で
大きな輪を作り「よろしい」を表す。これは、学校のテストで正解にマルをつけるのを
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Comparison of Gestures in Japan and English-speaking countries 日本語 (Sawako Kamizato)
真似たものである。これは、正解にマルを使用する日本文化からの影響を受けていると
考えられる。
・片手の人差し指を頬に、又は両手の人差し指を両方に突き立てる。あまりよく使われる
ジェスチャーではないが、
「えくぼ」「可愛い」を表す。日本でこの動作をすると「かわ
い子ぶる」という意味でちょっとふざけた感じで使われることが多い。アジアの多くの
国では「恥を知れ」という意味で使われたり、オーストラリア・アメリカ・メキシコで
は「狂っている」という意味で「恥」に関するものが多い。日本と同じ意味でこのジェ
スチャーを英語国で使うことは見られない。こういった甘えた仕草は日本では可愛らし
いと受け止められるようだが、いかに早く「大人のように」振舞えるか、が成熟度判断
の基準えある英語国では「未熟さ・子供っぽい」という印象にしか受けない為に使用さ
れることがないのだろう。
②英語国民特有のジェスチャー
・口ぐらいの高さで両手を握り合わせて「おめでとう」を表す仕草や人差し指と
中指をクロスさせて「Good Luck・幸運を祈る」を意味する仕草は、英語国だけで
日本にはこれに当たるものはない。
・手を垂直にして親指を鼻につける仕草は、日本では全く使われないが、ヨーロッパ・ア
メリカではお馴染みのジェスチャーで、これは多くの国で「愚弄」や「嘲笑」を意味す
るしぐさである。このしぐさは英語で「nosethumb」、フランス語では「pieddenez」と
いい、もう一方の手を付け足すときもある。
・
「引用符（quotation marks）
」の仕草も英語国だけで、普通は両手の人差し指と中指を引
用符の形に似せて下へ軽く曲げる。その意味は「いわゆる」
「偽の」などだが、今行った
事が「引用符に囲まれるべきだ」という時に使われる。これも言語の違いを感じるジェ
スチャーで、言葉に重点を置く文化である英語国らしいといえる。
③共通・類似しているジェスチャー
・「バンザイ」日本人は、両腕を頭上にまっすぐに伸ばして「バンザイ」と叫び声を出す。
これは、普通、腕のしぐさに合わせて三回繰り返す。英語国民は、これによく似た、
「hip
hip hurrah」の時に片方の握りこぶしを頭上に上げて叫び声と調子を合わせることがあ
る。時にはこれを「意志･団結」などの広い意味でも使う事もある。
・
「宣誓」日本人も英語国民も典型的には右手を上げ手の平を前方に向けて行う。英語国民
は左手を聖書に乗せるか、又は右手で聖書を掲げるのが典型。日本の首相は左の手の平
を日本国憲法の上に置いて就任の宣誓をする。宣誓に聖書を用いるのは、宗教的違いに
よるもので英国民にとっての宗教の存在の大きさが見える仕草の一つだといえる。反対
に日本では、英国民ほどの宗教観が小さい為こういった場で宗教的要素が含まれる事は
少ないと言える。
・ヒッチハイクで使われる英語国の腕の仕草は（猥褻と見なされているオーストラリアと
ニュージーランドを除いて）
、やってくる車に向かって肩越しに右手の親指を立てて振る。
日本では、ヒッチハイク自体があまり行われない為、定まった仕草はない。しかし、日
本人も時折、この仕草を使用する事が在るが、手の平を前面に出して真横か少し下に片
腕を伸ばすだけの事が多い。
・日本人も英語国民も両手の人差し指を米神に両方に立てて「悪魔・鬼」を表すが、日本
ではそれを、
「怒っている･ヒステリー」の意味を持ち、「女房がこわい」の意味で使う事
もある。これは、日本の花嫁衣裳の角隠しが、女性の角を隠すものとされているところ
から来ているという説もある。
・人差し指と中指を立てる仕草は、多くの国で使われ、国際的に広く通用するジェスチャ
ーである。意味も、
「勝つ」
「平和」「２」とあまり違いはない。しかし、イギリスではこ
のジェスチャーが少しの違いで「侮辱表現」になってしまうことがある。
「V サイン」は
相手に手のひらを向けるが、
「侮辱表現」の場合、相手に手の甲を向ける。日本では「Ⅴ
サイン」として使われる頻度が高く、多くの国では意味に大きな差はないが、それがイ
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Comparison of Gestures in Japan and English-speaking countries 日本語 (Sawako Kamizato)
ギリスでは、まったく逆の意味の「侮辱表現」になってしまうことは、日本では、あま
り知られていない事実だろう。
④違いがあるジェスチャー
・親指と人差し指で耳たぶをつまむ仕草は、欧米、アジア（韓国を除く）での意味と日本･
韓国での意味が分かれている。日本では「熱い」という意味ですが、大多数の国では「聞
く・良く聞け」など耳に関する意味が多い。日本ではなぜ「熱い」なのか確かな由来は
分かっていないが、体の一番温度の低いところを触るという科学的な根拠もあるようだ。
・日本人も英語国民も食べ物や食べる合図には、口をあけて食べる仕草をする。しかし、
英語国民がサンドウィッチを食べるような仕草に対し、日本人は茶碗に持ったご飯を食
べる仕草をする。食文化がまったく異なっているのでジェスチャーにも違いが出ている。
・親指と人差し指で丸を作る仕草は、世界で広く使われているジェスチャーである。日本
をはじめ多くの国では「O.K. 」の意味で使用されている。その次に多いのは「カネ」の
意味だ。日本でもお金を現すときにこのジェスチャーを使う。しかし英語国では、人差
し指と中指を立てて親指をこするがこの仕草は日本では使わない。お金を表すジェスチ
ャーに違いがあるのは、日本では硬貨が、英語国では紙幣が主流だったからだと思われ
る。
これらのジェスチャーは、共通する意味を持つことも多いが国や文化が変わればまった
く違う意味もしくは逆の意味を持つことがあることがわかる。日本では使われる頻度が高
い「V サイン」が、イギリスではまったく逆の意味の「侮辱表現」を持っている事が、あま
り知られていないことを見ても私たちは、母国語側の非言語伝達に対しては敏感に反応す
るが、他国語側の非言語伝達には感受性が低いことが見えてくる。
４．Conclusion
非言語コミュニケーションは、話すことよりも早期に無意識のうちに習得されるため
意識されることは少ない。しかし人はコミュニケーションをする上で、ノンバーバルコ
ミュニケーションの方を重視している事は第二章での実験結果を見れば明らかである。
研究方法によって多少結果は異なるが、それでも人間の態度や性格を推定する場合、言
葉よりも声の大きさ、話の速度などの周辺言語、顔の表情のウエイトは大きく、それが
コミュニケーションにも反映されるのは事実である。しかし、非言語は文化的・言語的・
宗教的・民族的になど類似や違いがあるので重要性が高い分、異文化間のコミュニケー
ションでの誤解を生む基になりがちである。そこで、第三章で非言語コミュニケーショ
ン（ノンバーバルコミュニケーション）のうち日本と英語話者とのジェスチャーを例題
に取り上げて比較・考察してきてきたが、非言語コミュニケーションとして使う場合、
同じ意味を持つ場合も多いが、それを培ってきた社会的・文化的歴史が異なるため、ま
ったくほかの意味を持つものもあることが分かった。また、様々な文化の影響からその
国もしくは、ある地域のみでしか使われないものもある。ジェスチャー一つでも背景に
あるお互いの文化を知るチャンスになる。
外国語学習では言語そのものを教えることが中心になりがちで、この様な非言語の違
いなどについて学ぶ機会が少ない。その為、私たちは、母国語側の非言語伝達に対して
は敏感に反応するが、他国語側の非言語伝達には感受性が低くなりがちだ。しかし、外
国語学習者とその言語の背景となる文化との距離が近くなるほど、言語の上達も速くな
ると言われるほどに言語と文化のつながりは強い。旅行や留学、日本にいる外国の人と
接する機会も増えてきている現代では誤解されないように、また彼らのジェスチャーを
正しく読み取ることができるように備える事で、コミュニケーションの際に起きる誤解
を少しでも減らす事が出来る。また、テレビでは人々の生活を様々な形で報道している
し、映画やビデオなども気軽に見ることができる。これらを様々な国の様々な場面での、
非言語コミュニケーションを学ぶチャンスに変え、非言語を潤滑油として取り入れるこ
Page 113
Comparison of Gestures in Japan and English-speaking countries 日本語 (Sawako Kamizato)
とでより深いコミュニケーションが出来る。異文化が身近になってきている現代だから
こそ非言語の重要性に目を向けていくべきだと思う。
5. Bibliography
古賀範理、武本ティモシー（編）
「あなたと私の言葉と文化」５絃舎（2003）
鍋倉健悦「日本人の異文化コミュニケーション」北樹出版 （1990）
御手洗昭治「異文化にみる非言語コミュニケーション：Ｖサインは屈辱のサイン？」ゆま
に書房（2000 年）
Brosnahan Leger 「しぐさの比較文化」岡田妙、斉藤紀代子（訳）大修館書店（1988）
von Raffler –Engel Walburga「ノンバーバルコミュニケーション：ことばによらない伝達」
本名信行、井出祥子、谷林真理子（訳）大修館書店（1981）
上田博人 「スペイン語ジェスチャー小事典」
http://gamp.c.u-tokyo.ac.jp/~ueda/kenkyu/higengo/zyesuimi.pdf
北 尾 謙 治 、北尾 S.キャスリーン 「異文化交流の諸相」
http://ilc2.doshisha.ac.jp/users/kkitao/japanese/library/article/gendai/gendai3.htm
福井尚和「コミュニケーション上手は聞き上手－バーバルで伝えること－」
http://www.yoshitaka-fukui.com/essay/index.html
「コミュニケーションの基礎」
http://www.ai.wakwak.com/~aan/psycol/communicate/cbase/cshintro2.html
「非言語コミュニケーション」
http://www.ir.rikkyo.ac.jp/~tsuzuki/99db157a/99db157a1.htm
「非言語表現 (Body Language)」
http://www.nsknet.or.jp/%7Ehide0508/student/gesture.html
“Cultural Gestures” http://soc302.tripod.com/soc_302rocks/id6.html
“Cultural Influences on Nonverbal Communication Making Sense of Cultural
Processes” http://canfield.etext.net/Chapter2.htm
Gary Imai “Gestures: Body Language and Nonverbal Communication”
http://www.csupomona.edu/~tassi/gestures.htm#asian
“Non-Verbal Communication” http://www.shinnova.com/part/99-japa/abj17-e.htm
Page 114
Hispanic society and language (Shoko Tanaka)
概要
今日アメリカ合衆国の少数民族人口において、ヒスパニック人口は大部分を占めている。
アメリカ合衆国におけるヒスパニック人口は 2 千 800 万人にものぼり、その数はいまだに
増え続けている。アメリカの統計では 2050 年には 9 千 600 万人にもなると言われている。
メキシコからのヒスパニックたちは、Chicano, Pocho などと呼ばれ、独特な社会性を持つ
と考えられる。言語においても独特な変化が見られ、現在 Spanish English といった特別
なものが使われることがある。
1. Introduction
Recently the immigrant population has been growing in the U.S.;
especially people who speak Spanish and who are called “Hispanic”. A lot of
Hispanic people live in California, Texas, and New Mexico. Among the many
Hispanic groups, there is a groupe of people who are called “Pochos”. They
have their own culture in the U.S. Therefore, their society, education, and
language are focused upon in this paper.
