Biology 111 and 112 Course Overview
Exam Note Package
1-1 What is Science? (page 3)
The Goal of Science
1) deals only with the natural world
2) to collect and organize information
3) propose explanations that can be tested
Science - using evidence to learn about the natural world; a body of knowledge
Science begins with observations
data - the information gathered from observations
quantitative data = numbers
qualitative data = descriptive
inference - a logical interpretation based on prior knowledge or experience
hypothesis - a proposed scientific explanation
***Science is and ongoing process***
1-2 How Scientist Work (page 8)
Spontaneous generation - the idea that life could arise from non-living matter
Francesco Redi (1668) (Fig 1-8)
Lazzaro Spallanzini (Fig 1-10)
Louis Pasteur (1800's) (figure 1-11)
Scientific Method: (see page 1062)
1) Ask questions, make observations
2) Gather information
3) Form a hypothesis
4) Set up a controlled experiment
Manipulated variable - the variable that is deliberately changed (independent
variable)
Responding variable is variable that is observed ( aka dependent varable)
5)Record and analyze results
6)Draw a conclusion
7)Repeat
***Field studies, models ***
Theory - a well-tested explanation that unifies a broad range of observations.
NOT ABSOLUTE
1-3 Studying Life (page 16)
biology means the study of life
Bios = life -logy = study of
The 8 Characteristics of Living Things:
1) Cell - smallest unit of life
unicellular = single celled
multicellular = many celled
2) Reproduction
sexual reproduction -DNA from two different parents
asexual reproduction - single parent (cloning, budding)
3) Genetic Code - directions for inheritance (DNA)
4) Growth and Development
growth = getting larger
development = changing shape and structure
Differentiation = cells that look different and perform different functions
5) Obtain and use energy
metabolism - chemical reactions
plants - photosynthesis Animals - eating
6) Response to the Environment
stimulus - a signal to which we respond
response - a reaction to a stimulus
Ex: school bell rings, we move to next class
7) Internal Balance
homeostasis -internal conditions
remain constant
Ex: lizards sun themselves
8) Evolution - Change over time
Branches of Biology:
Zoologists - animals Botanist - plants
Paleontologist - ancient life Cytologist - cells
Levels of organization (page 21, figure 1-21)
Molecules ' Cells ' Tissues ' Organs ' ' Organ systems ' Organisms 'Population '
Community ' Ecosystem ' Biosphere
1-4 Tools and Procedures
Common Measurement System
Metric system - decimal system of measurements, units are scaled on multiples
of 10
UNIT
TOOL
Length
Meter, Centimeter, Kilometer
Ruler, Meter Stick
Volume
Liter, Milliliter
Graduated Cylinder
Mass
Kilogram, Gram
Balance, scale
Temperature - The measure of hotness (Celsius)
Analyzing data -- Tables, Graphs, Charts, Drawings, Models, etc.
Microscopes - produce a magnified image of structures
Light Microscope
May be Simple or Compound
(one lens) or (two or more lenses)
**Specimen can remain alive**
Electron Microscope
SEM - 3-D image
TEM - through an image
**Specimens cannot be observed while alive**
Laboratory Techniques
Cell culture - group of cells grown in a nutrient solution from a single original cell
Cell fractionation - technique in which cells are broken into pieces and parts are
separated
How to Use the Microscope
PowerPoint on the Microscope (click to advance frames)
Types of Microscopes
Light Microscope - the models found in most schools, use compound lenses and light to magnify objects. The lenses bend o
the light, which makes the object beneath them appear closer.
Stereoscope - this microscope allows for binocular (two eyes) viewing of larger specimens. (The spinning microscope at the t
page is a stereoscope)
Scanning Electron Microscope - allow scientists to view a universe too small to be seen with a light microscope. SEMs donÕ
light waves; they use electrons (negatively charged electrical particles) to magnify objects up to two million times. (View Image
Transmission Electron Microscope - also uses electrons, but instead of scanning the surface (as with SEM's) electrons are
through very thin specimens. (View images)
Parts of the Microscope
Quiz Yourself on Naming the Parts of the Microscope!
Magnification
Your microscope has 3 magnifications: Scanning, Low and High. Each objective will have written the magnification. In addition
the ocular lens (eyepiece) has a magnification. The total magnification is the ocular x objective
Magnification
Ocular lens
Total Magnification
Scanning
4x
10x
40x
Low Power
10x
10x
100x
High Power
40x
10x
400x
General Procedures
1. Make sure all backpacks and junk are out of the aisles.
2. Plug your microscope in to the extension cords. Each row of desks uses the same cord.
3. Always start and end with the Scanning Objective. Do not remove slides with the high power objective into place - this will s
lens!
4. Always wrap electric cords and cover microscopes before returning them to the cabinet. Microscopes should be stored
with the Scanning Objective clicked into place.
5. Always carry microscopes by the arm and set them flat on your desk.
Focusing Specimens
1. Always start with the scanning objective. Odds are, you will be able to see something on this setting. Use the Coarse Kn
focus, image may be small at this magnification, but you won't be able to find it on the higher powers without this first step. Do
stage clips, try moving the slide around until you find something.
2. Once you've focused on Scanning, switch to Low Power. Use the Coase Knob to refocus. Again, if you haven't focused
level, you will not be able to move to the next level.
3. Now switch to High Power. (If you have a thick slide, or a slide without a cover, do NOT use the high power objective). At
ONLY use the Fine Adjustment Knob to focus specimens.
4. If the specimen is too light or too dark, try adjusting the diaphragm.
5. If you see a line in your viewing field, try twisting the eyepiece, the line should move. That's because its a pointer, and is us
pointing out things to your lab partner or teacher.
Drawing Specimens
1. Use pencil - you can erase and shade areas
2. All drawings should include clear and proper labels (and be large enough to view details).
3. Drawings should be labeled with the specimen name and magnification.
4. Labels should be written on the outside of the circle. The circle indicates the viewing field as seen through the eyepiece, specimens should be drawn to scale
ie..if your specimen takes up the whole viewing field, make sure your drawing reflects that.
Making a Wet Mount
1. Gather a thin slice/peice of whatever your specimen is. If your specimen is too thick, then the coverslip will wobble on top of the sample like a see-saw,
and you will not be able to view it under High Power.
2. Place ONE drop of water directly over the specimen. If you put too much water, then the coverslip will float on top of the water, making it hard to draw the specimen,
because they might actually float away. (Plus too much water is messy)
3. Place the coverslip at a 45 degree angle (approximately) with one edge touching the water drop and then gently let go. Performed correctly the coverslip
will perfectly fall over the specimen.
How to Stain a Slide
1. Place one drop of stain (iodine, methylene blue..there are many kinds) on the edge of the coverslip.
2. Place the flat edge of a piece of paper towel on the opposite side of the coverlip.
The paper towel will draw the water out from under the coverslip, and the cohesion of water will draw the stain under the slide.
3. As soon as the stain has covered the area containing the specimen, you are finished. The stain does not need to be under the entire coverslip.
If the stain does not cover as needed, get a new piece of paper towel and add more stain until it does.
4. Be sure to wipe off the excess stain with a paper towel.
Cleanup
1. Store microscopes with the scanning objective in place.
2. Wrap cords and cover microscopes.
3. Wash slides in the sinks and dry them, placing them back in the slide boxes to be used later.
4. Throw coverslips away.
Troubleshooting
Occasionally you may have trouble with working your microscope. Here are some common problems and solutions.
1. Image is too dark!
Adjust the diaphragm, make sure your light is on.
2. There's a spot in my viewing field, even when I move the slide the spot stays in the same place!
Your lens is dirty. Use lens paper, and only lens paper to carefully clean the objective and ocular lens.
The ocular lens can be removed to clean the inside.
3. I can't see anything under high power!
Remember the steps, if you can't focus under scanning and then low power, you won't be able to focus anything under high power.
4. Only half of my viewing field is lit, it looks like there's a half-moon in there!
You probably don't have your objective fully clicked into place.
The Cell Overview
Early Contributions
Robert Hooke - The first person to see cells, he was looking at cork and noted that he saw
"a great many boxes. (1665)
Anton van Leeuwenhock - Observed living cells in pond water, which he called "animalcules" (1673)
Theodore Schwann - zoologist who observed that the tissues of animals had cells (1839)
Mattias Schleiden - botonist, observed that the tissues of plants contained cells ( 1845)
Rudolf Virchow - also reported that every living thing is made of up vital units, known as cells.
He also predicted that cells come from other cells. (1850 )
The Cell Theory
1. Every living organism is made of one or more cellss.
2. The cell is the basic unit of structure and function. It is the smallest unit that can perform life functions.
3. All cells arise from pre-existing cells.
*Why is the Cell Theory called a Theory and not a Fact?
Cell Features
Ribosomes - make protein for use by the organism
Cytoplasm - jelly-like goo on the inside of the cell
DNA - genetic material
Cytoskeleton - the internal framework of the cell
Cell membrane - outer boundary of the cell, some stuff can cross the cell membrane.
