UNIVERSITY OF MAIDUGURI
Maiduguri, Nigeria
CENTRE FOR DISTANCE LEARNING
EDUCATION
EDU 205: CURRICULUM AND INSTRUCTION UNIT: 2
EDU 205 – CURRICULUM AND INSTRUCTION
Published
UNIT: 2
2007 ©
All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any
form, by mimeograph or any other means without prior permission in
writing from the University of Maiduguri.
This text forms part of the learning package for the academic
programme of the Centre for Distance Learning, University of
Maiduguri.
Further enquiries should be directed to the:
Coordinator
Centre for Distance Learning
University of Maiduguri
P. M. B. 1069
Maiduguri, Nigeria.
This text is being published by the authority of the Senate, University of
Maiduguri, Maiduguri – Nigeria.
ISBN:
978-8133-
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CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
EDU 205 – CURRICULUM AND INSTRUCTION
UNIT: 2
PREFACE
This study unit has been prepared for learners so that they can do
most of the study on their own. The structure of the study unit is
different from that of conventional textbook. The course writers have
made efforts to make the study material rich enough but learners need
to do some extra reading for further enrichment of the knowledge
required.
The learners are expected to make best use of library facilities and
where feasible, use the Internet. References are provided to guide the
selection of reading materials required.
The University expresses its profound gratitude to our course writers
and editors for making this possible. Their efforts will no doubt help
in improving access to University education.
Professor J. D. Amin
Vice-Chancellor
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CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
EDU 205 – CURRICULUM AND INSTRUCTION
UNIT: 2
HOW TO STUDY THE UNIT
You are welcome to this study Unit. The unit is arranged to
simplify your study. In each topic of the unit, we have introduction,
objectives, in-text, summary and self-assessment exercise.
The study unit should be 6-8 hours to complete. Tutors will be
available at designated contact centers for tutorial. The center expects
you to plan your work well. Should you wish to read further you could
supplement the study with more information from the list of
references and suggested readings available in the study unit.
PRACTICE EXERCISES/TESTS
1. Self-Assessment Exercises (SAES)
This is provided at the end of each topic. The exercise can help
you to assess whether or not you have actually studied and understood
the topic. Solutions to the exercises are provided at the end of the
study unit for you to assess yourself.
2. Tutor-Marked Assignment (TMA)
This is provided at the end of the study Unit. It is a form of
examination type questions for you to answer and send to the center.
You are expected to work on your own in responding to the
assignments. The TMA forms part of your continuous assessment
(C.A.) scores, which will be marked and returned to you. In addition,
you will also write an end of Semester Examination, which will be
added to your TMA scores.
Finally, the center wishes you success as you go through the
different units of your study.
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EDU 205 – CURRICULUM AND INSTRUCTION
UNIT: 2
INTRODUCTION TO THE COURSE
The central purpose of this course is to set forth basic
features of curriculum studies and Teaching Principles and
skills. Since independence, Nigeria and other African countries
have been faced with increased demands for curriculum change
and innovations at all levels. To meet their demands, many
overseas aid programmes have been responsible for training
their curriculum experts through short or long term courses. As
a result, most overseas projects have been linked with schemes
for curriculum development in Nigeria with a large centralized
system of Education.
Highly trained personnel are needed to
teach curriculum principles, skills and curriculum development
to cope with these demands and the need becomes more urgent
as experience shows that the problems are interrelated.
The view is therefore taken in this course that curriculum
studies is of central importance in Nigeria for teachers, Ministry
officials, curriculum centers, officers and above all, students of
teachers colleges. This is because the success of any educational
system depends on what is taught and how it is taught. The
Course therefore deals with seven Units. It includes: the nature
and scope of curriculum, principles of curriculum design,
curriculum planning and development, and curriculum research
and evaluation, each unit will be illustrated with a case study
from either Nigeria or Africa as a whole.
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EDU 205 – CURRICULUM AND INSTRUCTION
UNIT: 2
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CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
EDU 205 – CURRICULUM AND INSTRUCTION
EDU 205:
UNIT: 2
CURRICULUM AND INSTRUCTION
UNITS: 2
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGES
PREFACE
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HOW TO STUDY THE UNIT
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INTRODUCTION TO THE COURSE
TOPIC:
1:
DEFINITION OF CURRICULUM -
2:
SCOPE OF A CURRICULUM IN
NIGERIA
3:
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THE RELEVANCE OF FUNCTIONAL
CURRICULUM FOR NIGERIA
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CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT -
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CURRICULUM PLANNING,
IMPLEMENTATION AND EVALUATION
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SOLUTIONS TO EXERCISES
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EDU 205 – CURRICULUM AND INSTRUCTION
UNIT: 2
TOPIC 1:
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGES
1.0
TOPIC:
DEFINITION OF CURRICULUM -
1.1
INTRODUCTION
1.2
OBJECTIVES
1.3
IN-TEXT
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1.3.1 DEFINITION OF CURRICULUM
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1.4
SUMMARY
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1.5
SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
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1.6
REFERENCES
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SUGGESTED READING
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EDU 205 – CURRICULUM AND INSTRUCTION
1.0
TOPIC: DEFINITION OF CURRICULUM
1.1
INTRODUCTION
UNIT: 2
In this topic we shall be introduced to the definition of
curriculum.