The United States has various ethnic cultures in one country
because a lot of immigrants come from other countries. Hispanic groups are
known well as one of those ethnic groups. The U.S. census bureau in 2002
surveyed and found that more than one in eight people in the United States
are of Hispanic origin. Among the Hispanic population, two-thirds (66.9
percent) were of Mexican origin, 14.3 percent were Central and South
American, 8.6 percent were Puerto Rican, 3.7 percent were Cuban, and
remaining 6.5 percent were of other Hispanic origins. Hispanic people were
more likely to live in the West and South than non-Hispanic Whites.
Among these, there are people who are called “Chicano or Chicana”
or “Pocho or Pocha” and it means that they are Mexican-American. The
word “Chicano” has been used among the Mexican people for years, with
both a good and bad interpretation of the term. Recently, the newspaper and
television Medias have been using Chicano as a method of identifying their
people and their movement. The term Chicano means different things to
different people. In 1972, the DQU Newsletter of D-Q University in Davis,
California, described it is an article entitled “Are you Chicano?” Many of
them prefer to call themselves Chicanos because it reflects their feeling fir
their culture and heritage, their pride in who they are and where they came
from, and it gives them a sense of unity. (The Mexican American, Dorothy
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Hispanic society and language (Shoko Tanaka)
and Thomas Hoobler, 1994, Oxford University Press, p104) These days,
Mexican American people prefer being called Pocho to called Chicano.
Chicano is kind of contemptuous word for them.
2.
Bilingual education and the society
Therefore, the bilingual education is very popular in the U.S. A lot of
people speak Spanish is California. River Glen school in California has
kindergarten, elementary, and junior high schools in it, and then gives
classes with bilingual. Students who speak English natively take Spanish
classes as Spanish is their second language. On the other hand, students
who speak Spanish natively take classes in English. Until 3rd grade, they
have one English class which is only 30 minutes or 45 minutes in a day.
However, fifth or sixth grade students have classes in English half of the day.
Literature, Math, and P.E. classes are given in English and other Literature,
Science, and Social studies are given in Spanish.
In the meantime, people from Mexico, Guatemala, or Venezuela
come to the U.S. illegally because the economy of the U.S. is higher than
those countries. Especially, California and Texas are next to Mexico and
Mexican people can across the border more easily than other places. People
from Latin America illegally work with low wages. Some people work form
early in the morning to late at night with low wage.
3.
Spanish English
Besides, some Hispanic people who have lived in the U.S. longer use
their own language, Spanish English. The Spanish English is only a
combination of two languages and English is influenced by Spanish accents
and Spanish words, like verbs, nouns, adjectives, and so on. Here are some
Spanish English languages.
(,http://members.tripod.com/~nelson_g/spanglish.html)
English
Spanish
Spanish-English
check
examinar
chequear
cook
cocinar
cuquear
click
oprimir
clikear
skip
faltar
eskipear
leak
gotear
likear
- 116 -
Hispanic society and language (Shoko Tanaka)
park
estacionar
parkear
push
empujar
puchar
quit
dejar
quitear
start
prendar
startear
(Source: Spanish English verbs: Diccionario de Spanglish)
English
Spanish
Spanish-English
baby
bebe
baby
bin
arcon
ben
bump
tope
bombe
carpet
alfombra
carpeta
grocery
alimentos
groceria
glass
vaso
glasso
lunch
almorzo
lunche
market
mercado
marketa
roof
techo
ruffo
(Source: Spanish English nouns: Diccionario de Spanglish)
Spanish verbs have –ar, -er, -ir end of the words. People are like to
using that kind of terms with English verbs. On the contrary, Spanish nouns
have -o or –a at the end of the words. Spanish English words are influenced
this. Many Spanish English words are used with –e, -o, -a at the end of the
words.
Here are some Spanish English sentences using with each situations.
(http://spanish.about.com/library/weekly/aa042301a.htm)

Dolores dice: Need advice? Escríbeme. (On home page for the
online Latina magazine.)

Tengo que ir al bus stop para pick up mi hija. (Overheard In the
U.S. West.)

Haz clic aquí. (Commonly seen on Spanish-language Web
sites.)

Llamenos para delivery. (Seen on advertising signs in Peru.)

Se venden bloques. (Signs in Guatemala.)

Tips para marketing. (Advertisement in Mexico.)
(Source: About and About.com, Spanish English)
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Hispanic society and language (Shoko Tanaka)
In conclusion, Hispanic people build up their own culture and society
in the place where they are living natively. They live in the place mixed with
two cultures. This causes that their life styles change with the society.
Language is one of the reflections of their culture. Also, Hispanic people
emphasize their own culture in Latin America. This idea also helps that
they make own culture mixed new culture in new place.
AJS (American Journal of Sociology), The University of Chicago Press
Bernando Gallegos, Sofia Villenas, and Brian Brayboy. Sducational Studies
(A journal of the American Education Studies Association). New Jersey
Shoji Bando. (2000) Bunka to rekishi de manabu supein go,( Spanish which we learn
from their culture and history, in Japanese) Tokyo: Maruzen Library
American education affairs, Available at:
http://www6.plala.or.jp/michiT/overseaedu/gks/01051705.html (12/15/2003)
El diccionario de Spanglish. Available at:
http://members.tripod.com/~nelson_g/spanglish.html
(12/15/2003)
kokugai koubouki. Available at:
http://www.kokugai.com/zakki_mexico.html
(12/16/2003)
Spanglish and Hispanics. Available at:
http://spanish.about.com/library/weekly/aa042301a.htm
(11/24/2003)
Spanglish culture. Available at:
http://www.spainview.com/spanglish.html
(11/24/2003)
The U.S. census bureau. Available at:
http://www.census.gov/population/www/socdemo/hispanic/ho02.html
(11/24/2003)
- 118 -
Polite expressions in English (Request expressions) as seen in “My Fair
Lady” (Sayako Nakao)
目
次
１． はじめに
２． 以来表現使い分けの要素
３． 以来表現の例
４． 調査
５． まとめ
参考文献
Abstract
We often hear that English doesn’t have keigo. As a result, some
people might imagine that we don’t need to care about the words when we
speak English. However it seems to be misunderstanding. In fact, people
choose the words according to person or circumstances etc.
If we
understand keigo as a linguistic expression to show the respect for someone,
we can say that keigo exist also in English.
In this paper, I focused on request expressions from wide expressions
of keigo. In the first part, I defined some expressions of request and some
factors in choosing these expressions. Then I tried to see the tendency of
the way these were actually used by comparing the definitions with request
expressions used the film “My Fair Lady”.
１．はじめに
英語には敬語がないということをよく耳にする。その結果、英語を話すときには言葉に
気を使う必要がないと思っている人もいるかもしれない。しかしそれは誤解である。事実、
人々は、人や状況などにより言葉を使い分けている。敬語を、相手に敬意を示す言葉とし
て考えると、英語にも敬語は存在するということが言えるだろう。
そこで今回、幅広い敬語表現の中から、相手に物を頼むときの表現に注目し、その表現
方法の傾向を見てみた。
２．依頼表現使い分けの要素
鶴田ら(1988: p.106)は、依頼表現の使い分けの基準として次の４点を挙げている。
- 119 -
Polite expressions in English (Request expressions) as seen in “My Fair
Lady” (Sayako Nakao)
（１）相手との親しさ
見ず知らずの相手に頼む場合は、親しい相手に頼む場合より遠慮した表現を
使う。
（２）頼む事柄の難易度
１万円貸してもらう場合は１００円貸してもらう場合より遠慮した表現を使
う。
（３）緊急度
相手に時間の余裕を与えないで頼む場合は、そうでない場合より遠慮した表
現を使う。
（４）相手との上下関係
年齢や社会的地位が上の相手に頼む場合は、そうでない相手に頼む場合より
遠慮した表現を使う。
また、松本(1987: p.19-)は、同じく依頼表現の使い分けの要素として、
（１）依頼内容―簡単な依頼か重大な依頼か
（２）その依頼を引き受けるのが相手にとって当然の義務であるか、あるいはまった
くの好意によるか。
（３）自分と相手の新密度
の３点を挙げている。
前者の、
（３）緊急度 というのは、緊急度が増すほど頼む事柄の難易度が増すというこ
とを言っていると考えられる。また、緊急だからむしろ唐突な言い方になる傾向もあると
考えられる。そこで今回は、
（１）相手との新密度（２）義務（３）難易度（４）上下関係
の４点を依頼表現の使い分けの要素として定義し見てみたい。今回、映画「マイ・フェア・
レディ」を通して使われる、相手にものを頼むときの表現を取り上げ、上記の状況ごとに
表現を比較してみた。
３．依頼表現の例
ここで、依頼表現を確認しておきたい。英語の依頼表現としてよく見かけるのが次のよ
うな表であろう。
Will you…?
Can you…?
Would you…?
Could you…?
Would you mind –ing…?
Do you think you could…?
-----------------------------------------------------
Do you think you could possibly…?
Can you…?
I don’t suppose you could…?
Could you…?
I am wondering if you could…?
Do you think you could…?
I was wondering if you could…?
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Polite expressions in English (Request expressions) as seen in “My Fair
Lady” (Sayako Nakao)
I don’t suppose you could…
Do you think you could possibly…?
I don’t suppose you could possibly…
You couldn’t (possibly)…, could you?
I was wondering if you could…
I was wondering if you could possibly…
左は鶴田ら(1988: p.90)によるもので、右は松本(1987: p.19)によるものである。多少、加
えたり加えなかったりという差はあるが、だいたいこのような感じで、下に行くほどより
丁寧な表現と考えることができる。ちなみに、Vardaman & 森本(1999: p.67)などによって、
助動詞 can, could, will, would については、can と could は相手が断れるような可能性を残
す場合に使い、相手が断らないであろうと思われる場合には、will と would を使うことに
なり、will, would より can, could の方が多少丁寧ということが言われている。その他の表
現としては、
＊ please ＝「指示」に添えて口調をやわらかくする言葉 （鶴田ら）
＊ , will you? , would you? ＝相手の職務でないことを頼む表現（鶴田ら）
＊ I want you to… I would like you to… ＝上から押し付けているような感じ。
（松
本 1987: p.166）相手に行動を求める表現は、特に I want のときは、目上の人に対
しては失礼に響く。しかし、相手の知覚に訴える場合には失礼にならない。（大杉
1982: p.124）
４．調査
それでは、これらの表現とニュアンスが、先に定義した要素によって使い分けられてい
るのか、映画「マイ・フェア・レディ」を通して見てみたい。
（１）相手との新密度
同じ人物が同じ用件を頼んでいるものを比較するのが分かりやすいと考え、次の
会話を取り上げてみた。
① Go and find a cab.