Types of Cells:
Prokaryotic Cells
Prokaryotes are very simple cells, probably first to inhabit the earth.
Prokaryotic cells do not contain a membrane bound nucleus.
Bacteria are prokaryotes.
DNA of bacteria is circular.
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The word "prokaryote" means "before the nucleus"
Other features found in some bacteria:
Flagella - used for movement
Pilus - small hairlike structures used for attaching to other cells
Capsule - tough outer layer that protects bacteria, often associated with harmful bacteria
Eukaryotic Cells
Eukaryotic cells are more advanced cells. These cells are found in plants, animals, and protists (sma
unicellular "animalcules").
The eukaryotic cell is composed of 4 main parts:
cell membrane - outer boundary of the cell
cytoplasm - jelly-like fluid interior of the cell
nucleus - the "control center" of the cell, contains the cell's DNA (chromosomes)
organelles - "little organs" that carry out cell functions
Organelle
Cell Part
Function
Mitochondria
Energy center or "powerhouse" of the cell. Turns food into useable energy (ATP)
Ribosomes
Make protein
Golgi Apparatus
Processes, packages and secretes proteins. Like a factory.
Lysosome
Contains digestive enzymes, breaks things down, "suicide sac"
Endoplasmic Reticulum
Smooth ER - no ribosomes
Rough ER - ribosomes
Transport, "intracellular highway". Ribosomes are positioned along the rough ER,
protein made by the ribosomes enter the ER for transport.
Nucleolus
Located inside the nucleus, makes ribosomes
Vacuole
Stores water or other substances, plant cells contain a large central vacuole.
Chloroplast
Uses sunlight to create food, photosynthesis (only found in plant cells)
Cell Wall
Provides additional support (plant and bacteria cells)
Part of the cytoskeleton, function in support
Microtubules
Also make up cilia and flagella (cell movement)
Protein Production: Ribosomes make protein and send them through the ER to the golgi apparatus, the GA then processes the proteins,
exports it to where the protein is needed.
Animal Cell
Plant Cell
ORGANELLES WITH DNA
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The Mitochondria and Chloroplasts have their own DNA
ENDOSYMBIOSIS THEORY - eukaryotic cells evolved from the engulfing of bacteria cells, thus creating additional cell parts
http://www.wiley.com/legacy/college/boyer/0470003790/animations/cell_structure/cell_structure.htm
http://biologycorner.com/worksheets/dragonfly/ch7_review.html
http://school.discoveryeducation.com/puzzles6/muskopf/html/44181xlaxk.html
CELL MEMBRANE
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Function: to regulate what comes into the cell and what goes out
Composed of a double layer of phospholipids and proteins
Diffusion and Osmosis
Diffusion - the process by which molecules spread from areas of high concentratiion, to areas of
low concentration. When the molecules are even throughout a space - it is called EQUILIBRIUM
Concentration gradient - a difference between concentrations in a space.
OSMOSIS
Watch this animation of water molecules moving
across a selectively permeable membrane. Water
molecules are the small blue shapes, and the solute
is the green.
The solute is more concentrated on the right side to
start with, which causes molecules to move across
the membrane toward the left until equilibrium is
reached.
Start Animation
Selectively Permeable - membranes that allow some things through, the cell membrane is
selectively permeable, water and oxygen move freely across the cell's membrane, by diffusion
Osmosis - the diffusion of water (across a membrane)
Water will move in the direction where there is a high concentration of solute (and hence a lower
concentration of water.
A simple rule to remember is:
Salt is a solute, when it is concentrated inside or outside the cell, it will draw the
water in its direction. This is also why you get thirsty after eating something salty.
Type of Solutions
If the concentration of solute (salt) is equal on both
sides, the water will move back in forth but it won't
have any result on the overall amount of water on
either side.
"ISO" means the same
The word "HYPO" means less, in this case there
are less solute (salt) molecules outside the cell,
since salt sucks, water will move into the cell.
The cell will gain water and grow larger. In plant
cells, the central vacuoles will fill and the plant
becomes stiff and rigid, the cell wall keeps the plant
from bursting
In animal cells, the cell may be in danger of
bursting, organelles called CONTRACTILE
VACUOLES will pump water out of the cell to
prevent this.
The word "HYPER" means more, in this case there
are more solute (salt) molecules outside the cell,
which causes the water to be sucked in that
direction.
In plant cells, the central vacuole loses water and
the cells shrink, causing wilting.
In animal cells, the cells also shrink.
In both cases, the cell may die.
This is why it is dangerous to drink sea water - its a
myth that drinking sea water will cause you to go
insane, but people marooned at sea will speed up
dehydration (and death) by drinking sea water.
This is also why "salting fields" was a common
tactic during war, it would kill the crops in the field,
thus causing food shortages.
Diffusion and Osmosis are both types of PASSIVE TRANSPORT - that is, no energy is required
for the molecules to move into or out of the cell.
Sometimes, large molecules cannot cross the plasma membrane, and are "helped" across by
carrier proteins - this process is called facilitated diffusion.
ACTIVE TRANSPORT
Active Transport - When cells must move materials in an opposite direction - against a concentration gradient.
It requires Energy.
Proteins or Pumps are found in the cell membrane transport molecules across the membrane.
Molecular Transport - Proteins are used to move small molecules such as calcium, potassium, and sodium ions
across the membrane
Endocytosis - cell takes in large particles by engulfing them
Phagocytosis - "cell eating" - extensions off cytoplasm surround a particle and package it within a food vacuole
and then the cell engulfs it. Ex. Amoebas use this process.
Pinocytosis - the process of taking up liquid from the surrounding environment. Tiny pockets form along the
membrane, fill with liquid, and pinch off.
Exocytosis - cell gets rid of particles, opposite of endocytosis
http://biologycorner.com/bio1/cw_celltransport.html
http://biologycorner.com/bio1/qz_diffusion.html
The Plasma Membrane
--the fluid mosaic model (S.J Singer)
-- semi-permeable
--fluid portion is a double layer of phospholipids, called the phospholipid bilayer
Jobs of the cell membrane:
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Isolate the cytoplasm from the external environment
Regulate the exchange of substances
Communicate with other cells
Identification
Phospholipid bilayer
Phospholipids contain a hydrophilic head and a nonpolar hydrophobic tail
Hydrogen bonds form between the phospholipid "heads" and the watery environment inside and outside of the cell
Hydrophobic interactions force the "tails" to face inward
Phospholipids are not bonded to each other, which makes the double layer fluid
Cholesterol embedded in the membrane makes it stronger and less fluid
Proteins embedded in membrane serve different functions
1. Channel Proteins - form small openings for molecules to difuse through
2. Carrier Proteins- binding site on protein surface "grabs" certain molecules and pulls them into the cell
3. Receptor Proteins - molecular triggers that set off cell responses (such as release of hormones or opening of channel proteins)
4. Cell Recognition Proteins - ID tags, to idenitfy cells to the body's immune system
5. Enzymatic Proteins - carry out metabolic reactions
Transport Across Membrane
Passive Transport:
Simple Diffusion - water, oxygen and other molecules move from areas of high concentration to areas of low concentration, down a
concentration gradient
Facilitation Diffusion - diffusion that is assisted by proteins (channel or carrier proteins)
Osmosis - diffusion of water. Salt Sucks
Osmosis affects the turgidity of cells, different solution can affect the cells internal water amounts
Contractiles Vacuoles are found in freshwater microorganisms - they pump out excess water
Turgor pressure occurs in plants cells as their central vacuoles fill with water.
Active Transport - involves moving molecules "uphill" against the concentration gradient, which requires energy
Endocytosis - taking substances into the cell (pinocytosis for water, phagocytosis for solids)
Exocytosis - pushing substances out of the cell, such as the removal of waste
Taxonomy - the science of classifying
Common Names
spider monkey
sea monkey
sea horse
gray wolf
firefly
crayfish
mud puppy
horned toad
ringworm
black bear
jellyfish
*Common names can be confusing and names can vary by region.
Why Classify?
About 1.5 million species named
2-100 million species yet to be discovered
Taxonomy =science of classifying organisms
--groups similar organisms together
--assigns each a name
Naming Organisms:
Organisms have common & scientific name -all organisms have only 1 scientific name
-usually Latin or Greek
-developed by Carolus Linnaeus
This two-word naming system is called
Binomial Nomenclature
-written in italics (or underlined)
-1st word is Capitalized --Genus
-2nd word is lowercase ---species
Examples: Felis concolor, Ursus arctos, Homo sapiens, Panthera leo
, Panthera tigris
The scientific name is always italicized or
underlined. Genus is capitalized. Species is not.
Scientific names can be abbreviated by using the
capital letter of the genus and a period: Example.
P. leo (lion)
Members of the same genus are closely related.
Only members of the same species can
interbreed (under natural conditions)
Some hybrids do occur under unnatural
conditions: Ligers are crosses between tigers and
lions.