1.2
OBJECTIVES
At the end of the topic, you should be able to:
i.
Know how curriculum is defined
ii.
What elements should be included
definition of curriculum.
in
the
1.3
IN-TEXT:
1.3.1
DEFINITION OF CURRICULUM
Of all the school components, curriculum is probably the
most difficult and ambiguous to define. This is so because,
curriculum reflects the complexity of school. Curriculum has to
do with every aspect of a formal school. Defining curricula is
also complex because of uncertainties about proper school’s
roles and validity of school practices.
Curricu1um is therefore defined in different ways. During
the colonial days, curriculum was defined reflecting the list of
subjects on the timetable. Thus, curriculum in those days
connected list subject like. Arithmetic, Reading, Writing,
Singing, Geography, History, Drawing, Religion and Craft.
For example, in 1848 Rev. Thomas Birch Freeman
superintendent of the Methodist Mission in the Gold Coast, sent
out a time table to the head teachers of all the schools under his
management which partially read a follows: — 8.am, singing
rehearsals of scripture passages, reading one chapter of
scripture, prayers. 9.15 12 noon: Grammar. Reading, spelling,
writing, geography, tables (except Wednesday. Where Catechism
was in place of grammar). “2pm 4pm Ciphering (i.e. arithmetic),
reading, spelling, meaning of words. “4pm closing prayers” This
was looked upon as curriculum for those mission schools. It also
included the syllabus, scheme of work, record of work and
textbooks.
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EDU 205 – CURRICULUM AND INSTRUCTION
UNIT: 2
Curriculum comes from an ancient Latin word ‘cirrus’ which
referred to school subjects from Nursery to University. Since
then, there have been a controversy among educationalists as to
the precise meaning of curriculum In the midst of many
definitions, three principal types have emerged: Subject--centred
definition, society-centred definition, and student-centred
definition
The Subject-centred definition which was the first
definition since colonial days, continues to appear in curriculum
books today. Some experts still define curriculum as graded
course of different school subjects carried on in schools and
colleges. Those who adhere to this definition hold that
curriculum should transmit basic aspects of our history and our
cultural heritage through teaching the ‘various subjects or
disciplines. For example Kerr (1968) defines curriculum as ‘all
the learning which is planned and guided by the school”. Ronald
Doll also referring to the definition said “Some people have
called the curriculum the accumulated tradition of organized
knowledge contained in school and college subjects”
The Society centered definition see the curriculum “as an
instrument which utilizes the experiences and activities of the
pupils” for society. Those who carry this view advocate that the
curriculum must be based on the values of society and the needs
of the child for the development of society. For example William
Featherstone says that “Curriculum does not consist only of all
the experiences pupils have under the guidance of the school, but
also the limited and selected body of experiences (from Society)
which the school deliberately and intentionally uses for
educational purposes”. The meaning of this definition is also
seen in what J. S. Farrant believes the curriculum should do: “If
the curriculum is to serve its real purpose, it must assist the
pupil to see the value of the past in relation to the present and
the future; it must equip the child with the necessary skills for
modern living; and it must help to keep the child a fully
integrated member of his community”.
The child centred definition looks at curriculum as all
activities in school used for influencing the child based on his
needs and characteristics. This is advocated by educationalists
who believe that curriculum should develop the whole childsocially, emotionally, intellectually, and physically. For example,
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EDU 205 – CURRICULUM AND INSTRUCTION
UNIT: 2
Harold Spears defines curriculum as “all the activities of the
children that are carried forward under the direction of the
teachers”. Doris and Murrayle think of the curriculum as
consisting of “those experiences of the child which the school in
a way utilizes or attempts to influence”. In addition Harris as a
psychologist sees the curriculum as an individual development.
In summary, curriculum conmates either (I) school Subjects and
syllabuses found in all the schools or colleges or (2) the learning
experiences children get as a result of classroom interactions
and activities or (3) activities (games, sports etc) and learning
experiences outside and within the school. A single curriculum
combines the PLAN for the objectives, the content, the
methodology, the learning experiences and the evaluation for
ONE SUBJECT MATTER. All the above for more than one subject
matter
are
representation
as
curriculum.