② Do you think you could find me a taxi?
①は女性が息子に言ったものであり、②は同じ女性が知らない男性に言ったものである。
２つを見比べると、丁寧度の差ははっきりとしており、相手との新密度により表現方法が
変わってくるということが確認できる。
（２）義務
ここも、同じ人が同じ人に頼んでいるものを比較するのがいいだろうと考え、な
- 121 -
Polite expressions in English (Request expressions) as seen in “My Fair
Lady” (Sayako Nakao)
るべくそういうものを探してみた。
① Could you tell me what it’s about?
② One moment, please.
ともに、Mrs. Pearce が家に訪ねて来た Eliza に対して言っているものである。Eliza は
Mr. Higgins に会いたいということをすでに述べており、①に対し必ずしも用件を Mrs.
Pearce に言う必要はないと言える。一方、②では、Mr. Higgins に会いたいという彼女の
要求に対し要求されていることなので彼女にはそれに応じる必要があると言える。
① I want you to say, “The rain in Spain stays mainly in the plain.” 50 times.
② Leave a little note for her, would you, Eliza?
ともに、Mr. Higgins が Eliza に言ったものである。①では、彼女は Mr. Higgins に指導
してもらっている立場なので、彼の指示に応じる必要があると言える。一方、②では、授
業とは全く関連のないことなので彼女にはそれに応じる義務はないと言える。
① Pay the bills and say no to the invitations.
②Get me some coffee, would you please?
①は Mr. Higgins が Mrs. Pearce に頼んだものであり、②は Mr. Pickering が Mrs. Pearce
に頼んだものであって、同人物によるものではなく、個人的な性格や価値観、新密度の違
いなど、様々な要素が含まれてくると考えるが、比較できなくもないのでやってみよう。
Mr. Higgins に雇われている彼女にとって①の内容は彼女の仕事であり義務と言えよう。一
方、②においては、Mr. Pickering に雇われているわけではないので彼女の義務ではない。
ということで、頼む内容が相手にとって義務であるかそうではないかということによっ
ても表現が使い分けられているということを確認できる。
（３）頼む事柄の難易度と（４）相手との上下関係（年齢、社会的地位）という点にお
いては、残念ながらこのフィルム内では比較対照を見つけることができなかった。しかし、
比較することはできなかったが、それぞれの状況には様々な要素が絡み合っていることが
多いと考えられ、これらの（３）と（４）の要素もそれぞれの会話で考慮されていること
は考えられる。
５．まとめ
相手に物事を頼む場面においても、丁寧度の違う様々な表現方法が存在し、いろいろな
要素によってそれらが使い分けられているということで、英語にも敬語が存在するという
- 122 -
Polite expressions in English (Request expressions) as seen in “My Fair
Lady” (Sayako Nakao)
ことが言えるだろう。今回、１本のフィルムを通して、依頼における敬語表現が、相手と
の親密度、そして義務によって使い分けられていることを実際に見ることができた。しか
し一方、要素の１つである「相手との上下関係（年齢、社会的地位など）
」を見られなかっ
たことは、その要素により敬語を使い分けるという傾向が低いということも考えられるか
もしれない。この点に注目し、
「相手との上下関係」が、どういう場面でどのように影響し
てくるのかを調べてみるのも面白いのではないだろうかと思った。
敬語を使うにあたっては、その時々の雰囲気や個人的な価値観、感情などが絡んでくる
わけで、どの場合に誰に対してはこの表現などということは当然決まっているはずもない。
だからこそ、相手に自分の思いを伝えることもできるのだと思う。と同時に、敬語を上手
く使うことは、特に non-native speaker にとっては非常に難しいと思われる。したがって、
敬語を習得し上手く使うことが、non-native speaker にとっても、コミュニケーションを
上手く進める１つのポイントとなるだろう。
参考文献
Brown, P. & Levinson, Stephen C. (1978). Politeness.
New York: Cambridge
University Press
井出祥子（1986）
「日本人とアメリカ人の敬語行動」東京：南雲堂
松本安弘、松本アイリン(1987) 「英語の敬語表現ハンドブック」東京：北星堂
大杉邦三 (1982) 「英語の敬意表現」東京：大修館書店
Rimac, Robert Thomas (1985). Comprehension and production of indirect requests.
University Microfilms International
鶴田庸子、Rossiter, Paul、Coulton, Timothy (1988) 「英語のソーシャルスキル」東京：
大修館書店
Vardaman, James M. Jr. & 森本豊富(1999) 「マナー違反の英会話」東京：講談社インタ
ーナショナル株式会
- 123 -
Thai English (Phrudtipan Glawgitigul)
1. Introduction
Thai people had communicated with people in many countries since long time
ago because of the location of Thailand which the old name is Siam(the name has
changed around 65 years ago). Thailand close with Burma (Myanmar), Cambodia, Loas,
and Malaysia so most people who live near the Border of each countries can speak
another language because of location. But for English language that the country is
located far away from Thailand, are used because of history of Siam that communicate
with other countries.
2. History : Role of European countries in Thailand
The first European country that contacted with Siam is Portugese. By that time
Malacca was discovered first. Siam’s relations with the West commenced after 1511,
when Portuguese traders and missionaries began to arrive. Around that time European
start to have roled in Siam. That time is the period of Ayutthaya. (history of Thailand
can be divided into 4 periods which are Sukhothai, Ayutthaya, Thonburi, and Chakree).
Then Spains comes to Siam, after that, more European countries enter Siam. Mostly
the purpose of coming to Siam is to trade with. At that time European languages were
used in Siam which is in Ayutthaya period. As it was said in the history in 1678 the
English East India Company sent one of its agents, a Greek named Constantine
Phaulkon, to the court of Ayutthaya. His commercial and linguistic gifts quickly gained
the attention of King Nariai (1657-88), and soon he was serving as both the king’s
interpreter in diplomatic negotiations and as the chief official in charge of Siam’s
foreign trade. When his English co-workers accused him of corruption, Phaulkon quit
the English East India Company and offered his services to England’s archenemy,
France. The French were delighted, since all their attempts to gain colonies in the Far
East had failed to this point. The diplomatic Siamese were also glad, since they
thought French influence would be an effective counterweight to growing English and
Dutch power in the region. In 1684 embassies were exchanged between Ayutthaya and
Versailles. A large number of missionaries came with the French ambassador to Siam,
and when Narai allowed them to preach without restrictions the French
thought(wrongly) that the King was about to convert to Catholicism. Phaulkon was
executed, and Siam was closed to most foreigners for over a century.
Officially Siam had been an isolationist state since the Phaulkon episode in
the late 17th century, and the Chinese merchants encouraged this policy to keep
competition out. But eventually the West was able to pry open the closed doors of Siam
anyway.
After the kingdom of Ayutthaya which other language is used only for commerce,
Chakri dynasty had established at 1782. This period, English is more important
because Siam became increasingly concerned with the treat of European colonialism
after British victories in Neighboring Burma in 1828.
The first Thai recognition of Western power in the region was the Treaty of
Amity and Commerce with the United Kingdom in 1826. In 1833, the United States
began diplomatic exchanges with Siam (as Thailand was called until 1938). The
treaties allowed Protestant missionaries and a small amount of trade into the country.
More important was a treaty signed with Britain in 1855, which gave the following to
the UK: extraterritoriality, most-favored-nation status, a consulate in Bangkok, and a
maximum tariff of 3% on British goods. It also gave Britons the right to sell Siamese
goods, lease land, build homes, and travel one day’s distance from Bangok. Before long
France and the other Western powers stepped in and demanded similar trade
agreements; the king, Mongkut Rama IV (1851-68), agreed to them all, seeing rivalry
between foreign powers as the best way to keep one of them from gaining too much
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Thai English (Phrudtipan Glawgitigul)
influence over Siam.
However, it was during the later reigns of Rama IV (or King Mongkut
(1851-1868)), and his son Rama V (King Chulalongkorn (1868-1910)), that Thailand
established firm approchment with Western powers. During that period King Mongkut
learned everything he could about the West. After becoming king he employed about 80
foreign advisors to help him modernize the country. Before long, river steamships and
new roads, canals, and bridges were built. Bangkok was linked to Singapore by
telegraph . Western gurniture and dress were introduced into the palace of the uparat,
Mongkut’s younger brother, who also set up a modern machine shop to experiment with
Western science. An American headed the customs service and a British financial
advisor directed the economy. Another foreigner, Anna Leonowes (made famous in the
musical The King and I), became the royal tutor. But most of these changes were only
felt in the Bangkok area; elsewhere life went on as before, though the Chinese
monopoly over trade was broken.
Chulalongkorn Rama V (1868-1910) was only 15 years old when he was
crowned. In 1878 a modern secular school was set up in the palace as an example of the
kind of education the king wanted. The government subsidized the college educations
of about 300 students in Europe and America every year. In 1897 Siam began to
overhaul the entire law code to satisfy Western ideas of justice, which the West
demanded before the unequal treaties could be renegotiated.
In the 19th century, despite the best efforts of the kings, Siam suffered at the
hands of the West. An early example was the loss of Cambodia to the French in 1863.
After the French conquered Vietnam, they made an issue over the Siamese troops
stationed in Laos, which had been used to keep order in that region since 1829. The
French announced that any troops on the east bank of the Mekong River constituted an
unacceptable threat to their new colony. In 1893 a French fleet sailed into the mouth of
the Menam River and Blockaded Bangkok. The Siamese offered to negotiate, but the
French were not in a negotiating mood; before the French withdrew Siam was forced to
give up all of Laos to them. In 1904 and 1907 the French demanded, and got further
territorial concessions on the Mekong’s west bank. The British got a concession of their
own in 1909, taking away Siam’s four vassal states in northern Malaya in exchange for
revoking the 1855 treaty. Siam was saved from total conquest, however, by
Anglo-French rivalry; Britain and France could not agree to a partitioning of the
country, and both preferred an independent Siam to one dominated by the other side.
The independence of the kingdom was threatened, however, when Great Britain
extended its sway to Malaya and Burma, and France carved out an empire in
Indochina. Siam entered the twentieth century clipped but was able to keep its freedom,
an accomplishment no other Southeast Asian state could match.
Chulalongkorn’s policies were continued by his sons Vajiravudh Rama VI
(1910-25) and Prajadhipok Rama VII (1925-35). Vajiravudh opened Siam’s first
university and made primary education compulsorily. In 1917 he brought Siam into
world War I on the side of the Allies, and the Western powers rewarded him by
revoking the last of the unequal treaties.