Linneaus - devised the current system of classification, which uses the following schema
Kingdom
Phylum/Division
Class
Order
Family
Genus
Species
Human
Cougar
Tiger
Pintail Duck
Kingdom
Animalia
Animalia
Animalia
Animalia
Phylum/Division
Chordata
Chordata
Chordata
Chordata
Class
Mammalia
Mammalia Mammalia
Aves
Order
Primate
Carnivora
Carnivora
Anseriformes
Family
Homindae
Felidae
Felidae
Anatidae
Genus
Homo
Felis
Panthera
Anas
Species
sapiens
concolor
tigris
acuta
18-2 Modern Evolutionary Classification
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Linnaeus grouped species mainly on visible similarities & differences
Today, taxonomists group organisms into categories that represent lines of evolutionary descent
(phylogeny)
Evolutionary relationships among a group of organisms can be shown on a cladogram (see 18-7 p. 452)
Similarities in DNA and RNA
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DNA & RNA is similar across all life forms
Genes of many organisms show important similarities at the molecular level
DNA shows evolutionary relationships & helps classify organisms
The Six Kingdoms and Domains
number of Cells
energy
cell type
examples
archaebacteria
unicellular
some autotrophic, most chemotrophic
prokaryote
"extremophiles"
eubacteria
unicellular
autotrophic and heterotrophic
prokaryote
bacteria, E. coli
fungae
most multicellular
heterotrophic
eukaryote
mushrooms, yeast
plantae
multicellular
autotrophic
eukaryote
trees, grass
animalia
multicellular
heterotrophic
eukaryote
humans, insects, worms
protista
most unicellular
heterotrophic or autotrophic
eukaryote
ameba, paramecium, algae
Using Dichotomous Keys
A dichotomous key is a written set of choices that leads to the name of an organism. Scientists use these to
identify unknown organisms.
Consider the following animals. They are all related, but each is a separate species. Use the dichotomous key
below to determine the species of each.
1. Has green colored body ......go to 2
Has purple colored body ..... go to 4
2. Has 4 legs .....go to 3
Has 8 legs .......... Deerus octagis
3. Has a tail ........ Deerus pestis
Does not have a tail ..... Deerus magnus
4. Has a pointy hump ...... Deerus humpis
Does not have a pointy hump.....go to 5
5. Has ears .........Deerus purplinis
Does not have ears ......Deerus deafus
Answers:
A. Deerus magnus
B. Deerus pestis
C. Deerus octagis
D. Deerus purplinis
E. Deerus deafus
F. Deerus humpis
*note that all of these organisms are in the same genus.
http://biologycorner.com/worksheets/dragonfly/ch18_review.html
Viruses
Properties of viruses:
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Virus Structure
no membranes, cytoplasm, ribosomes, or other cellular components
they cannot move or grow
they can only reproduce inside a host cell
they consist of 2 major parts - a protein coat, and hereditary material (DNA
or RNA)
they are extremely tiny, much smaller than a cell and only visible with
advanced electron microscopes
Parasitic Nature
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Obligate intracellular parasites
Specific to their hosts (human, dog, some can cross species)
They can only attack specific cells , the common cold is a virus that
specifically attacks cells of the respiratory track (hence the coughing and
sneezing and sniffling). HIV virus specifically attacks white blood cells
Viral Reproduction
Lytic cycle = reproduction occurs, cells burst
Lysogenic cycle = reproduction does not immediately occur (dormancy)
Virulent = viruses that undergo both cycles
Viral Replication (see page 404-405)
Viruses multiply, or replicate using their own genetic material and the host cell's
machinery to create more viruses. Viruses cannot reproduce on their own, and must
infect a host cell in order to create more viruses.
1. Attachment
2. Penetration - the virus is engulfed by the cell (Cell can enter Lysogenic or Lytic Cycle)
3. Biosynthesis - viral components are made (protein coat, capsid, DNA/RNA)
4. Maturation - assembly of viral components
5. Release - viruses leave host cell to infect new cells (often destroys host)
The following image outlines a typical cycle of a bacteriophage called Lambda:
Bacteriophage - viruses that infect bacteria.
Animation of a bacteriophage
Retroviruses -- RNA viruses that have a DNA stage:
Human Immunodefiency Virus - causes AIDS
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Retrovirus (RNA inside a protein coat)
Reverse Transcriptase makes DNA from the virus RNA
DNA inserts into host DNA
Proteins are assembled from the DNA code
Viruses assembled from the proteins
Viruses released from the cell
Animated Retrovirus
See Animation of HIV infection | HHMI Animation (browse for Viral Infection) | HIV
(Learner.org) | Hopkins Institute
Assignments: HIV Coloring
Emerging Viruses
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illnesses not previously known
AIDS, West Nile Virus, SARS, Ebola, Bird Flu
Could be mutations of known viruses
Could be viruses exposed when knew areas were developed
Could have jumped species
Related to Viruses
Viroids - even smaller than viruses, consist of RNA strands that lack a protein coat
Prions - "rogue protein", believed to be the cause of Mad Cow Disease, also may causes Kuru in cannibal
tribes
Viral Images -- Electron Microscopes
Protists
Protists belong to the Kingdom Protista, which include mostly unicellular organisms that do not fit into the other kingdoms.
Characteristics of Protists
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mostly unicellular, some are multicellular (algae)
can be heterotrophic or autotrophic
most live in water (though some live in moist soil or even the human body)
ALL are eukaryotic (have a nucleus)
A protist is any organism that is not a plant, animal or fungus
Protista = the very first
Classification of Protists
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how they obtain nutrition
how they move
Animallike Protists - also called protozoa (means "first animal") - heterotrophs
Plantlike Protists - also called algae - autotrophs
Funguslike Protists - heterotrophs, decomposers, external digestion
Animallike Protists: Protozoans
.
Four Phyla of Animallike Protists
Classified by how they move
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Zooflagellates - flagella
Sarcodines - extensions of cytoplasm (pseudopodia)
Ciliates - cilia
Sporozoans - do not move
Zooflagellates
move using one or two flagella
absorb food across membrane
Leishmania
Sarcodines
Ameba (See Ameba Coloring Sheet)
moves using pseudopodia ( "false feet" ), which are like extensions of the cytoplasm --ameboid movement
ingests food by surrounding and engulfing food (endocytosis) , creating a food vacuole
reproducing by binary fission (mitosis)
contractile vacuole - removes excess water
can cause amebic dysentery in humans - diarrhea and stomach upset from drinking contaminated water
Other sarcodines: Foraminferans, Heliozoans
See Ameba Move
Ciliates
Paramecium (See Paramecium Coloring Sheet)
move using cilia
has two nuclei: macronucleus, micronucleus
food is gathered through the :mouth pore, moved into a gullet, forms a food vacuole
anal pore is used for removing waste
contractile vacuole removes excess water
exhibits avoidance behavior
reproduces asexually (binary fission) or sexually (conjugation)
outer membrane -pellicle- is rigid and paramecia are always the same shape, like a shoe
See a Paramecium Swim
Sporozoans
do not move on their own
parasitic
Malaria is a sporozoan, infects the liver and blood
Parasitic Protists
Parasite - an organism that lives on or in a host organism and causes harm to that
organism
Vector - an organism that can carry a parasite, and is responsible for infecting other
organisms (host) with that parasite. Vectors themselves are not harmful, but in the battle
against human disease, controlling the vector can control the transmission of parasites.
Malaria
Protist: Plasmodium
Vector: Anopholes Mosquito
Statistics:
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According to the World Health Organization, 300-500 million cases of malaria occur
each year
Malaria results in 1.5-2.7 million deaths per year (much more than AIDS)
Most cases occur in Africa and South America
Symptoms include fever, headache, vomitting and other flu-like symptoms
The protist lives inside the bloodstrea, eventually clogging capillaries and destroying
blood cells, which will lead to death if not treated
The arrow points to the purplish colored protist
(Plasmodium), the pinkish spheres are blood cells
Anopheles moquisto taking a blood meal, this is how a
human becomes infected with plasmodium and
contracts Malaria
African Sleeping Sickness (or Trypanosomiasis)
Protist: Trypanosoma
Vector: Tse Tse Fly
Statistics:
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Occurs mostly in sub-saharan africa
Symptoms include fever, headaches, pain in joints -followed by a phase when the
parasite infects the central nervous system, causing confusion, lack of coordination,
and uncontrolled sleepiness. Without treatment, the host will die
For more information, see http://www.who.int/emc/diseases/tryp/trypanodis.html
This slide shows a blood smear of a person
infected with trypanosoma. The protist is the
purplish colored string-like things. They appear
string-like due to a flagella. The reddish circles are
blood cells.
Giardiasis
Protist: Giardia
Transmission: Drinking contaminated water (usually outdoor streams and other untreated
water)
Symptoms: Severe diarrhea and vomitting, the protist takes up residence in the digestive
tract.
B = Protist, Giardia
A = flagella
Other Protist Parasites
Cryptsporidium - this protist was responsible for a major health crisis in detroit when the
city's drinking water became contaminated
Amebic Dysentery - also known as Montezuma's Revenge, travellers often contract this in
other countries (causes diarrhea)
Questions for Thought
1. Does the United States have a responsibility toward treating and containing parasitic infections found in
other parts of the world?
