Define and give an example of the following:
reasoning by analogy / homology
homology - the studies of living primates often gives us more insight about the behavior of our
ancestors than do studies of other organisms
reasoning - by assessing the pattersn of diversity in behavior and morphology of organisms in
relation to their environments, we can see how evolution shapes adaptation in response to different
selective pressures
mating vs. social systems
Solitary - Females maintain separate ranges alongside offspring and males may coma long to
protect some or alot of females
Monogamy - one male/one female with offspring
Polyandry - 1 female with 2+ males
Polygyny: onemale - one male multi-female
Polygyny multi male/female - several adult males and females
Mating - the way animals find mates and care for offspring
heterodontism / dental formula
sexual selection / kin selection
Sexual
"favors adaptation " that help to gain access to mates
intra-sexual comp (male-male)
inter-sexual mate choice (females)
Favors large body size, large canine teeth, and other "weapons"
Sexual dimorphism greater in uni-male and multi-male species
Kin
phenotype matching
proximity + familiarity
contest / scramble competition
Contest - monopolizable resources
Occurs when resources are limited and can be monopolized profitably generating direct
confrontations over access to them.
Scramble - unmonopolizable resources
Occurs when resources are distributed evenly across the landscape.
altruistic / selfish behavior
Hamilton's rule - Altruism favored when costs are lower than benefits (discounted by
relatedness)
a. Altruist gives alarm call to group
b. Nonaltruist doesn't give alarm call to group
Give two reasons why anthropologists study non-human primates.
1. closely related species tend to be similar morphologically.
2. natural selection leads to similar organisms in similar environments
The Arboreal, Visual-Predation and Angiosperm Co-evolution hypotheses have been proposed to
explain the adaptive radiation of the Order Primates. What are arguments for each?
Arboreal
The arboreal hypothesis suggests that a ground-running biped first became adapted to life in
trees, where it took to leaping from branch to branch, then parachuting. Later it developed flapping
flight. Feathers became aerodynamically important at the jumping stage and evolved directly into flight
feathers.
The arboreal theory says basically that because early primates evolved to meet the needs of
living an arboreal life (Conroy, 1990). For example because these creatures lived in a three-dimensional
world they evolved full stereoscopic vision to be better able to move through the environment.
Visual
This theory puts forth the notion that orbital convergence, grasping hands and feet, and
reduced claws were an adaptation for the nocturnal foraging for fruit and insects on terminal branches
in the shrub layer of the forest. Orbital convergence would assist in gauging the prey's distance without
having to move the head much like seen in modern day owls
Angiosperm
This theory says that the adaptive radiation primates occurred with the radiation of
angiosperms (flowering plants) that offered new opportunities and an unexplored niche. The early
primates were omnivores that were able to feed on objects such as fruits, flowers, gums, nectars, and
insects that fed upon these plant parts. The stereoscopic vision evolved to discriminate between food
items at low levels of light and handling them would have necessitated better hand-eye coordination
Primate taxonomy: for each of the following five taxa, know at least three distinguishing features of
behavior or anatomy that would distinguish it from the other groups. Your choices are nonprimate,
strepsirhine, platyrrhine, cercopithecoid, and hominoid.
o Example: This animal has a dental formula of 2.1.3.3 on the mandible, forelimbs and hindlimbs
of equal length, broad nostrils. ___________________
nonprimate
strepsirhine
Reduced upper incisors
Tooth comb
Grooming claw
Moist rhinarium
Tapetum lucidum
platyrrhine
NWM: 2.1.3.3
Nose: Oval, not always downward faced
Small Body Size
Arboreal, Nocturnal, Vertical clinging, Solitary, Carnivorous
Cercopithecoid (OWM)
Molars: ridges that connect cusps (bilophodant)
Long, downward faced
Dental: 2.1.2.3
Hominoid (Apes and Humans)
Molars: 5 cusps, Y shaped on side (Y-5)
Long, downward faced
Dental: 2.1.2.3
What are the three main proximate threats endangering primates?
1. Habitat loss/disturbance
logging
fires
2. Hunting
subsistence
commercial (bushmeat & "sport")
3. Live Capture
entertainment
exotic pet
What is the relationship between conservation and research?
Conservations efforts have significantly improved the survival prospects of a number of primate species.
Lad-for debt swaps in which foreign debts are forgiven
Describe the different types of habitats where primates reside.
Primates are generally restricted to tropical regions of the world
Temp changes are fluctuates more from day to night than over the changing seasons
Tropical forests, savanna woodlands, mangrove swamps, grasslands, high altitude plateaus and deserts
What are the niche concept and the competitive exclusion principle?
A niche refers to an organism's role, especially its feeding role, in a community.
Competition occurs when there is resource scarcity.
Describe the two types of competition and explain under what conditions you would expect to find
each.
Contest - monopolizable resources
Scramble - unmonopolizable resources
In socioecological terms, what are Risks and Resources? How do they influence social structure and
behavior?
Anti-predator tactics
-crypsis (camouflage)
-living in groups (more eyes, mobbing, safely in numbers, selfish herd)
costs: easily visible, competition for food
-alarm calls
-poly-specific association
Basal metabolic rate (BMP)
Active metabolism
Growth/reproduction
What determines an individual’s energetic requirements?
Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR) - rate at which an animal expends energy to maintain life when at rest
Depends on size, how fast it moves, normal range of activities
Growth - infants and juveniles
Pregnant females - 25% more for latter stages, 50% more for lactation
How do most primates acquire a full compliment of nutrients?