Most of Thai people believe that the diplomatic skills of these monarchs,
combined with the modernizing reform of the Thai Government, made Siam the only
country in the South and Southeast Asia to avoid European colonization.
During cold war, Guerrilla raids against both Thai Government forces and U.S.
air bases continued. Economic conditions of Thailand improved throughout 1972 as
large numbers of U.S. military personnel were transferred from South Vietnam to
bases in Thailand; by June of that year there were more U.S. forces in Thailand than in
South Vietnam.
From the late 1970s, Thailand’s political concerns were dominated by
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Thai English (Phrudtipan Glawgitigul)
pressures resulting from war fare in Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia and serious unrest
in Myanmar (Burma); Thailand also experienced a massive influx of refugees from
these countries. From 1975 onward, Thailand was a way station for Hmong refugees
immigrating to the United States under its resettlement program.
In 1997 the year of speculation in the real estate market and growing
corruption in government, its currency plummeted in July, setting off a crisis in Asian
financial markets and plunging the country into a deep recession but by 2000 the
economy was experiencing a recovery, but the economic pain led in a loss of support for
the government.
3. Thai language
The written Thai language, read horizontally from left to right, as in English,
consists of 44 consonants and 32 vowels that combine to formulate syllabic sounds. The
sounds are combined with five different tones-even, high, low, rising and falling-to
produce a melodious, lyrical language.
Generally speaking, spoken grammar is simple. The basic adjectives following
nouns. In many case, verbs can be changed into nouns with the use of a prefix, e.g.
khit(think) with the prefix kwam becomes kwam khit (thought).
Each Thai word is complete inasmuch as there are no Thai suffixes, genders,
articles, declensions or plurals. Tenses are indicated by standard auxiliaries, e.g.
pai(go) with the auxiliary ja becomes ja pai(will go); with the auxiliary kamlang
becomes kamlang pai(am going); and with the auxiliary laew becomes pai laew(go
already(went)).
Illustrative of this wide range of variations is the verb to ‘eat’. In royal
language, the word is sawuy, in ecclesiastic Thai, chan, rappratan is a formal word
used on engraved invitations and its shortened from, tan is everyday polite usage. Kin
is a colloqauial form used between friends; to use it with a new acquaintance would be
viewed as presumptuous and perhaps rude. Even father down are several vulgarisms
which are offensive except when used between male intimates in informal situations.
(In the written language it is important to understand that words within sentences are
not separated, punctuation is rare and grammar can be complicated.)
The most unusual of Thailand’s “four languages”, which are the Thai dialect in
the North, Northeast, South, and Central, is the royal language, rachasap. Royalty
uses special words for common actions and for parts of the body. This special, formal
language is a mixture of words of Khmer, Pali, and Sanskrit origin complemented by
specially-coined Thai words. The Khmer-derived words are the same as those
commonly begin spoken throughout Cambodia today.
Rachasap is usually reserved for formal and state occasions, most royalty
making use of standard Thai, slightly modified, for everyday conversation among
Themselves.
In conventional spoken Thai, two or more words are often combined to form
literal descriptions of common objects. Thus, ‘ice’ is nam khaeng (solid water) and
‘match’ is mai keet fai (stick/strike/fire).
Although satisfactory for common objects, this system is inadequate for
coining new Thai words that can accurately convey Western concepts or recent
scientific terms. Accordingly, the Royal Institute, a government body responsible for
publishing the T hai encyclopedia, employs its committee of language experts to coin
equivalent Thai words by drawing upon Pali and Sanskrit sources.
As a consequence, Thailand keeps pace with international trends and
scientific developments, proof that, in one important respect, Thai is still a growing
language.
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Thai English (Phrudtipan Glawgitigul)
4. Comparing Thai with English
In Thai language, there are many consonants that have the same sound with
English. For example b, f, g, h, j, k, l, m, n, ng, p, s, t, w, y. Some consonants in English
are difficult for Thai people to speak such as r, v. Most Thai people pronounce r as l and
v as w. The words that come with three consecutive consonants at the beginning and
two at the end is difficult for Thai people to pronounce, such as shrimp.
With respect to vowels, some vowels in Thai can compare with English but
most can’t because Thai language has about 15 vowel signs, denoting 32 vowels. It’s
difficult to compare with each other.
The samples of difficult word for Thai people
Russell
Wish or With
Sandwich
Bank
become
become
become
become
Russen
Wit
Sanwit
Bang
5. English Education in School
Most Thai people start to study English language when they were around 12
years old or when they start Junior High School. Some schools start to teach English in
primary school. Most of those schools are private school.
English that is taught in the class is British English as British has important
role from the past but now there is American English in school because of Media and
teachers that most of them graduated from America. Most of Thai people cannot speak
English very well because there are not many native English-speaking teacher and
most teacher teach English with Thai English accent.
6. Conclusion
Nowadays English language has more role than the past. In the past, English
is only for trading and politics but now there are many things that have to use English
to communicate with such as education and technology. Thai people cannot speak
English very well because there are not many native English-speaking teachers in
Thailand, especially in countryside region. The consonant in Thai, almost all of them
can be compared with English, except ‘v’ and ‘r’ that have different sound. The vowel in
Thai sometimes is difficult to compare with English because Thai vowel has more than
English vowel. The basic sentence of Thai language is the same as English language.
Sometimes English language can translate words by words into Thai language. But for
the whole paragraph of English would be difficult to translate words by words because
of how to understand is different.
Bibliography
A Guide to Thailand. Available at http://www.guidetothailand.com
History on Encyclopedia. Available at http://www.encyclopedia.com
Into Asia. Available at http://www.into-asia.com
IPA Chart. Available at http://classweb.gmu.edu/accent
Mahidol University. Available at http://www.mahidol.ac.th/thailand
Thai language. Available at http://www.thai-language.com
Thai Language & Do’s & Don’ts
Getting Along in Thailand. Available at
http://www.sexwork.com/Thailand/language.html
The Ministry of Education of Thailand. Available at http://www.moe.go.th
127
Task-Based Learning: Teachers’ Challenges (Kayo Adachi)
1. Introduction
Almost all Japanese students have experienced English education in their
schools. There are a variety of English education styles because each teacher has their
own teaching style; however, it must be true that all teachers are always wondering how
they can teach English more effectively and efficiently. On the other hand, there are
several problems. For instance, teachers do not only have to teach English, but also have
to figure out how to keep and encourage students’ motivation in the same time. Then,
how are they trying to teach better?
In recent English classes, many teachers seem to try using Task-based methods
for better learning and teaching. This is called “Task-based Learning and Teaching
(TBLT),” which is the way to learn and to teach language with tasks. There can be a lot
of ways to use tasks because it depends on learners’ or teachers’ purposes, levels,
situations, and so forth. In this paper, you will see features of task-based learning (TBL)
with several examples of TBL in English classes in Japan15.
2. What is Task-based Learning?
As mentioned above, Task-based Learning is one way devised for better
learning by using tasks. Now, what are tasks? Pica, Kanagy and Falodun say about
features of tasks that they are oriented toward goals; they are work or activities (Pica, T.,
Kanagy, R., and Falodun, J., 1993: 11-12.) Also, Willis, J. says the same thing in her
article, “By task, I mean a goal-oriented activity with a clear purpose. Doing a
communication task involves achieving an outcome, creating a final product that can be
appreciated by other.”16 So, teachers will arrange their classes with tasks which are
incorporated to fit each purpose.
This method seems to be really useful and successful; however, it sometimes
has problems. Task-based learning usually includes activities, as mentioned above, so
there might be some problems when students have difficulty dealing with that kind of
activity. Generally speaking, Japanese students are shy, so they usually hesitate to speak
English in their classes or to do activities. In a homepage, Doyon, P.17 showed the result
15
All examples come from a homepage, The Japan Association for Language Teaching.
The Japan Association for Language Teaching (JALT) is a nonprofit organization dedicated to the
improvement of language teaching and learning both within Japan and internationally with nearly
3,000 members in chapters and affiliates across Japan as well as members abroad.
16
Wills, J. (1998). Task-Based Learning: What Kind of Adventure? Available at
http://langue.hyper.chubu.ac.jp/jalt/pub/tlt/98/jul/willis.html.
17
Doyon, Paul. (2000). Shyness in the Japanese EFL Class: Why It Is a problem, What It Is, What
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Task-Based Learning: Teachers’ Challenges (Kayo Adachi)
of Fred Anderson’s (1993) research on troubles which Western teachers experienced in
Japanese English classes where students: a) rarely initiated discussion; b) avoided
bringing up new topics; c) didn’t challenge the instructor; d) seldom asked questions for
clarification; e) didn’t volunteer answers. Thus, Japanese students have several
problems in their attitude towards English class; still, teachers have to manage classes.
Here, task-based learning would also be of help, so let’s see several examples.
3. 1. Example 1
S. Matsuno18 tried to use song activities for her English class. She has been
teaching in a vocational school in Nagoya, and her recent class was “General English”
and typically teacher-centered. To make matters worse, it was not a test preparation
course (e.g. TOEIC), so almost all students had little or no motivation to study. Then,
she decided to change and to improve the educational environment of her class, and
asked students what they wanted to study in their classes. After the questionnaire, she
carried out song activities through three classes.
The Features of the Activity
No. 1
Name of the Teacher & The Purposes
What Kind of Activity
Level
Matsuno, S.
To get motivation, Main: To listen to music
Student’s Level: College For listening skill,
Guessing the meanings of the
and vocabulary
words in songs, Filling in the
blanks
After three classes, she reviewed that the tasks worked very well. Almost all
students seemed to enjoy classes, and nobody got sleepy. Through these activities, she
says that she has also learned about classes.
3. 2. Example 2
J. Gray19 is a member of Nevada-California International Consortium, Japan.
She says that group work is a very effective activity for teaching English to Japanese
students. One reason for this is that she mentions Japanese people have already learned
Causes It, and What to Do about It.
Available at http://www.jalt-publications.org/tlt/articles/2001/01/doyon.
18
19
Matsuno, Sumie. (2001). A “Learner-Centered Classroom” in a General English Class.
Available at http://www.jalt-publications.org/tlt/articles/2001/02/matsuno
Gray, Jennifer. (2000). Group Work: Using Job Duties in the Classroom. Available at
http://www.jalt-publications.org/tlt/articles/2000/03/gray
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Task-Based Learning: Teachers’ Challenges (Kayo Adachi)
to cooperate in the group because of their cultural background. Then, she uses group
work for classroom management, especially, and thinks the benefits come up as shown
below.
a) It allows students to actively participate in the class with their fellow students, rather
than idly accepting ideas from the teacher.
b) Group work gives them the opportunity to generate their own ideas.
c) Group work develops students’ ability to articulate and respond to opinions, and to
cooperate with others to solve problems.
No. 2
Name of the Teacher &
Level
Gray, J.