2. Why is controlling the vector important to control the disease?
3. One of the best ways to prevent many parasitic infections is to have a source of clean water. Why do you
think many third world countries have more incidence of parasitic infection that other countries?
Plantlike Protists: Unicellular Algae
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contain chlorophyll and carry out photosynthesis
commonly called algae
four phyla: euglenophytes, chrysophytes, diatoms, dinoflagellates
accessory pigments help absorb light, give algae a variety of colors
Euglenophytes
Euglena
live in water
have 2 flagella for movement
use chlorplasts for photosynthesis, but can turn into heterotrophs if they are kept in the dark
has an eyespot used for sensing light and dark
pellicle - like a cell wall, helps maintain their shapes
Chrysophytes
Diatoms
Dinoflagellates
yellow-green algae,
"golden plants"
produce thin cell walls of silicon, main
component of glass
Often have two flagella
luminescent
Ecology of Unicellular Algae
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make up the base of aquatic food chains
phytoplankton makes up half of the photosynthesis that occurs on earth (oxygen)
can cause Red Tides - algal blooms - which are toxic
Plantlike Protists: Red, Brown, Green Algae
Green Algae: Phylum Chlorophyta
Unicellular green algae, Colonial (volvox), Multicellular (ulva, sea lettuce)
Spirogyra
live in water, multicellular
named after a spiral shaped chloroplast
autotrophic
Funguslike Protists
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heterotrophs, decomposers
called slime molds and water molds
water molds responsible for the Irish Great Potato Famine
PROKARYOTES
*include bacteria and archaea
*singular: bacterium / plural: bacteria
PROPERTIES
1. Bacteria are classified into two kingdoms: Eubacteria (true bacteria) and
Archaebacteria (Ancient Bacteria).
2. Bacteria are the MOST NUMEROUS ORGANISMS ON EARTH.
3. Organisms are classified as Bacteria by one characteristic: the lack of a cell nucleus
(the name "prokaryote" means "before a nucleus")
4. Outer cell wall made of petidoglycan
5. Some move by means of a flagella (sing. flagellum)
6. Fimbrae - fibers that stick to surfaces (tooth decay, gonorrhea)
7. Region called the NUCLEOID which has a single circular chromosome, accessory
rings of DNA called PLASMIDS
REPRODUCTION
Occurs by BINARY FISSION (mitosis) and
CONJUGATION (exchange of DNA)
TRANSFORMATION- bacteria incorporate
genes from dead bacteria
TRANSDUCTION - viruses insert new genes
into bacterial cells. This method is used in
biotechnology to create bacteria that produce
valuable products such as insulin
ENDOSPORES - during unfavorable
conditions, bacteria enclosed in a protective
coat (Ex. Tetanus
NUTRITION & NEEDS
Obligate anaerobes - cannot grow in
the presence of oxygen
Facultative anaerobes - can grow
with or without oxygen
Aerobic - require oxygen
Photoautotrophs - photosynthetic
Chemoautotrophs - obtain energy
from oxidizing inorganic compounds,
such as ammonia
Chemoheterotrophs - decomposers
Shape of Bacteria/ Naming
Cocci - sphere
Bacilli - rods
Spirilla - spirals
Staph - in clusters
Strep - in chains
Ex. Staphylococcus
Gram Stain
Gram's Stain is a widely used method of staining bacteria as an aid to their identification. It was
originally devised by Hans Christian Joachim Gram, a Danish doctor.
Gram's stain differentiates between two major cell wall types.
Bacterial species with walls containing small amounts of peptidoglycan are GramnegativeBacteria with walls containing relatively large amounts of peptidoglycan are Grampositive.
Gram Negative -- light red or pink color
Gram Positive -- dark purple
Escherichia coli, Salmonella typhi, Vibrio
cholerae and Bordetella pertussis
Staphylococcus epidermidis, Streptococcus
pyogenes, and Clostridium tetani
Not all bacteria can be stained by Gram's method, the best-known exception belong to the genus
Mycobacterium which have waxy cell walls.
How Gram Stains are Made:
For more information on Gram Stains, see
http://www-micro.msb.le.ac.uk/video/Gram.html
Bacteria and Health - Some diseases caused by bacteria:
tetanus | botulism | Black Plague | Tuberculosis |gonorrhea | syphilis| Lyme
disease | Strep throat | Pneumonia | Anthrax |necrotizing fasciitis (flesh eating
bacteria) | toxic shock syndrome
The Usual Suspects
*these are the names of specific bacteria you need to know for the test, and the
diseases they cause
Streptococcus lactis
strep throat, related bacteria causes necrotizing
fasciitis
Staphylococcus aureas
found on skin, responsible for minor infections (like on
cuts/scratches)
Bacillus subtilis
common lab bacteria, easy to grown, unharmful
Bacillus tetani
causes tetanus (lockjaw)
Bacillus botulism
causes botulism (food poisoning)
Bacillus pestis
causes Black Plague
Bacillus anthracis
anthrax
Mycoplasmas
very very tiny, cause of pneumonia
Rickettsia rickettsi
link between bacteria and viruses, can't reproduce
outside host, causes Rocky Mountain Spotted Fever
Escherichia coli
E. Coli - common bacteria of the digestive tract, also
causes food poisoning
Antibiotics and Antiseptics
Joseph Lister created the first antiseptic, an acid to spray on tables and
instruments before surgery (1860)
The Discovery of Penicillin
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Alexander Fleming
Noticed mold growing on petri dishes
Bacteria did not grow where the mold was
He isolated the chemical that killed bacteria, but it was not stable
Howard Flory continued the work, later stabilized the chemical
Fleming and Flory received the Nobel Prize in 1945
http://www.slic2.wsu.edu:82/hurlbert/micro101/images/101PhageLife.gif
http://www.whfreeman.com/kuby/content/anm/kb03an01.htm
Protists
Protists belong to the Kingdom Protista, which include mostly unicellular organisms that do not fit
into the other kingdoms.
Characteristics of Protists:
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mostly unicellular, some are multicellular (algae)
can be heterotrophic or autotrophic
most live in water (though some live in moist soil or even the human body)
ALL are eukaryotic (have a nucleus)
A protist is any organism that is not a plant, animal or fungus
Protista = the very first
Classification of Protists

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how they obtain nutrition
how they move
Animallike Protists - also called protozoa (means "first animal") - heterotrophs
Plantlike Protists - also called algae - autotrophs
Funguslike Protists - heterotrophs, decomposers, external digestion
Animallike Protists: Protozoans
.
Four Phyla of Animallike Protists
Classified by how they move
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Zooflagellates - flagella
Sarcodines - extensions of cytoplasm (pseudopodia)
Ciliates - cilia
Sporozoans - do not move
Zooflagellates
move using one or two flagella
absorb food across membrane
Leishmania
Sarcodines
Ameba (See Ameba Coloring Sheet)
moves using pseudopodia ( "false feet" ), which are like extensions of the cytoplasm --ameboid
movement
ingests food by surrounding and engulfing food (endocytosis), creating a food vacuole
reproducing by binary fission (mitosis)
contractile vacuole - removes excess water
can cause amebic dysentery in humans - diarrhea and stomach upset from drinking contaminated
water
Other sarcodines: Foraminferans, Heliozoans
See Ameba Move
Ciliates
Paramecium:
move using cilia
has two nuclei: macronucleus, micronucleus
food is gathered through the :mouth pore, moved into a gullet, forms a food vacuole
anal pore is used for removing waste
contractile vacuole removes excess water
exhibits avoidance behavior
reproduces asexually (binary fission) or sexually (conjugation)
outer membrane -pellicle- is rigid and paramecia are always the same shape, like a shoe
See a Paramecium Swim
Sporozoans
do not move on their own
parasitic
Malaria is a sporozoan, infects the liver and blood
Parasitic Protists
Parasite - an organism that lives on or in a host organism and causes
harm to that organism
Vector - an organism that can carry a parasite, and is responsible for
infecting other organisms (host) with that parasite. Vectors themselves
are not harmful, but in the battle against human disease, controlling the
vector can control the transmission of parasites.
Malaria
Protist: Plasmodium
Vector: Anopholes Mosquito
Statistics:
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According to the World Health Organization, 300-500 million cases
of malaria occur each year
Malaria results in 1.5-2.7 million deaths per year (much more than
AIDS)
Most cases occur in Africa and South America
Symptoms include fever, headache, vomitting and other flu-like
symptoms
The protist lives inside the bloodstrea, eventually clogging
capillaries and destroying blood cells, which will lead to death if not
treated
The arrow points to the purplish colored
protist (Plasmodium), the pinkish spheres
are blood cells
Anopheles moquisto taking a blood meal,
this is how a human becomes infected
with plasmodium and contracts Malaria
African Sleeping Sickness (or Trypanosomiasis)
Protist: Trypanosoma
Vector: Tse Tse Fly
Statistics:
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Occurs mostly in sub-saharan africa
Symptoms include fever, headaches, pain in joints -followed by a
phase when the parasite infects the central nervous system,
causing confusion, lack of coordination, and uncontrolled
sleepiness. Without treatment, the host will die
For more information, see
http://www.who.int/emc/diseases/tryp/trypanodis.html
This slide shows a blood smear of a
person infected with trypanosoma. The
protist is the purplish colored string-like
things. They appear string-like due to a
flagella. The reddish circles are blood
cells.