They eat carbohydrates, protein, fats and oils, vitamins, minerals and water that are found in...
Animals, fruits, seeds, flowers, young leaves, mature leaves, woody stems, sap, gum
Primates rely on 1 main source for carbs and protein
Distinguish the dietary adaptations associated with the following dietary types: (i.e. what are the gut
and tooth morphologies for each type of diet): frugivorous, folivorous, insectivorous, gummivous.
Give an example of a taxon that has each type of dietary adaptation.
Frugivorous (Fruit eaters)
Tooth - Broad incisors, low rounded molar cusps
Gut - Long small intestine
Taxon - spider monkey
Folivorous (Leaf Eaters)
Tooth - Well-developed molar shearing crests, small incisors
Gut- large Caecum, complex stomach, Enlarge large intestine
Taxon - Rhesus macaque
Insectivorous (Insect Eaters)
Tooth - sharp cusps
Gut - Short, simple gut
Taxon - Bushbaby
Gummivous (Gum Eaters)
Tooth - Stout incisors
Gut - Long caecum
Taxon - Langur
Describe the relationship between body size and diet in primates [Think “quality vs. quantity”].
Small animals have relatively higher energy requirements than larger animals do, and require relatively
small amounts of high quality foods than can be processed quickly. Larger animals are less constrained
by the quality of their foods than by the quantity, as they can afford to process lower quality foods more
slowly
Why are some primates territorial and others not? List at least 2 costs and 2 benefits to defending a
territory.
Primates could be territorial for resource defense and mate defense
Benefits
Prevents outsiders from exploiting the limited resources within a territory
Sexual exclusivity
Males - access to mates
Females - access to food
Costs
Constantly vigilant to intruders
Regularly advertise their presence and willingness to defend
What factors (i.e. benefits) encourage living in groups and what factors limit group size (i.e. costs).
Benefits
Large groups can supplant small groups
Foraging efficiency increases
Dilution effect (Safety in numbers)
Costs
Conspecific threat
Increased competition for resources
Increased vulnerability to disease
Increased detection by predators
What factor constrains fitness among females? Among males?
Females
Age affects rank
Born from high ranking mother
Males
Access to females
Sexually receptive females
a. those that increase the fitness of their mates
b. those that increase genetic quality and thus increase the fitness of the offspring
c. non-adaptive traits that make males more conspicuous to females
What (reproductive) advantages are there to being dominant, or high-ranking?
Daughters of High ranking females get a sexual encounter 5 years earlier than low ranking
Offspring and mother are able to gain access to food
Males: Dominant = attractiveness for females because good success of genes being passed on
Why are male mammals more likely not to be involved in the caring of offspring (relative to female
investment in offspring)?
They can impregnate another female at a pretty good rate and by doing so passing on their
genes while a female has to carry a child in her for months only being able to reproduce maybe once a
year.
What criteria need to be met to demonstrate that such a behavior might result in a higher
reproductive success for infanticidal males?
assert a change in male residence
Killing infants -> females resume rep. cycle
don't kill own infant
males gain reprod. benefits
Paternity confusion
Female: Associating with other males
Under which mating system would you expect a male to participate the greatest amount in parental
care? Explain.
Monogamy
Acquiring additional mates is not easy
Investment in offspring will do greater or benefit it more with two parents rearing it
What are the 2 main components of sexual selection?
Intrasexual comp (between males)
Large body size, large canine teeth and other weapons
Selection favors sperm produtcion
Intersexual comp (results from female choice)
A. those that increase the fitness of their mates
B. those that indicate good genes and thus increase the fitness of the offspring
C. nonadpative traits that make males more conspicuous to females
What are some quantitative measures that indicate the relative intensity of male-male competition
among male primates?
Infanticide, Harassment
Rank varies according to age it seems
Males must leave natal group and disperse, then integrate themselves into a group of females,
once established find a mate but this doesn't give them access to all females
Describe traits that might be favored by females during mate choice. What is meant by direct vs.
indirect benefits? Give an example.
a. Monogamous males stick around to care for offspring
b. Females prefer flanged males. might have a better genetic quality
Intersexual competition
A. those that increase the fitness of their mates
B. those that indicate good genes and thus increase the fitness of the offspring
C. nonadpative traits that make males more conspicuous to females
Higher rank = more benefits
What are 2 female counterstrategies to infanticide by males?
Fight back
Paternity confusion
Associating with other males
Compare and contrast group selection and kin selection.
Alarm calling: Group Selection?
a. Altruist gives alarm call to group
b. Nonaltruist doesn't give alarm call to group
Alarm Calling: Kin Selection!
a. Altruist gives alarm call to siblings
b. Nonaltruist doesn't give alarm call to siblings
What is Hamilton’s Rule? Define inclusive fitness.
Altruism favored when costs are lower than benefits (discounted by relatedness):
Altruism should be limited to KIN
Closer kinship facilitates more costly altruism
Equation: rB>C
C = Cost to actor;
B = Benefit to all recipients;
r = Coefficient of relatedness
Explain reciprocal altruism. What conditions should be met for reciprocity to be favored?
interact often
keeping track (cognitive capacity)
support those that help
How do the ecological complexity and social intelligence models explain the evolution of primate
cognition?
What is extractive foraging?
If neocortex size (or ratio) is associated with primate cognition, then what are the expected
relationships
with degree of frugivory, extent of extractive foraging, home range area and group size? What
hypothesis would each prediction support?
How are coalition participation and deception in primates related to an understanding of third-party
relationships?
What is theory of mind?
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