Student’s Level: High
school and above
The Purposes
What Kind of Activity
For writing skill,
encouraging
critical
thinking
skills,
class
management
Main: Group work
Writing group essay; Each
member has own role such as
leader and time keeper
The Features of the Activity
According to her, it is very important to give each student a role such as leader,
secretary, timekeeper, and brainstormer. The teacher should walk around the class to
encourage, let students make a circle when they are working on task, and be sure that
nobody speaks in Japanese.
3. 3. Example 3
K. Hammond20 is a teacher of International Christian University, and is trying
a task to encourage Japanese students to raise their hands in class. Hammond says,
“Many students are embarrassed to admit when they do not understand, especially if
they think the rest of the class does.” Then, Hammond carries out class with a task
which uses four answer cards; YES, NO, NOT SURE, and PASS. According to
Hammond, this idea originally came from Norma Shapiro (2000).
The Features of the Activity
No. 3
Name of the Teacher & The Purposes
What Kind of Activity
Level
Hammond, K.
To encourage to Main: Questions & Answers
Hammond, Kay. (2002). Hands Up! Encouraging Shy Students to Raise Their Hands in Class
Available at http://www.jalt-publications.org/tlt/articles/2002/09/hammond
20
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Task-Based Learning: Teachers’ Challenges (Kayo Adachi)
Student’s Level: Junior hands
up
High School and above
(especially, for shy
students), To get
motivation
Making 4 kinds of cards for
answer, then students have to
hold up their hands all the time
to show their own answer card
The main reason for this task is to make students get used to raising their hands.
Students have to hold up their hands to answer all the time, then, students willingly
raised their hands without cards at the end of the term, Hammond reported.
4. Conclusion
As we have seen, teachers are trying new ways for better learning and teaching,
and then, there is a variety of tasks. So, any task has an important role for making better,
more comfortable, effective, and efficient language classes, even if a task does not seem
to fit the English class. Especially, language is a communicating tool, so it is essential to
prepare good circumstances “to attend.” These new trials begin to be extended
nowadays, so it is very important to prepare a better educational environment not only
for a part of classes, but for all of the educational steps and classes.
5. Bibliography
Anderson, Fred. (1993). The enigma of the college classroom: Nails that don’t stick up.
In P. Wadden (Ed.). A Handbook for Teaching English at Japanese Colleges
and Universities (pp. 101-110). New York: Oxford.
Doyon, Paul. (2000). Shyness in the Japanese EFL Class: Why It Is a problem,
What It Is, What Causes It, and What to Do about It.
Available at http://www.jalt-publications.org/tlt/articles/2001/01/doyon.
Oct. 31, 2003.
Gray, Jennifer. (2000). Group Work: Using Job Duties in the Classroom. Available at
http://www.jalt-publications.org/tlt/articles/2000/03/gray. Oct. 31, 2003.
Hammond, Kay. (2002). Hands Up! Encouraging Shy Students to Raise Their Hands in
Class. Available at
http://www.jalt-publications.org/tlt/articles/2002/09/hammond. Oct. 30, 2003.
Matsuno, Sumie. (2001). A “Learner-Centered Classroom” in a General English Class.
Available at http://www.jalt-publications.org/tlt/articles/2001/02/matsuno.
Oct. 30, 2003.
Pica, Teresa, Kanagy, Ruth, and Falodun, Joseph. (1993).
Choosing and Using Communication Tasks for Second Language Instruction
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Task-Based Learning: Teachers’ Challenges (Kayo Adachi)
and Research. In G. Crookes and S. Gass (Eds.) Tasks and language learning:
Integrating theory & practice. Clevedon, England: Multilingual Matters, Ltd.
Shapiro, Norma. (2000). Traveling the Road to an Active Vocabulary. Featured Speaker
Workshop of the Japan Association for Language Teaching 26th Annual
International Conference on Language Teaching, Shizuoka, Japan,
November 2-5, 2000.
Willis, Jane. (1998). Task-Based Learning: What Kind of Adventure? Available at
http://langue.hyper.chubu.ac.jp/jalt/pub/tlt/98/jul/willis.html. Oct. 30, 2003.
Page 132
Misunderstandings caused by Japanese English (Michiko Kobayashi)
概要
今日、ますます多くの日本人が英語を話すようになってきている。しかし文化や考え方
の違いから、日本人が話す“Ｊａｐａｎｅｓｅ
Ｅｎｇｌｉｓｈ”は”ｎａｔｉｖｅ
Ｅ
ｎｇｌｉｓｈ“
（今回ネイティブとはアメリカのことを示す）と多少の違いがある。その微
妙なニュアンス、言い回しの違いについて調べてみようと思う。
1. Introduction
In modern Japanese society, more and more people speak English. But many
words and phrases are also made that native speakers can’t understand, which is
called “Japanese English”. Japanese English is used in different meaning from native
English in Japan and many native speakers can’t understand. But many Japanese
people don’t notice this, because Japanese English is used very often in daily life and
some people who can’t speak English use Japanese English without knowing what
word shows which meaning. So this paper will address the difference of “Japanese
English” and “native English”, especially mistakes which Japanese people might make
when will go abroad.
2.
English words that are used in Japan in different meaning from native English
There are great many Japanese English words which are used in different
meanings from native ones. I’ll give some examples.
Example 1： stove
In Japanese, stove is a thing to warm myself in winter. But in English, stove is
a thing used to cook, in addition to a range and cooker. So American native speakers
use the word like this: “I like to cook meat on the stove.” When Japanese hear a
conversation like this, they might think it’s quite mysterious.
Example 2： manager
In Japanese, the word “manager” means a person who helps someone else. For
example, when we say “her basketball team has a manager”, Japanese will think like
this: her basketball team has a person who helps player. But in English, the word of
“manager” means a person who is in charge of something or someone else. For example,
when American people use the word of “manager”, it means like a “supervisor” or
“directorate”. So “sales manager” is “a person in charge of sales department”. In
Japanese, the word “manager” means as “assistant”.
3. Misunderstandings caused by Japanese English
This section introduces Japanese English that does not have mistakes in
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Misunderstandings caused by Japanese English (Michiko Kobayashi)
grammar but rather in expression due to differences in the way of thinking. These
subtle differences may cause misunderstandings.
Example 1： Suzuki is a popular surname.
From this sentence, Japanese people think that there are many people who
have the surname “Suzuki” in Japan. But native speakers may interpret this sentence
like this: The surname “Suzuki” has a wide appeal. This sentence doesn’t have a
mistake in grammar, but rather in vocabulary. To tell the correct meaning, we should
use “common”.
Suzuki is a common surname.
This is the correct sentence that tells what Japanese people want to say. If we want to
talk about names which are in vogue, (such as first names like “Yu”, “Shou”, etc.)we
should use popular.
Example 2： She has big eyes and she is attractive.
Among Japanese women, one of the conditions of beauty is to have big eyes
relatively. But Western people don’t think so. It is very typical Japanese thinking. For
Japanese people, famous Western actresses might have big eyes, but this is the average
size for Western people, so it does not make sense to say “She has big eyes”. The things
that Western people imagine from “big eyes” are cats, owls, deer, aliens, frogs, etc. Thus,
if we say “She has big eyes!”, Western people might understand like this: She has big
eyes like an animated cartoon.
She is attractive and she has big eyes compared to an Oriental person.
This is the proper sentence to say. Furthermore, in this case, it is enough to just say
“She is attractive.”
4. Japanese English which can make American speakers puzzled
However hard we study English, we sometimes puzzle foreign people by
differences of culture or differences of viewpoint. I’ll give some examples.
Example 1： My girl friend is white and beautiful.
When we hear a dialogue like this, we would imagine a girl who has fair skin.
But in America, it is different. In America, “white” means “white people” as a kind of
races. America is melting pot so it is not pleasant to be called “white” .
Example 2： I work for NTT.
When Japanese people meet a person at a first time, often they would ask his
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Misunderstandings caused by Japanese English (Michiko Kobayashi)
job. It is like a conversation about weather among British people. But if American
people is asked to “what your occupation?”, they would answer like this: I’m editor, I’m
police officer...etc. They will say the name of his occupation like carpenter, office worker
not the name of company. It is one of the differences of culture. (From; Oh!
Misunderstanding)
5. Conclusion
In this world, there are great many English speakers. Also Japanese is one of
them. We make possible to have communication with foreign people by leaning English.
But sometime, there appears misunderstanding no matter how they study English. Not
to cause misunderstandings, we also learn their culture. Because they have each
nationality, religion, culture, viewpoint, and way of thinking, too. They have each
English and it have a little differences.
We should accept them all, not only American and British English but also
English which is spoken another country. “Japanese English” which is born in
Japanese culture is the special and respectable English I think.
References
Customer’s suggestion http:// www.airtariff.com/pax/bbs0061.html/-5k
Ishii, Kumiko (2000) 会話に勝つカタカナ英語の○と× (KAIWA NI KATSU
KATAKANA EIGONO MARU TO BATU (in Japanese), Tokyo: Kenkyusha.
Keiichiro, “Oh! Misunderstanding” available
http://home.att.net/~keiichiro/gokai/index.html
Nishimori, Marie(1999, 7 月出版) English conversation which makes native speakers
puzzled 外人を悩ませる英会話, Japan times
SmaSTATION!! http://www.tv-asahi.co.jp/ss/15/english/top.html/-20k
Suetsugu, K. The biggest reason why Japanese people can’t speak English, available
http://plaza.rakuten.co.jp/niten/015002 - 33
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Phonemic differences between English and Japanese English (Miyamura)
Abstract
日本人はネイティブのような英語が話したくてもどうしても日本人独特の英語発
音になってしまう。（日本人独特の発音の英語をわたしたちは日本語英語と呼ぶ。）そ
の理由は，日本語の発音そして英語の発音の違いにあると思われる。なぜ，英語を
ある程度学んでいるにもかかわらず，日本人独特の英語になってしまうのだろうか。
このペーパーでは，日本語英語と英語の根本的な違いを日本語と英語の発音の違い
を通して調べてある。
1. Introduction
Japanese are said to be bad at communicating in English. They are
afraid of making mistakes when they speak English. One of the reasons for
this is Japanese pronunciation. Japanese people use their own
pronunciation of English even if they want to speak native English, and this
English that Japanese use is different from what natives speak. This paper
will study the differences in pronunciation between native English and
Japanese English. By doing that we might know and study better English.
2. Characteristics of Japanese English phonology
Japanese is said to have only half the phonemes of English. So some
people say that this is the reason why Japanese are poor at English. For
example, Japanese has only 5 vowels, which are /a/,/i/,/u/,/e/,/o/. But English
has many more vowels. English has 12 vowels in all. As for the consonants,
English has 24 consonants and Japanese has 18. This is a big reason why
English is complicated for Japanese. These differences between Japanese
and English create Japanese English pronunciation.
Because of this, Japanese English is changed in many ways.
Specifically, we see addition and substitution of vowels and deletion and
substitution of consonants.
Moreover, we also see differences of stress and syllable. Syllable is a
word or part of a word that contains a single vowel sound and the main unit
in English. Stress is the degree of force or loudness with which a part of a
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Phonemic differences between English and Japanese English (Miyamura)
word is pronounced or a note which makes it sound stronger than any other
parts or notes.