Giardiasis
Protist: Giardia
Transmission: Drinking contaminated water (usually outdoor streams and
other untreated water)
Symptoms: Severe diarrhea and vomitting, the protist takes up residence
in the digestive tract.
B = Protist, Giardia
A = flagella
Other Protist Parasites
Cryptsporidium - this protist was responsible for a major health crisis in
Detroit when the city's drinking water became contaminated
Amebic Dysentery - also known as Montezuma's Revenge, travellers
often contract this in other countries (causes diarrhea)
Questions for Thought
1. Does the United States have a responsibility toward treating and containing parasitic
infections found in other parts of the world?
2. Why is controlling the vector important to control the disease?
3. One of the best ways to prevent many parasitic infections is to have a source of clean
water. Why do you think many third world countries have more incidence of parasitic
infection that other countries?
Plantlike Protists: Unicellular Algae




contain chlorophyll and carry out photosynthesis
commonly called algae
four phyla: euglenophytes, chrysophytes, diatoms, dinoflagellates
accessory pigments help absorb light, give algae a variety of colors
Euglenophytes
Euglena
live in water
have 2 flagella for movement
use chlorplasts for photosynthesis, but can turn into heterotrophs if they are kept in the dark
has an eyespot used for sensing light and dark
pellicle - like a cell wall, helps maintain their shapes
Chrysophytes
Diatoms
Dinoflagellates
yellow-green algae,
"golden plants"
produce thin cell
Often have two flagella
walls of silicon,
luminescent
main component of
glass
Ecology of Unicellular Algae


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make up the base of aquatic food chains
phytoplankton makes up half of the photosynthesis that occurs on earth
(oxygen)
can cause Red Tides - algal blooms - which are toxic
Plantlike Protists: Red, Brown, Green Algae
Green Algae: Phylum Chlorophyta
Unicellular green algae, Colonial (volvox), Multicellular (ulva, sea lettuce)
Spirogyra
live in water, multicellular
named after a spiral shaped chloroplast
autotrophic
Funguslike Protists
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
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heterotrophs, decomposers
called slime molds and water molds
water molds responsible for the Irish Great Potato Famine
http://biologycorner.com/bio1/protist_quiz.html
http://biologycorner.com/concepts/kingdom_protista2.jpg
Classifying Plants
Nonvascular: have no vessels, no roots, no stems or leaves. Examples: Mosses &
Liverworts
Vascular: have vessels to transport food and water. They have roots, stems and leaves.
Example: Grass, corn, trees, flowers, bushes
Xylem: transports water
Phloem: transports food & nutrients
Gymnosperms
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"naked seeds"
cone bearing plants (seeds grow on
cones)
needle like leaves
usually stay green year round
wind pollinated
Examples: pine trees & evergreens
Angiosperms
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Monocots
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Angiosperms have have 1 seed leaf
(cotyledon)
parallel veins on leaves
3 part symmetry for flowers
fibrous roots
Example: lilies, onions, corn,
grasses, wheat
flowering plants
seeds are enclosed in a fruit
most are pollinated by birds &
bees
have finite growing seasons
Examples: grasses, tulips, oaks,
dandelions
Divided into two main groups:
Monocots & Dicots
Dicots

Angiosperms that have 2 seed
leaves (cotyledons)
net veins on leaves
flowers have 4-5 parts
taproots
Examples: trees and ornamental
flowers
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Parts of the Plant
Roots
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water and minerals are absorbed (taproots vs fibrous roots)
also used to anchor the plant
movement of water up to leaves is influenced by TRANSPIRATION
Stems
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Support plant
transport water through xylem
transport nutrients through phloem
a celery stalk soaked in food coloring will absorb the food coloring, you can see the
xylem
Two types of stems: herbacious and woody
Leaves
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Photosynthetic organ of the plant, used to convert sunlight into food
Photosynthesis
Equation:
Stomata: pores within the leaf that open to let CO2 in and O2 out. Guard cells open
and close.
Cuticle: waxy covering on leaf that prevents water loss
Flower
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Reproductive organ of the plant
Flowers are usually both male and female
The male part of the flower is the STAMEN
The female part of the flower is the PISTIL
See your coloring sheet for more detail on flower anatomy
Plant Reproduction
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Pollen is produced by the stamen.
Pollen moves away from the plant via the wind or other pollinators (birds & bees)
The pollen lands on the pistil of another plant and fertilizes the eggs within the ovary
The flower petals fall off, the ovary develops into a FRUIT that encloses the seeds
Fruits are dispersed in a variety of ways (wind, animals)
Fruits are not always edible, anything with a seed inside can be considered a fruit
(helicopters, acorns, dandelions)
Asexual Reproduction in Plants
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Many plants can clone themselves, a process called VEGETATIVE PROPAGATION
strawberry plants and other vine like plants send out runners, which grow into new
plants
some plant clippings will grow into new plants
a Potato will grow into a new plant
How Plants Grow
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Germination occurs when a seed sprouts (usually caused by changes of temperature
and moisture)
Monocots have 1 seed leaf (cotyledon), Dicots have 2 seed leaves
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Perennials - live serval years, and reproduce many times, woody plants are
perennials
Annuals - a plant that completes its life cycle in one growing
season (grows, flowers, reproduces and then dies)
Biennials - takes two growing seasons to complete, it
reproduces in the second growing season
Plants grow only at their tips in regions called MERISTEMS
PRIMARY GROWTH makes a plant taller at roots and stems
SECONDARY GROWTH makes a plant wider, or adds woody
tissue
Tree Rings tell the age of a tree, each ring represents a
growing season. The photo shows a tree who has been
through four growing seasons. The lighter thinner rings are
winter periods.
VASCULAR CAMBIUM: area of the tree that makes more
xylem and phloem and forms the annual rings
Anatomy of a Leaf - see coloring worksheet
Functions
Cuticle: waxy covering, prevents water loss
Xylem: vascular tissue, transports water
Phloem: vascular tissue, transports nutrients (phood)
Stomata (stoma): pores used for gas exchange
Guard cells: open and close stomata
Mesophyll: middle tissue, cells have chloroplasts used for photosynthesis,
mesophyll consists of the spongy and palisade layers
Epidermis: layer of cells just under the cuticle
Vein: a structure composed of xylem and phloem, veins run from the tips of the
roots to the edges of leaves
Anatomy of a Stem
Monocots and Dicots differ in the way their vascular tissue is arranged
Monocot Stem
Dicot Stem
A: vascular bundle (scattered thru stem)
B: ground tissue: storage, support
A: epidermis
B: vascular bundle (arranged in a ring)
C. ground tissue (pith)
D. cortex
http://biologycorner.com/worksheets/botany_wordsearch.html
Chapter 26 - 1 Introduction to the Animal Kingdom
Most diverse kingdom in appearance
Each phylum has its own typical body plan (arrangement)
What is an Animal?
Animals are heterotrophic, eukaryotic, and multicellular and lack cell walls.