3. Differences in vowels
(1) Addition of vowels
Vowels are often added to words in Japanese English pronunciation,
for example, house /haus/ is pronounced /hausu/, and /and/ is pronounced
/ando/, black /black/ is pronounced /blacku/, and drink /drink/ is pronounced
/dorinku/. Most of the cases, vowels are added in the termination of words.
So English is changed easier for Japanese to pronounce. These additions are
made because of the differences of stress and syllable in English. Syllable is
a word or part of a word that contains a single vowel sound and the main
unit in English. Stress is the degree of force or loudness with which a part of
a word is pronounced or a note which makes it sound stronger than any
other parts or notes.
(2) Substitution of vowels
English has peculiar sounds that Japanese doesn’t have, so Japanese
English substitute similar pronunciations instead of these words. For
example, bad /baed / is pronounced / bado /.
Most Japanese words end
with vowels, so Japanese has tendency to add needless vowels.
For example, cat is pronounced /catto/, hat is pronounced
/hatto/.
4.
Consonants
(1) Substitution of consonants
The Japanese consonant inventory is much smaller than English, so
many substitutions are often made. For example, Japanese does not have a
phoneme for either /l/ or /r/, thus they substitute the Japanese flapped /r/ for
both. Flapped /r/ is used in ‘Ra’ line in Japanese. Most Japanese recognize
L (/l/), R(/r/), and flapped /r/ as same phoneme. It’s difficult for them to
distinguish them.
Why is this? It’s very useful for us to understand of the concepts of
phonetic and phonemes. In phonetics, /r/, /l/ and flapped /r/ are regarded as
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Phonemic differences between English and Japanese English (Miyamura)
different sounds. But Japanese, they all have the same phonemic value.
This is the reason why Japanese don’t recognize the difference.
Similarly, Japanese doesn’t have /v/, so /b/ is substituted. Thus it is
difficult to distinguish /b/ and /v/. For example, very /veri/ is pronounced
/beri/, inventory /inventori/ is pronounced /inbentori/.
Also, Japanese doesn’t have the phonemes /th/. Thus they have
difficulty with saying /th/. For instance, thank you /thank yu/ is pronounced
/sankyu/.
5. Conclusion
As I researched this paper, I found there are many phonetic differences
between Japanese English and English, for example, Japanese English
phonology, differences in vowels and consonants. It’s because of the
differences in phonemic inventory of Japanese and English. We will have to
be aware of these differences so that we can communicate clearly using
Japanese English. Someday Japanese English might be recognized as an
international language.
References
How to learn English (2003) Available on the Internet in Japanese,
http://www.eigozuke.co.jp/study/study15.html , December 3, 2003
Honna Nobuyuki (2001) English which connect to Asia. Aruku Shinsho in Japanese
Honna Nobuyuki (1990) The Encyclopedia of the English Language Situation in Asia.
In Japanese
Honna Nobuyuki (1990) Varieties of English in Asia. Kuroshio publisher. In Japanese
Suzuki Takao, (1975) The World of Japanese. Shinchousha. In Japanese
Watanabe Nobutatsu, (1989) Recommendation of Japanish, Asahi Sensho in
Japanese
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Differences in pronunciation of Japanese and US English vowels (Haruka Maeda)
Abstract
日本人がどんなに英語の発音の練習をしても、ネイティブスピーカー(今回
は US English)につうじない英語（発音、単語）があることを自分で体験して、どうし
て日本人には発音ができない英語があるのかと考え、興味を持ち調べようと思いまし
た。英語は世界共通の言葉で、世界の人々がﾞコミニュケーションをとるこのできる一
つの手段です。これからは世界の一人一人が、英語を話せるようになる事が当たり前
になり、その中でも英会話をする中で日本人にとっては最大の壁、「発音」が特に問
題だと思います。特に、日本人が困難とする６つの母音について調べました。日本語
には存在しない母音なので、それを日本人は発音することが難しく、すぐにはネイティ
ブスピーカーに通じる発音が出来ないため、日本人は英語の発音を一番近い日本語
の発音で代用して、話していることが分かりました。
Outline
１．Introduction
２． Difference between Japanese and English vowels
2.1 The vowel inventories of Japanese and English
３．The 6 problem vowels
４．Conclusion
５．Bibliography
1. Introduction
Japanese who graduated from junior high school, high school,
university have spent 10 years studying English. Even so, there are few
Japanese who can speak English. Perhaps one reason for this is Japanese
pronunciation.
This paper will analyze and consider Japanese weak points and common
problems in terms of pronuncation of English vowels.
2. Difference between Japanese and English vowels
As for vowel pronunciation, the position of a tongue determines
sound. Only five vowels exist in Japanese that fifteen vowels exist in
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Differences in pronunciation of Japanese and US English vowels (Haruka Maeda)
English. The size of the mouth is restricted, so in English pronunciation one
must decide the position of the tongue more clearly than in Japanese.
Although we are cautious of how to open the mouth in Japanese, English
pronunciation puts more emphasis on the position of the tongue.
2.1 The vowel inventories of Japanese and English
One reason that Japanese can’t pronounce English well is that
English has fourteen vowels21 (including diphthongs ai, au, and oi), but
Japanese has only five vowels. English is difficult for Japanese because they
usually don’t use so many vowels.
We will start by making a comparison between the two diagrams.
Chart 1. English Vowels
from: http://classweb.gmu.edu/accent/
from: http://classweb.gmu.edu/accent/
21
Headbloom and Suzuki (1998) P８
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Differences in pronunciation of Japanese and US English vowels (Haruka Maeda)
Comparing the two diagrams, it turns out that the following vowels
which do not exist in Japanese are problems.
/ɚ /：bird /I/：win /U/：pull /ʌ /：cut /ǽ /：catch /ɔ /：caught
Those who study a foreign language tend to substitute the
pronunciation which they know for the pronunciation which they do not
know. The following section will give example of what phonemes Japanese
substitute for problem phonemes in English.
3. The 6 problem vowels22
The following mentions and explains the six problem vowels in
detail with examples. It also tells the phonemes usually used in Japanese to
substitute.
1. Pronunciation of /I/
・business activity facility
shift click print this give silver
The tongue at the time of the pronunciation of /I/ is highly located
ahead in a mouth. Although this pronunciation resembles /i/, it is
prononounced much more relaxed.
However, Japanese often substitute /i/ for /I/.
and click become /ʃ ift/ and /klik/.
For example, the shift
2. Pronunciation of /ɚ / (American ‘r’)
・service word survey prefer first worry turn alert version
In the pronunciation of /ɚ / the tongue is highly located in the center
of the mouth. The point of tongue is rolled back lightly (retroflex). The most
important thing is that the whole tongue has a form drawn back.
The pronunciation sounds like Japanese / ɯ /, but actually Japanese
substitute / a / for / ɚ /.
22
Headbloom and Suzuki (1998) P１3
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Differences in pronunciation of Japanese and US English vowels (Haruka Maeda)
3. Pronunciation of /U/
・put pull full book took foot woman wood bull look should
In the pronunciation of /U/, the tongue is located back all the time highly.
The pronunciation is close to Japanese / ɯ /, which is used as a substitute
for both /u/ and /U/ in English. For example, the pull and pool become /pul/
and /pu:l/. We pronounce the pronunciation of pool with long U. Differences
is how to use muscles and how to open a mouth. /u/ is strain and the
rounded mouth. /U/ is relaxation and the mouth which is not rounded
4. Pronunciation of /ʌ /
・Sunday Monday does what mother won hundred number
For the pronunciation of /ʌ /, the tongue is located in the center of
the mouth. Actually Japanese substitute / a / for /ʌ /.
5. Pronunciation of /æ/
・ task cash cancel past manual fast travel gas balance
For the pronunciation of /æ/, the tongue is located in the front and low.
Japanese substitute / a / for /æ/
6. Pronunciation of /ɔ / and /a/ (/a/ in US English)
・broad office off all soft long offer fall audio cross
For the pronunciation of /ɔ /, the tongue is in the back lower part
and it is located before and behind the position which swallows a thing
exactly.
Japanese substitute /o / for /ɔ /.
・property honor not stop hot job process on top
Although it is very easy for Japanese to pronounce this sound itself, it is
common to substitute /o/ for it as well.
４. Conclusion
This paper investigated the difference in the pronunciation of
English and Japanese. It turned out that Japanese people pronounce and
transpose into Japanese the phonemes which they cannot pronounce in
English. Especially, we investigated the pronunciation of six English
problem vowels which do not exist in Japan.
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Differences in pronunciation of Japanese and US English vowels (Haruka Maeda)
The difficulty of English pronunciation for Japanese can be divided
into three fields and considered: vowels, consonants and suprasegmentals
such as rhythm and intonation. Here we have concentrated on vowels.
However, two other fields of importance -- pronunciation of consonants, and
rhythm and intonation -- can be part of further study.
５．Bibliography
Headbloom, A. and Suzuki, T. (1998) Near-Native English, Tokyo: Maruzen library.
Speech Accent Archive (last updated 2003) George Mason University, available
http://classweb.gmu.edu/accent/
Page 145
ENGLISH OF AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL （）
Abstract
航空英語について調べた。航空英語の中でもパイロットと管制官とのコミュ
ニケーションの際に使われる英語に注目してみた。飛行機のオペレーションで
は正確に情報を伝え合うことが要求される。しかし、生まれ育った環境や考え
方の違いから言葉に対して間違った解釈をしてしまったり、聞こえにくかった
りして正確に意思疎通を行うことは困難である。そこで、作られたのが官制英
語である。
Outline
1. Introduction
2. AECMA Simplified English
1)
What’s AECMA SE?
2)
3)
4)
3.
4.
What are the benefits of AECMA SE?
Example
Air Band
ATC Operation
Air Accident
1. Introduction
It is indispensable to tell flight information accurately in order to carry
passengers safely. A wrong understanding causes an accident. Actually a lot
of disasters was happened by miscommunication. As pilots and air traffic
controllers must talk to each other by a transceiver, the voice is hard to
catch. And how to interpret English words is influenced by their
surroundings. If they use Standard English, the rate of miscommunication
is high. Therefore more simple English came to be needed.
To fill this need, in 1987 “AECMA Simplified English” was created.
This paper reviews the ATC English with some examples.
2. AECMA Simplified English
2-1. What is AECMA SE?
AECMA Simplified English is a controlled language. AECMA is the abbreviation for:
Association Europeenne des Constructeurs de Materiel Aerospatial 〔 European
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Differences in pronunciation of Japanese and US English vowels (Haruka Maeda)
Association of Aerospace Industries〕
（Quintal, online）
Simplified English (SE) is the international common language in the aerospace
industry. It has many special expressions or unusual words. It uses concise, precise and
limited English, and it has a defined set of grammar and syntax rules (about 60 rules),
and a restricted base vocabulary that engineers must use when they write in AECMA
SE (about 1,000 words). SE gets rid of ambiguous words, complex grammar, slang,
jargon and incomplete sentences.