95% = invertebrates (do not have backbone)
5% = vertebrates (have a backbone)
What Animals do to Survive
Physiology = Study of the functions of organs
Anatomy = the structure of the organism/organs
Homeostasis is maintained by internal feedback mechanisms
Feedback inhibition = the product or results of a process stops or limits the
process
Ex: dog panting releases heat
There are 7 essential functions of animals:
Feeding:
Herbivore = eats plants
Carnivore = eats animals
Omnivore = eats plants and animals
Detritivore = feed on decaying organic material
Filter Feeders = aquatic animals that strain food from water
Parasite = lives in or on another organism (symbiotic relationship)
Respiration:
Take in O2 and give off CO2
Lungs, gills, through skin, simple diffusion
Circulation:
Very small animals rely on diffusion
Larger animals have circulatory system
Excretion:
Primary waste product is ammonia
Liquid waste
Response:
Receptor cells = sound, light, external stimuli
Nerve cells => nervous system
Movement:
Most animals are motile (can move)
Muscles usually work with a skeleton
Reproduction:
Most reproduce sexually = genetic diversity
Many invertebrates can also reproduce asexually = to increase their numbers
rapidly
Trends in Animal Evolution
Cell Specialization and Levels of Organization:
Cells -->tissues -->organs -> organ systems
Early Development:
Zygote = fertilized egg
Blastula = a hollow ball of cells
Blastopore = the blastula folds in creating this opening
Protostome = mouth is formed from blastopore
Deuterosome = anus if formed from blastopore
Anus = opening for solid waste removal from digestive tract
The cells of most animal embryos differentiate into three layers called germ
layers
Endoderm = (innermost) develops into the lining of the digestive tract and
respiratory tract
Mesoderm = (middle) muscle, circulatory, reproductive, and excretory systems
Ectoderm = (outermost) sense organs, nerves, outer layer of skin
Body Symmetry:
Body Symmetry - the body plan of an animal, how
its parts are arranged
Asymmetry - no pattern (corals, sponges)
Radial Symmetry - shaped like a wheel (starfish,
hydra, jellyfish)
Bilateral Symmetry - has a right and left side
(humans, insects, cats, etc)
Cephalization - an anterior concentration of sense
organs (to have a head)
*The more complex the animals becomes the more
pronounced their cephalization
anterior - toward the head
posterior - toward the tail
dorsal - back side
ventral - belly side
Segmentation - "advanced"
animals have body segments,
and specialization of tissue
(even humans are segmented,
look at the ribs and spine)
Body Cavity Formation: A fluid-filled space where internal organs can be
suspended
Types of Animals
Phylum
Examples
Evolutionary Milestone
Porifera
sponges
multicellularity
Cnidaria
jellyfish, hydra, coral
tissues
Platyhelminthes
flatworms
bilateral symmetry
Nematoda
roundworms
pseudocoelom
Mollusca
clams, squids, snails
coelom
Annalida
earthworms, leeches
segmentation
Arthropoda
insects, spiders, crustaceans
jointed appendages
Echinodermata
starfish
deuterostomes
Chordata
vertebrates
notochord
Sponges
Kingdom Animalia
Phylum Porifera
Characteristics of Sponges
· Simplest animals, multicellular
· No organs or body systems
· Cellular digestion
· Asymmetry
· Filter Feeders· Sessile (do not move)
· Reproduce sexually (sperm and eggs)
· Reproduce asexually (regeneration)
· Skeleton composed of spongin (soft) and spicules (hard)
**Sponge Anatomy (see handout)
Amebocytes - cells within the sponge that move around supplying nutrients and
taking away waste
Choanocytes (collar cells)
· layer of cells with flagella
· the movement of the flagella keeps a water current going in the sponge
· food vacuoles in the collar cells digest plankton and other small organisms (filter
feeder)
Oscula - large opening at top of sponge, water exits
Ostia - small openings at the side, water enters
Cnidarians
Kingdom Animalia
Phylum Cnidaria
Examples: Jellyfish, hydra, sea anemone, coral, portuguese man of war
Characteristics of Cnidarians
· Tentacles
· Cnidocytes (stinging cells)
· Nematocysts (barbs)
· Gastrovascular cavity (digestion)
· Most are radial symmetry, some have asymmetry (corals)
Cnidarians have two body forms:
Polyp - stationary, vaseshaped
Medusa - swimming, cup-shaped
Examples: jellyfish, portuguese
man of war
Examples: hydra, coral, sea
anemone
Notes 27 (27-1, 27-2)
FLATWORMS (27-1)
Kingdom Animalia, Phylum Platyhelminthes (Flatworms)
Three embryonic germ layers
Bilateral symmetry
Cephalization (head)
Coelom (Greek for cavity or hollow) = a fluid filled body cavity
Acoelomates = without coelom
Form and Function in Flatworms
Feeding:
Free-living = carnivores or scavengers
Have digestive cavity, mouth, pharynx
Parasites: = Feed on blood, tissue fluids, or pieces of cells from within a host
Most do not have a complete digestive system because they absorb digested material directly
Respiration, Circulation, and Excretion:
Thin bodies allow for materials to diffuse (resp, excrection..etc)
Flame cell = specialized cells that remove excess water
Response:
Ganglia = group of nerve cells control the nervous system (like a brain)
Eyespot = group of cells that can detect light
Movement:
Flatworms moves in 2 ways
1) Cilia = helps them glide through water and on stream floors
2) Muscle cells = twist and turn
Reproduction:
Sexual Reproduction = Hermaphrodites = has both male and female reproductive organs
Asexual Reproduction by fission = organism spits in two
GROUPS OF FLATWORMS
1. Class Turbellarians = free-living flatworms
Fresh or marine water
Example: Planarians (cross-eyed)
Planarian (also known as Dugesia)--lives in freshwater
--mostly a scavenger, also feeds on protists
--hermaphrodites
--they can regenerate (regrow parts), Reproduction by FISSION
Anatomy of the Planarian
Brain (ganglia) - planarian can process information about their environement
Pharynx - used for suckling food in (the mouth is at the end of the pharynx)
Eyespot - simple eye, can detect light
Flame cells - located along the lateral edges, used for excretion
Intestine - digestion (does not have an anus)
2. Class Trematoda = parasitic flatworms
a.k.a "flukes" live in mouth, skin, or gills of host
Primary host = the host in which a parasite reproduces sexually
Intermediate host = the host in which asexual reproduction occurs
Schistosoma mansoni - multiple host:
Primary host = human
Intermediate host = snail
Causes Schistosomiasis -in humans; decays lungs liver, spleen, or intestines. Tropical
areas with poor sanitation/sewage.
3. Class Cestoda =tapeworms
Long, flat, parasitic
Live in intestines
Scolex = a structure that contains suckers and/or hooks
Proglottids = body segments of the tapeworm
Each mature proglottid is a hermaphrodite
Testes produce sperm, fertilize the eggs to produce a zygote
Zygotes are passed out through the feces.
A dormant, protective cyst is formed in the intermediate cyst.
This is why you should never eat incompletely cooked meat.
27-2 Roundworms
Kingdom Animalia - Phylum Nematoda
Unsegmented worms
Pseudocoelom ("false coelom")
- body cavity contains organs
Digestive tract with 2 openings, mouth & anus
Feeding
Free-living - predators
Parasites - humans and animals
Reproduction: Sexual reproduction,
Separate sexes (male & female)
Roundworms & Disease
Trichinosis (trichinella worm)
- cysts within the muscles are consumed (undercooked food)
-- worm grows in intestine
-- forms cysts in the muscles of the new host
-- symptom: terrible pain in muscles
Filarial Worms - found in Tropical regions of Asia
-- usually transmitted by mosquitoes
-- causes elephantiasis
Ascarid Worms (common roundworm)
- lives in intestine
- eggs are passed out in the feces
Hookworms
- burrow into the skin from soil
- mature in the intestines
--hooks used to attach and suck blood
Research on C. elegans
- first organism to have DNA completely sequenced
Sec. 27-3 Annelids
Phylum Annelida
segmented worms, true coelom
-Includes: earthworm, marine worms, leeches
Annelids
-Annelida means "little rings"
-body divided into segments separated by septum
Septum=internal wall
- some have bristles called setae on each segment
-have closed circulatory system
-have well-developed nervous system with brain & nerve cords
-sexual reproduction, some are hermaphrodites
*See Earthworm Anatomy Dissection Sheets
Groups of Annelids
1. Class Oligochaeta - Earthworm
-Streamlined bodies (p. 697 fig. 27-16)
-Few setae
-Live in soil or fresh water
-As earthworms pass food & soil through intestines, nutrients are absorbed and
indigestible matter passes out through anus as castings = earthworm feces
-Castings - enrich soil, earthworms aerate soil
2. Class Hirudinea - Leeches
-external parasites with suckers on each end
- suck blood & body fluids from host
-most live in moist tropical habitats
-medicinal uses (circulation, anti-clotting)
3. Class Polychaeta - Marine worms
See p.698 fig.27-18
-includes:sandworms, bloodworms, & relatives
-have paired paddlelike appendages with setae
Notes: 27-4
Mollusks
Both have a true coelom (body cavity)
Similar larval stage - trochophore
Bilateral Symmetry
Organ systems
Characteristics of Mollusks:
· Visceral Mass (organs)
· Mantle (outer body layer)
· Foot (muscle, movement)
· Shell in most
· Radula - tongue-like structure, sharp
· Gills for respiration
· Most have separate sexes
Types of Mollusks:
· Gastropods - snails, slugs, nudibranchs ("stomach foot")
· Bivalves - clams, oysters ("two doors")
· Cephalopods - nautilus, cuttlefish, squid, octopus ("head foot")
Arthropods
Characteristics
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Makes up 3/4's of all animal species -total number of arthropod species is
MORE than all other species combined
Includes insects, spiders, & crustaceans
Arthropod means "jointed foot" - all arthropods have jointed
appendages
Segmented body
Exoskeleton for protection & support
Exoskeleton is shed during molting
Open circulatory system
Compound eyes (has many individual units)
Excretory structures called Malpighian tubules
Wings in many groups
Respiration using spiracles and trachae
Segmentation
More obvious in larval forms, adults have fused
segments -----> Head | Thorax | Abdomen
Some have a fused head and thorax -- the
cephalothorax
Taxonomy
Subphylum Chelicerata
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Includes (Class Arachnida) spiders, ticks, scorpions, mites and
horseshoe crabs
Have a cephalothorax (fused head& thorax) and abdomen
No antenna
Spinnerets in spiders make webs
Have 6 pairs of jointed appendages:
* Chelicerae - claws or fangs (1 pair) - (spiders have venom)
* Pedipalps - used for feeding, sensing, transferring sperm (1
pair)
* Walking legs movement (4 pairs)
Subphylum Crustacea
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Marine members include
shrimp, lobster, barnacles, &
crabs
Terrestrial crustaceans called
isopods (pillbugs or rollypollys)
Freshwater members include
crayfish and daphnia
All have mandibles for
chewing or tearing
Have cephalothorax &
abdomen
Lobsters and large custraceans
are called Decapods
Barnacles are sessile (don't
move)
Have 10 pairs of jointed
appendages
Breathe through gills
Crayfish Dissection covers more
on the Crayfish Anatomy
Subphylum Uniramia - Insects and their Relatives
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Includes 3 classes --- Chilopoda (centipedes), Diplopoda (millipedes), &
Insecta
Class Chilopoda
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Centipedes (predators)
Name means "100 legs"
Flattened body
Have 1 pair of legs per body segment
Pincers can inject venom
Class Diplopoda
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Millipedes
Name means "1000 legs"
Have 2 pairs of legs per body segment
Rounded body
Scavengers or herbivores
Class Insecta
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3 pairs of legs
3 body parts - head, thorax, abdomen
Wings in most
All appendages attach to the thorax
9-11 segments in abdomen
Mandibles for chewing
Insect Life Cycle
Metamorphosis - dramatic physical change
Complete metamorphosis: Larva --> pupa ---> adult (example: butterflies)
Incomplete metamorphosis: Egg --> nymph --> adult (example: crickets)
Social Insects: Honeybees (workers, queen, drones). Termites, some wasps
Queen: Lays eggs (1 queen per hive)
Drones: a few males to fertilize eggs
Workers: all infertile females
Chapter 30-1 .............The Chordates
Key characteristics:
-Dorsal, hollow nerve cord
-Notochord (usually present only in embryo)
-Pharyngeal pouches -paired structures in throat; may develop into gills
-Tail - extends beyond anus
About 96% of all chordate species belong in one subphylum:
Subphylum Vertebrata- Vertebrates
---Animals with a backbone or vertebral column (endoskeleton)
----Have spinal cord - dorsal, hollow nerve cord
----Front end of spinal cord develops a brain
Nonvertebrate Chordates -- 2 subphyla of chordates without backbones:
Subphylum Urochordata
-Tunicates (see fig. 30-3 & 4 pg.769)
-Filter-feeders in ocean
-Only larval tunicates have chordate characteristics
Subphylum Cephalochorodata
-Lancelets (see fig.30-5pg. 770)
-Small fishlike animals
-Adult lancelets have chordate characteristics
-Have definite head region
Lancelet
Sea Squirts
Timeline of Vertebrate Evolution
About When
Age
Animals
550 million years ago
Ordovician Period
First vertebrates
jawless fishes
400 million years ago
Devonian Period
Acanthodians
jawed fishes
"Age of Fishes"
350 million years ago
Carboniferous Period
(and Permian)
Amphibians
"Age of Amphibians"
240 million years ago
60 million years ago
340,000 years ago
Triassic Period
Jurassic Period
reptiles appeared
"Age of Dinosaurs"
dinosaurs dominated the land for 150
million years - sauropods, theropods,
etc..
Tertiary Period
Dinosaurs extinct
"Age of Mammals"
Mammals appeard
Quaternary period
Humans appeard
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FISH (ch30-2)
CHARACTERISTICS
- Aquatic
- Paired Fins
- Gills, Scales
EVOLUTION OF FISHES
- 1st Fish were jawless
- Devonian Period - "Age of Fishes"
- Jaws & Paired fins improved swimming and feeding
- Cartilage Skeletons
- Bony Skeletons (Modern Fish)
FORM & FUNCTION
Feeding
- Heterotrophs (carnivores, herbivores, omnivores, detritivores, parasitic)
Respiration
- Gills and Gill Covering (operculum)
- Lungfishes (air-breathers)
Circulation
- Closed Circulatory System, Single Loop
- Atrium --Ventricle -- Gills -- Body -- Back to Atrium
Excretion
- Salt water fish tend to lose water
- Fresh water fish tend to gain water
- Homeostasis maintained by the kidneys
Response
- Cerebrum - thinking, voluntary activities
- Cerebellum - coordination
- Medulla Oblongata - functions of internal organs
- Lateral Line System - senses vibrations
Movement
- Paired Fins
- Swim Bladder - buoyancy
FINS
Caudal
Dorsal
Anal
Pelvic
Pectoral
Reproduction
- Oviparous (lays eggs)
- Ovoviviparous (eggs stay in mom)
- Viviparous (babies get nourishment from mom. Ex. Humans, cats, some fish)
Groups of Fish
Kingdom Animalia
Phylum Chordata
Subphylum Vertebrata
2 Classes of Jawless fish:
- Lamprey (parasitic)
- Hagfish (scavenger)
- Both have cartilage skeleton
Class Chondrichthyes
- Cartilage Fish
- Sharks, stingrays *Bio 111 – see Lab Notes
- Most are predators
- Basking sharks are filter feeders
- No swim bladder, pectoral fins rigid
Class Osteichthyes
- Bony Fish *Bio 112 – See Perch Notes
- Ray-finned ( Goldfish, Bass, Carp, Salmon )& Lobe Finned ( Coelacanth )
Chapter 30 - Amphibians
*Herpetology is the study of reptiles and amphibians
What is an amphibian?
- 4000+ species
- Gave rise to modern land vertebrates
- Amphibian means -double life- Larvae start life in H2O with gills , adults are terrestrial with lungs
Evolutionary adaptations for life on land:
1. stronger bones
2. lungs and breathing tubes
3. sternum (breastbone) and ribs to protect internal organs
History:
Carboniferous Period = Age of Amphibians, 360-290 million years ago
Climate changes caused habitats to disappear
3 orders of amphibians survive today;
1. Frogs and Toads
2. Salamanders
3. Caecilians
Form and Function in Amphibians
Feeding: larvae = herbivore, adults = mostly carnivore
Digestive tract; mouth > esophagus > stomach > small intestines > large
intestine (colon) > cloaca
Respiration: larva = skin and gills, adult = lungs and some through skin
Many terrestrial salamanders = no lungs at all, through skin and mouth cavity
Circulation: double loop system ( See figure 30-24 )
3 chamber heart right atrium, left atrium, and ventricle
Compare Single to Double Loop Circulation
Single
Heart --> Gills --> Body
Double
Heart --> Lungs --> Heart --> Body
Excretion: kidneys filter liquid waste = urine
Kidneys > ureters > small urinary bladder > cloaca
Reproduction: females lay eggs in water, male
deposits sperm over eggs
Tadpoles
Frogs
Herbivorous
Aquatic
Single Loop
Gills
Carnivorous
Terrestrial or Aquatic
Double Loop
Lungs
Yolk of egg nourishes developing embryo
Larvae commonly called tadpoles
A few species will care for their eggs by incubating
their young in their mouth, on their back, or stomach!
Metamorphosis see figure 30-25
Response: well developed nervous and sensory system ( See figure 30-26)
1. Eyes move in socket and have a protective structure = nictitating membrane is
a transparent membrane that covers the eye when the frog is in the water
2. Tympanic membrane = eardrums
3. Lateral Line systems = detect water movement (vibrations)
Groups of amphibians (see figure 30-27)
Kingdom Animalia
....Phylum Chordata
.........Subphylum Vertebrata
..............Class Amphibia
Order Urodela (Salamanders and
Newts) long bodies and tails, lives
in moist woods
Mud puppy keeps gills and lives in
water all their lives
Order Anura (Frogs and Toads) hop/jump with legs, adult has no tail
Order Apoda (Caecilians) legless with fishlike scales
Ecology
The number of living species is declining; environmental threats such as
decreasing habitats, fungal infections, introduced predators, increasing human
population
Frog Stuff
Frogs are carnivorous and feed on insects and worms. Larger frogs even prey on
birds and small mammals. Some frogs eat other frogs. See a frog eating a
mouse. Frogs always swallow prey whole - they do not chew.
Poison Dart frogs have bright coloration to warn predators that they are
poisonous.
[ Strawberry Poison Dart Frog ]
Frogs vs. Toads - Frogs tend to have slimy skin and live in water. Toads have dry
bumpy skin. See the frog gallery to compare the two.
If you're interested in different species of frogs check out this animal site: Frogs &
Toads
Frogs are called bioindicator species - since water and oxygen goes across their
skin, pollution in the environment causes deformities and other problems.
Scientists measure the health of an environment by looking at the health of the
frogs. See deformed frog. Another deformed frog.
Surinam frogs have a spongey layer of skin on their back, tadpoles develop
within
The Darwin Frog carries its young in its mouth
Chapter 35 - Reptiles
Kingdom Animalia
---Phylum Chordata
------Subphylum Vertebrata
---------Class Reptilia
Characteristics of Reptiles
1. Strong, bony skeletons and feet with claws
2. Ectothermic (cold-blooded)
3. Dry scaley skin
4. Amniote eggs
5. Respiration with lungs
6. Ventricle partially divided
7. Internal fertilization
The Amniote Egg
Contains a water and food supply for the developing embryo and can be layed on land.