2-2. What are the benefits of using AECMA SE?
SE was originally aimed at simplifying English for non English
speakers, but there are also the benefits for native English speakers. Those
are to complete a task quickly and to understand what they read accurately.
It means increasing safety and efficiency, and decreasing legal liability and
customer complaints. Also SE is easier to translate because the variety of
words is limited, personal style is reduced and verbiage is eliminated.
(Quintal, online)
2-3. Examples of AECMA
This paragraph contrasts the AECMA English with the Standard English.
You can see that the latter sentence is shorter than the former one
obviously.
Non-AECMA (Quintal, online)
It’s equally important that there should be no seasonal changes in the
procedures, as, although aircraft fuel system icing due to water
contamination is more often met with in water, it can be equally
dangerous during the summer months.
In AECMA
Use the same procedures all the time because water in the fuel system
can freeze during summer or winter.
2-4. Air Band English and phonetic alphabet terms
In order to get rid of mishearing, the use of special words called Air
Band English and phonetic alphabet terms was devised. Especially the
alphabet called Phonetic Alphabet is interesting and useful. The following
charts show these terms:
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Differences in pronunciation of Japanese and US English vowels (Haruka Maeda)
ENGLISH
AIR BAND
affirmative, affirm
negative
altitude
broadcast
clear
mayday
read back
Phonetic Alphabet
A
Alpha
Yes
No
height
to transmit
to permit
SOS
repeat
J
Juliet
S
Sierra
B
Bravo
K
Kilo
T
Tango
C
Charlie
L
Lima
U
Uniform
D
Delta
M
Mike
V
Victor
E
Echo
N
November
W
Whisky
F
G
H
I
Foxtrot
Golf
Hotel
India
O
P
Q
R
Oscar
Papa
Quebec
Romeo
X
Y
Z
X-ray
Yankee
Zulu
1.
22-R → 『 two-two right 』 (Runway)
2.
180 → 『 one-eight-zero 』(Heading)
3.
180 degrees turn →
Unit
『Make one-eighty』
1 m = 3.3 feet／1 mile = 1.6 km／1 knot/h = 1.8 km/h
1 pound = 0.45kg ／1 gallon = 4 liter (Okubo, online)
Air traffic controllers must tell precisely “who”, “where” and “what to do”. In case
reading back is needed (ex. “Hold short of Runway”), an ATC controller needs to
confirm the instructions by reading back without saying “Roger”.
3. Example of ATC Operation ( Departure ～ Arrival )
The following is an example of practical communication between a Pilot and a
Controller. As can be seen, this is not English that can be understood easily
simply by a native speaker of English. This English needs to be studied to be
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Differences in pronunciation of Japanese and US English vowels (Haruka Maeda)
understood.
Spot in↓ ANA Pilot (P)：Tokyo Delivery, All Nippon 249. →『two four
nine』
Controller (C)：All Nippon 249, clearance for you.
P: Go ahead.
Pushback taxiing
P: Tokyo Ground, request pushback spot 14.
C: All Nippon 249, pushback approved.
Takeoff
C: All Nippon 249, taxi into position and hold.
C: All Nippon 249, cleared for takeoff runway 34 Right.
C: All Nippon 249, contact departure.
In altitude
C: All Nippon 249, radar contact.
C: Climb and maintain 8000.
C: All Nippon 249, contact Tokyo control 120.5.
Cruise flight 1
P: Tokyo Control, All Nippon 249.
C: All Nippon 249. Tokyo Control, radar contact.
C: Climb and maintain flight level 350.
Cruise flight 2
P: Tokyo Control, request flight level 390.
C: All Nippon 249. stand by (39,000 feet )
C: All Nippon 249. climb and maintain flight level 390.
C: Contact Fukuoka Control 132.5.
[Please communicate with Fukuoka Control in 132.5MHz]（frequency）
Cruise flight 3
C: All Nippon 249. descend and maintain flight level 190.
C: Radar service terminated, contact Fukuoka Approach 119.65
Descend／Approach
C: All Nippon 249. radar vector to ILS runway 16 approach.
C: Fly heading 190, descend and maintain 7,000.
C: Reduce speed to 170 knots.
Landing
C: All Nippon 249. Fukuoka Tower, wind 140 at 5.
C: Continue approach.
C: All Nippon 249. cleared to land runway 16.
Taxing／ Spot in
P: Fukuoka Ground, All Nippon 249.
C: All Nippon 249. taxi via alpha.
(from: Tsubota 2003)
You can see clear differences with Standard English.
For example, standard
conversation is ”Can you give me ～” when we ask somebody, but ATC English is only
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Differences in pronunciation of Japanese and US English vowels (Haruka Maeda)
“Request ～”
ATC English makes it easy to communicate by combining words suitably. It’s
more convenient than Standard English for its purposes.
Conclusion
This paper has discussed the features and role of ATC and AECMA Simplified
English. In general, we can say that unification of ATC English reduces
miscommunication. It means that air accidents decrease.
Moreover, we can say that Simplified English is needed in other areas besides air
operation because it is easy for non-native speakers to understand.
Bibliography
Quintal, Poppy (AECMA Simplified English) Plain Language Association
International (PLAIN) Homepage: Fourth Biennial Conference Proceedings available
at http://www.nald.ca/PROVINCE/ont/PLAIN/index.htm#quintal
Okubo, Masao, Homepage: Runway24
( Lounge-runway
Training-1) available at http://www.runway24.com/index.html
24,
Tsubota, A. 航空管制基礎知識「AIRLINE JAN. 2003」（イカロス出版）P. 44
～47
Tamura, N. and Y. Tokumitsu エアバンドお役立ち用語集「AIRLINE NOV.
2001」（イカロス出版）P.67～69 available at
http://www.flightsafety.org/members/serveme.cfm/?path=/ao/ao_sept_oct97
.pdf
http://www.arffgermany.de/arffinfos/flightsafety.pdf
http://www.eurocontrol.be/humanfactors/docs/T4-HUM.ET1.ST05.3000REP-01.pdf
http://www.washin-air.com/license/private.htm
http://www.ntsb.gov/events/kal801/Exhibits/Ex_2F.pdf
http://users.ssc.net.au/mcmillan/Miscommunications/Miscommunicatio
ns.htm
http://www.icao.int/icao/en/ro/sam/carsam3/wp082e.pdf
http://www.faarsp.org/transc/day3.htm
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Differences in pronunciation of Japanese and US English vowels (Haruka Maeda)
http://www.airmanshiponline.com/11-02-02/12-Statistiche%202001.htm
http://hobun.com/kokueigosogo.html
http://www.db.erau.edu/campus/departments/aas/atc/english_language/
eng_lang_proposal.html
http://atc.rndavia.ru/eng_bondarenko.shtml
http://www.iats.jccbi.gov/1999/finalproceedings/session5c4.htm
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Differences in English used in America and Japan (Murayama)
Abstract
概要
私たちは、日本で英語を必要としている人々も多くいる。しかし、日本で使う英語と、
アメリカで使う英語には、いくつかの違いがある。例えば、日本では、その英語の使い
方は正解だと思っていても実際アメリカでは、そのような単語やフレーズの表現はもう
現在では使われていなかったりしている場合がある。また、日本の中学や高校で学
習した表現の中にも本当は使い方が違っていたり、もう使われなくなっていたりする表
現があるのではないだろうか。このようなオールドファッションイングリッシュと言われ
ているものについて調べていこうと思う。
Outline
1. Introduction
2. Old fashioned words
3. Old fashioned phrases
4. Conclusion
1. Introduction
Some Japanese use English everyday, but many Japanese can’t speak
English well. It is difficult for Japanese to speak English. Many Japanese
think English is very difficult, so they don’t speak English themselves.
Japanese English is different from other Englishes. When we were in
junior high school and high school, we learned many words and phrases that
have become old-fashioned. Many Japanese people use these old-fashioned
words everyday, and they don’t know that that they are so. In this case,
Japanese English looks like English, but if we go to the U.S, we may have a
hard time communicating using Japanese English. These words may also
different meanings.
2. Vocabulary words
In Japan, we learn words which may not in fact be used in America.
Even so, they are still given in dictionaries in Japan. This section will
concentrate on words that are still used in Japanese English.
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Differences in English used in America and Japan (Murayama)
According to Yamauchi
(2000, p. 32) one example is the term
“housewife”. In America, a housewife is called homemaker, full-time
homemaker, stay-at-home wife / mom. If a wife does nothing besides
housework, it is called a full-time house maker or stay-at-home wife.
Housewife is represents only the role of women, so today these words aren’t
used. Other words like this include waitress (=server), businessman
(=businessperson), and stewardess (= flight attendant).
Also according to Yamauchi (2000, p 32) southpaw is a left-handed
person, but the term is derogatory. In America, they commonly call people
left-handed instead of southpaws—for example, left-handed scissors,
left-handed pitchers. In Japan, however, when we watch baseball games on
TV, we hear the word “Southpaw” many times. This may anger some
American left-handed people. In addition, sneakers are called sports shoes
or tennis shoes in America, especially when we play sports. Play shoes are
children’s shoes. Adult and children’s shoes are called different names.
According to Yamauchi (2000, p 33) a grocery store is called a
supermarket or market nowadays, but we still call it grocery store in
Japan23. In America, people don’t say grocery store, because its name is
out-of-date. It is called supermarket or market. A supermarket is bigger
than a grocery store. American people go shopping at stores that have large
parking and large counters.
According to Yamauchi (2000, p 34) a lavatory is called a restroom or
bathroom. Lavatory, toilet and WC are phrases that are used in public. In
America, when people converse, it is different. They use restroom for public
lavatory and they use bathroom for family lavatory. By the way of
parenthesis, lavatory for woman is called ladies room, and a lavatory in the
plane is called a blue room.
The above shows us some old fashion words that we don’t know
until now. However, even if we use grocery store, sneakers and similar
words mentioned above, the important thing is that we can communicate
when we go to other countries.
3. Phrases
23
When I was in junior high school, I learned “grocery store” as well.
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Differences in English used in America and Japan (Murayama)
When we were junior high school and highs school, we also learned
many phrases. These phrase may not be used in America. Below is a sample
of phrases of old fashion English.
According to Iuchi and Ouchi (2000, p 36) many phrases in English,
grammar and speaking learned by Japanese in junior high school are
mistaken. For example, we say “in my high school / university days”. When
we talk with friends, we can’t use this phrase. If we want to use this phrase
in conversation, we say “when I was in high school / college”. These phrases
sound more natural.
Other examples are as follows:
(1) According to Iuchi and Ouchi (2000, p 37) in ENGLISH
JOURNAL If our friends leave, we say “Have a good one! “ This phrase is a
greeting. Sometimes we say “Have a good afternoon/evening”, but in
America this phrase isn’t used often. American people say “Take care!“ Take
care is a casual greeting.
(2) According to Iuchi and Ouchi (2000, p 37) we say “make dinner”
and “prepare dinner”, but in fact Americans don’t use this phrase--they say
“make dinner”, “fix dinner” or “cook dinner”. When we use “cook”, this
means we use heat in preparation, and “fix” is a phrase characteristic of
American English.
(3) When we use “What are your hobbies?” hobbies means any
absorbing activity. According to Iuchi and Ouchi (2000, p 38) Americans
may not consider reading or watching movies hobbies. If we ask Americans
“What are your hobbies?“, they may answer, “I don’t have any.” We had
better ask “What do you do in your spare time?” or “What do you like to do?”
It is a simple sentence. If we use words of hobbies, hobbies are singular. We
must write hobbies.
(4) “Shall we …?” When we talk with our friends or our families, we
shouldn’t use “shall we…?”, because this phrase sounds very formal. Shall I
… is same meaning too. The use of “Do you want me to …?’’ is preferable.
(5) “How nice…!” “How nice of you to say so!”, “How nice!” Every
woman likes using the word “nice”. Nice means that feel posturing. We may
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Differences in English used in America and Japan (Murayama)
not use nice as much when talking with friends. We can use “Great /
Perfect!”
(6) “Please direct me to…” We should not use this phrase. When we
ask “Could you show me the way to Kumamoto Station?” or “Would you
show me the way to Kumamoto Station?” At first point, “Can you tell me
how to get to Kumamoto Station?” we don’t say this phrase, because “Can
you” is questions which have capacity for competitor. When we want to
know Kumamoto Station is, we should ask “Could you tell me how to get to
Kumamoto Station?”
(7) When we eat breakfast, we say “Let’s take breakfast.” Take
means that don’t eat food, so In America don’t use. We should use “Let’s
have a breakfast.”
（8）We often use “had better“, so Japanese people say American
people or English who come to Japan. They say “you had better take a
bus.“ Its meaning embraces proposal and advice, but by the way it changes.
It means “have a duty to “ or “ have an obligation to “, it feels threatening. If
we use the phrase “had better “, we should substitute “I suggest you take a
bus. “Or “it is necessary that…”
We still usually use these phrases. These are called old-fashioned
English. But if we go to other countries, we can still use this old-fashioned
English. If these phrases can communicate, they aren’t bad English.
5. Conclusion
This paper gave some words and phrase of old-fashioned English,
but it is not certain whether these words and old phrases of old fashion
English are actually not in use in America or other countries. Even if the
words and phrase is old-fashioned English, if they can understand it, we
recommend for Japanese to use it. Many Japanese care too much about old
fashion English. When they go to other countries, they may be scared to say
anything. We better use old fashion English than to be afraid. It is
important for us to communicate with a lot of other countries’ people.
We know many words and phrases, but we remember that mistakes
many words or phrases. These languages give in the dictionary, so we
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Differences in English used in America and Japan (Murayama)
believe dictionary. We also believe a lot of textbooks. When we go to America,
we may use mistaken phrases. In fact we use of mistaking phrases for
American people, but if we don’t conversation, we can’t understand each
other.
5. References
Yamauchi Yutaka (2000) “tukatteha ikenai 「shigo」 no sekai” in English
Journal , Aug. Vol. 30 No. 8, p. 32-34.
Iuchi Kunihiko and Ouchi Hiroshi (2000) “tukatteha ikenai 「shigo」 no sekai”
in English Journal , Aug. Vol. 30 No. 8, p. 36-38 p. 40-42.
Hoshi Shinzou. (1980) Ayamariyasui Eigo Hyougen (We are apt to
make mistake phrases of English), Tokyo: Kenkyusya
Honna, N. (2002) Ajia no saishin Eigo Jijo (New Englishes in Asia, in
Japanese), Tokyo: Taishukan.
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The Influence of French on Middle English (Furukawa)
Abstract
私たちが現在使っている日本語には歴史があり、さまざまな国からの影響を受け
てきました。それと同じように、英語にも歴史があり、その時代によって大きく変わって
いきます。それを大きく区分すると３つになり、それぞれ(1) Old English (2)Middle
English (3)Modern English にわけられます。この中で、もっとも大きく変化をとげたの
が 1100～1500 年までの中期英語時代でした。ここでは、この激変時代に話されてい
た Middle English がどのようにほかの国からの影響を受け、どのように変わっていく
かを取り扱ってみたいと思います。
現在の内容のまとめにはなっていないから、書き直す必要あり。
Outline
1. Introduction
2. Norman conquest
3. Fusion of English and French
3.1 Vocabulary
3.2 Grammar
4. Decline of French
5. Conclusion
1. Introduction
When we compare Old English with Modern English, Old English itself seems to be
a foreign language. However, in about 1300, English approached its present-day form.
Middle English changed a lot between 1100 - 1500. The English of this period is
called Middle English, and the cause of this change was the Norman Conquest in
1066.
Middle English changed in response to the influence of French. Why is it
French? How did French go into English? This report describes Middle English from
such a viewpoint.
2. Norman Conquest
When Edward, King of Britain of those days who was a blood relation of the
Normandy dukedom, passed away in 1066, his younger brother-in-law Harold of
Edward came to the throne. On the other hand, Duke William of Normandy of France
who was the Edward king's distant relative also aspired to the throne, and these two
were opposed to each other. Duke William of Normandy commanded a large force,
and landed at South Britain in September, 1066. Harold was beaten by William at the
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The Influence of French on Middle English (Furukawa)
Battle of Hastings in October. Then, William conquered Britain over several years.
William was called William the conqueror because of this.
3. Fusion of English and French
Thus, the people from Norman conquered Britain. Moreover, French which was
spoken by the Normans was used as the official language of Britain. French was
spoken in the court and the upper class. However, many British people spoke English.
Those who could speak French were said to be cultured. Since marriage of British
people and French people increased as time went on, those who speak both English
and French increased. Thus, a fusion of English and French was promoted.
3.1 Vocabulary
3.1.1 French
Especially, a huge quantity of French words were absorbed into English vocabulary,
and many Old English words disappeared. The number of words borrowed from the
French is about 10,000. Even now, about 75% of this vocabulary is used.
(1) Examples of vocabulary borrowed from French（Inaki et al 2002, p. ）
Politics
country, emperor, government, minister, prince, royal
Law
arrest, blame, court, crime, evidence, judge, prison
Religion
faith, mercy, miracle, paradise, religion, saint, service
Military
army, battle, captain, enemy, guard, navy, soldier, spy
Commercial
bargain, customer, merchant, money, price, purchase
Dress-and-ornaments clack, costume, diamond, dress, fashion, jewel, pearl
Dish
dinner, fruit, orange, roast, salad, sauce, soup, spice
Art
art, design, music, melody, poet, romance, story
Others
adventure, age, chair, city, conversation, curtain, flower, joy
Especially, the influence of the Normans appeared in the words about meals.
Although the livestock names were called ox, swine, sheep, and calf in English, the
terms beef, pork, mutton, and veal were used, when taken out to the table in
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The Influence of French on Middle English (Furukawa)
French. This is said to be because the livestock bred by the British people was
eaten by the Normans who were the rulers.
3.1.2 Latin and Greek
Although there are few numbers compared with borrowing from French, there is
also a word borrowed from English from Latin or Greek.
Examples of vocabulary borrowed from Latin and Greek（from Serizawa 1978, p. ）
From Latin
accept, allegory, complete, consider, decide, declare, equator,
gesture, history, infancy, inferior, intellect, minor, picture, quiet,
summary
From Greek
agony, alphabet, artery, basis, centre, chaos, character, climate,
demon, echo, fancy, hero, horizon, magic, magnet, mystery, tragedy
Latin was borrowed as a language of learning. Therefore, since it entered
through the books, it is formal on a literary language target. Greek entered through
Latin before Norman Conquest. After Norman Conquest, it entered through Latin
and French. So the language which entered from Latin or Greek included much
vocabulary of education and art.
3.2 Grammar changes in Middle English
The complicated inflection of Old English was simplified in the Middle English.
Therefore, this time is called "Period of leveled inflection." （Serizawa 1978, p. ）
Especially, these processes can be seen:
a. Disappearance of distinction of the sex of a noun.
b. Simplification of the plural form of a noun. There became only two forms: -es
and -en, in early stages of the time of Middle English. - es became the national
standard plural form around the 14th century.
c. Leveling of the ending of an adjective (-e). Consequently, a strict SVO word
order was born by this change of inflection. Moreover, the usage of prepositions
such as by, with, and from progressed.
This simplification of inflection was caused by several factors:
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The Influence of French on Middle English (Furukawa)
a.
Contact with Northern Europe languages or French. When communicating using
a different language, complicated grammar like inflected language suffixes were
disregarded and simplified.
b. The English accent. English put the accent on the first part of the word. The
accented vowel was pronounced strongly, and the unaccented vowel was
pronounced weakly. This tendency progressed and it is thought that the
unaccented final vowels disappeared. For example
Old English
Middle English
Modern English
Nama [náma]
Name [ná;mə]
Name [neim]
Stanas [stá;nas]
Stoones [stɔ;nəs]
Stones [stəunz]
（Serizawa 1978, p. ）
In Middle English, both e of name and e of es of stoones became to be
pronounced with an ambiguous vowel [ə].
4. Decline of French
Use of French in Britain decreased after the 13th century. There were the
following causes for it.
① Failure of King John's politics
King John lost to France in 1204, and it lost the territory in Normandie. From
this time, an aristocrat also becomes to speak English. Moreover, nationalism
increased and the consciousness of anti-French increased.
② the 100-years war
It was fight which occurred from the throne succession problem of France
between Britain and France. Thereby, an antipathy over French grew severe.
③ Black Death
About 1/3 of Britain died of the epidemic (Black Death) which continued till 1348
to 1350. The labor force was insufficient and ｔhe importance of language (English)
about which laborers speak increased. The teacher and scholar who speak French
also killed by Black Death. Therefore English was used in many schools.
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The Influence of French on Middle English (Furukawa)
English was already used in Parliament in 1362. The court also stopped using
French and came to use English. Thus, French declined and English was revitalized.
5. Conclusion
Thus, Middle English has changed in response to influence of French. However, it
is also used now, without disappearing. English which became this time with the
standard language is taken over to present-day standard English. Thus, language
changes with the history or influence of other countries. In addition, language is still
continuing to change even today.
Bibliography
English history (eigo no rekishi, in Japanese) Global heart corporation Available
at, http://www.globalheart24.com/english.htm
Eigononakano gairaigo in Japanese Available at,
http://eigo.be/etymology/etymologylist.htm
Inaki Syouko, Horita Tomoko & Okita Tomoko （2002）English English English
Study, shohakusha.
Orihata Kaoru (1981) A History of English for Beginners (in Japanese),
Sougennsha.
Outei, Itirou (1966) A short history of English (in Japanese), Sinozakishorin.
Serizawa, Sakai (1978) An outline of the English language (in Japanese),
Kaitakusha.
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English in Holland (Hayashida)
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