Must be fertilized internally, has a shell
Structure
Function
amnion
provides a watery environment for the
embryo
yolk Sac
contains the food for the embryo
allantois
stores waste
chorion
allows oxygen to enter and carbon
dioxide to leave
albumin
egg white
Oviparous - eggs are laid and incubated outside the body
Ovoviviparous - eggs are incubated inside the body, born live
Viviparous - live birth, no egg (humans)
Types of Reptiles
Types of Lizards (click to see a picture, then use the back button to return)
Komodo dragon - largest lizard (monitors), also contains toxic saliva and is thought to be the
closest relative to snakes - it has a forked tongue
Gecko - group of lizards that often have suction cups on feet.
Frilled lizard - has a large frill of skin around the neck
Chameleon - has the ability to change color (anoles can also do this)
Gila Monster - a venomous lizard, bites can cause illness, even death - found in Mexico and
some southern states
Beaded lizard - venomous lizard
Horned lizards - shoot blood from their eyes as a defense mechanism (also called horned
toads)
Snakes
Evidence suggests that snakes evolved from lizards that burrowed. Snakes retain small
legbones even though they have no legs.
Snakes have the ability to unhinge their jaw and swallow prey much larger than them. See a
snake swallow an egg.
Constrictors: not venomous, prey is killed by squeezing and suffocating; Examples: pythons,
boa constrictors, king snakes
Some constrictors can get extremely large, like the anaconda
Other common constrictors you might even find in your backyard:
Black snake - these snakes can get very large and live in fields and open spaces, they eat rats
Garter snake - very common in this area and have a characteristic yellow stripe. These snakes
are not venomous, but you should never try to pick one up, they will bite.
Venomous Snakes
Not very many snakes are venomous, they fall into four groups
1. Cobras and coral snakes - inject a neurotoxin that causes paralysis and breathing difficulties
Check out the Interactive King Cobra at NationalGeographic.com
2. Sea snakes -even though they spend most of their life underwater, these snakes breathe air,
their tails are shaped like a paddle to help them swim
3. Adders and vipers
4. Rattlesnakes and water moccassins (also called cottonmouths) -inject a hemotoxin which
causes destruction of the blood and tissue, the area of the bite becomes swollen and dark.
Copperheads also fall into this group - and are common to the region you live in, you are not
likely to enounter any other type of venomous snake in granite city.
Snakebites: Neurotoxins (cobra, coral snake) | Hemotoxins (vipers)
The Anatomy of a Snake
Snakes are adapted to be long and skinny. All of their organs are elongated and compact. The
spine can be made of several hundred vertebrae
Like amphibians and birds, snakes have a cloaca
Jacobson's Organ - located at the roof of the mouth, this organ helps the snake process
odors. A flick of a forked tongue sends chemical signals to the Jacobson's organ - snakes often
track prey by smell
Pit organ - located on the head of some snakes, it detects heat and is used to track prey in the
dark
Turtles and Tortoises
Characterized by a shell that is fused to the turtle's spine - it cannot be removed, nor can a
turtle crawl out of it.
The top of the shell is the carapace, the bottom of the shell is the plastron.
Turtles - generally live in water, have flat streamlined bodies. Sea turtles migrate long distances
to lay their eggs at the same beach they were born at.
Tortoises - live on land and have rounded bodies
Crocodiles and Alligators
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Crocodilians are most closely related to dinosaurs
They are the only reptile group that takes care of their young.
Adapted to stealth hunting - eyes and nostrils are above the head, so the body can
remain submerged, they attack when animals (or humans) come to the water shore to
drink
Crocodiles have a pointier snout and alligators have a snout that is more rounded.
Crocodile teeth also stick out where as alligator teeth fit into a socker. See a pic to
compare them
Types of Crocodilians
Alligators
Crocodiles
Caiman
Gavial - note the elongated snout
The Tuatara (order Rhynchocephalia)
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known as a "living fossil" - they have survived unchanged for 150 million years
has a third eye to detect heat
only lives in New Zealand and is in danger of becoming extinct
Tuataras have distinctive head spikes - See Pic
Mammals
Classification
Characteristics
Kingdom Animalia
----Phylum Chordata
------Subphylum Vertebrata
---------Class Mammalia
About 16 Orders in three groups
Egg-Laying Mammals, Pouched Mammals,
Placental mammals
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Hair
Endothermy
4 chambered heart
Diaphragm (muscle to aid breathing)
Most nourished by a placenta
Mammary glands produce milk
Gestation - length of time within the uterus (9
months for humans)
Weaning - time at which young stop drinking
milk
Marsupials - Order Marsupiala
Most groups live in Australia - mainly because Australia split from the main
continent and became isolated, the species there are almost all marsupials,
though humans have "imported" other groups now
Opossum - the only marsupial that exists naturally outside of Australia
Some Australian Marsupials
Kangaroo
Phalanger
Koala
Wombat
Convergent Evolution - marsupials and placentals resemble each other
because they evolved in similar habitats, thus having adaptations for similar
lifestyles.
The Circulatory System (Chapter 30)
The Vertebrate Heart
Unlike the heart of a fish, the human heart is a DOUBLE
LOOP. That is, it goes from the heart, to the lungs, back to
the heart, and then to the body. (In fish, blood goes from the
heart, passes through the gills and onto the rest of the body)
Double loop circulation is more efficient, because it gives the heart and
extra pump to move blood to the body
The mammalian heart has 4 chambers, so that oxygenated and
deoxygenated blood is completely separated - again increasing
efficience.
The hearts of amphibians and reptiles have only 3 chambers, blood
mixes in the ventricle. (Though crocodiles do have a 4 chambered
heart)
The heart is roughly the size of your fist in humans
The Anatomy of the Human Heart
The heart is
divided into 4
chambers:
1. Right
Atrium (RA)
2. Right
Ventricle
(RV)
3. Left Atrium
(LA)
4. Left
Ventricle
(LV) (largest
part of the
muscle,
pumps blood
to rest of
body)
The right
side of the
heart collects
oxygen poor
blood and
pumps it to
the lungs
The left side
of the heart
collects
oxygen rich
blood (from
the lungs) to
the rest of
the body
Valves
Tricuspid valve- between right atrium and right ventricle
Bicuspid valve - between the left atrium and the left ventricle
Semilunar (Pulmonary valve) - is at the exit of the Right Ventricle to
pulmonary artery
Semilunar (Aortic valve) - is at the exit of the Left Ventricle to the Aorta
Contractions
Systole - ventricle contracts, pumping blood to the lungs and to the
body
Diastole - atrium contracts,
pumping blood to the ventricle
Flow of Blood (see figure 30.5)
Blood from the body flows:
1. to the Superior and Inferior
Vena Cava,
2. then to the Right Atrium
3. through the Tricuspid Valve
4. to the Right Ventricle
5. through the Pulmonic Valve
6. to the Pulmonary Artery
7. to the Lungs
The blood picks up oxygen in the lungs, and then flows from the lungs:
1. to the Pulmonary Veins
2. to the Left Atrium
3. through Mitral valve
4. to the Left Ventricle
5. through the Aortic Valve
6. to the Aorta
7. to the body
Major Vessels
Aorta - pumps blood to the body (it connects to the left ventricle)
Pulmonary artery - connects to right ventricle, pumps oxygen-poor
blood to the lungs
Pulmonary veins - bring oxygen rich blood from the lungs to the left
atrium
Superior Vena Cava - brings oxygen poor blood from the upper body to
the right atrium
Inferior Vena Cava - brings oxygen poor blood from the lower part of
the body to the right atrium
Coronary Arteries - located on the outside of the heart, these vessels
supply blood to the heart itself, a blockage in these arteries can lead to
a heart attack.
Other Resources
If you want some good graphics and explanations of the heart, check
out http://www.howstuffworks.com/heart.htm - HIGHLY
RECOMMENDED!Heart
Animations
http://medlib.med.utah.edu/kw/pharm/hyper_heart1.html
http://www.medtropolis.com/VBody.asp
http://www.thequalityhospital.com/cgiwin/mercyweb.exe/heart_animation.htm
Try the Practice Quiz on the Heart
Images
Veins and Arteries
Veins and Arteries2
Heart and Vessels - double loop
Heart (unlabeled)
What about Blood?
Blood is a mixture of cells and plasma. Its job is to
supply the body with oxygen and nutrients and to
carry away waste.
Blood cells
Red Blood Cells carry oxygen from the lungs
White blood cells help fight infection
Platelets are used for clotting
Plasma
The liquid portion of the blood, contains nutrients and vitamins,
hormones, and proteins.
*The human body contains approximately 5 liters of blood
Mini-Review Questions:
1. Trace the blood flow in the human heart.
2. Name the vessels that leave the heart
3. Why is the human heart called a "double loop"
4. What are the two components of blood?
5. Name the valves of the heart and describe their location.
6. Compare systole to diastole.
http://school.discoveryeducation.com/quizzes6/muskopf/humanheart.html