1.4 SUMMARY:
The topic discussed the various definitions of curricular,
which were then put under three different views namely subject
centered, which sees curriculum as transmitting basic aspects of
our history while society centred definitions is as instrument
which utilizes the experiences and activities of the pupils for
definition is focused on all activities in school used for
influencing the child based on his needs and characteristics
1.5 SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
1.
2.
3.
iv.
How is curriculum defined during the colonial rule?
Explain what you understand by
a.
Subject-centered curriculum
b.
Society- centered curriculum
c.
Child- centered curriculum
Give an all embrassing definition of curriculum.
What is the deference between “curriculum” and
CURRICULA.
1.6 REFERENCES
Salia, Bao, S.K. (1990) Theory And Practice Of Curriculum
Studies: Government printers, Jos.
1.7 SUGGESTED READING:
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EDU 205 – CURRICULUM AND INSTRUCTION
UNIT: 2
Skilbeck M. (1976) The Scope Of Curriculum Study. London,
The open University Press.
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EDU 205 – CURRICULUM AND INSTRUCTION
UNIT: 2
TOPIC 2:
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGES
2.0
TOPIC:
2.1
INTRODUCTION
2.2
OBJECTIVES
2.3
IN-TEXT
2.3.1
SCOPE OF A CURRICULUM IN NIGERIA
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THE SCOPE OF A CURRICULUM -
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2.3.2 HAS NIGERIAN INDIGENOUS EDUCATION A
CURRICULUM
2.3.3
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THE SCOPE OF NIGERIAN INDIGENOUS
CURRICULUM
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SUMMARY -
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SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
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REFERENCE
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SUGGESTED READINGS
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EDU 205 – CURRICULUM AND INSTRUCTION
2.0 TOPIC:
UNIT: 2
SCOPE OF A CURRICULUM IN NIGERIA
2.1 INTRODUCTION
The topic discusses the scope of curriculum which can
either be formal or informal. The formal curriculum is the
planned curriculum which the informal is not planned but
acquired through interacting.
2.2 OBJECTIVES
At the end of the topic, you should be able to:
i.
Explain the scope of curriculum in Nigeria.
ii.
Discuss
curriculum
the
various
Nigerian
indigenous
2.3 IN-TEXT:
2.3.1 THE SCOPE OF A CURRICULUM
It is true in Nigeria that the activities and learning
experiences of children in a school setting are planned, or
formal. The planned or formal curriculum includes school
subjects, or planned activities and experiences at school. For
example, if the teacher plans a field trip in social studies to the
local zoo or market, children will learn from a first hand
experience what they might have been taught in the Classroom.
Or some teachers may ask their children, after a history lesson,
to draw or dramatize their experience. All these lessons and
activities are planned in advance. The subject, methodology,
learning experiences and activities can be referred to as a
curriculum.
The informal or unplanned curriculum is different. It
involves varied activities, and experiences that are not planned
by the teacher. They are teachers mannerisms, teasing others,
smoking, drinking, liking a subject, tribalism, etc. Classroom
activities and societal interactions are responsible for such
curricula. It is this type of curricula that leave marks on most
Nigerians after they have left school. These formal and informal
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UNIT: 2
aspects constitute the elements for curriculum definition.
Perhaps a more comprehensive definition for curriculum may be:
The curriculum is the informal and formal education provided by
the school and society. This definition is lucid and can be
reviewed for improvement. Any aspect of our curriculum that
needs change could be done.
2.3.2 HAS NIGERIAN INDIGENOUS EDUCATION A CURRICULUM?
Yes, the elements of Western Curriculum in Nigeria just
described are found in Nigerian indigenous education. The
education is both formal and informal while the curriculum is
found in each. The curriculum is dictated by three main factors,
first, the purposes of the Nigerian society, secondly, the needs of
Nigerians and thirdly, the philosophical beliefs of Nigeria. Above
all, the average Nigerian is highly religious which affects his or
her beliefs and practices. A study of their religion is, therefore,
ultimately a study of man, his nature, needs, characteristics and
his philosophy of life which dictates the type of curriculum for
their indigenous education. It is the greatest influence upon the
thinking and living of the people. These aspects influence the
education and curricula as set below.
2.3.3 THE SCOPE OF NIGERIAN INDIGENOUS CURRICULUM
In Nigerian indigenous education, curriculum may be
defined as those activities and experiences both formal and
informal which the society transmits to the child in each
community or it is the economic, physical, social and moral
aspects of education that children learn at home, in the society
and the larger environment.
To make it more explicit, let us look at the scope of the
curriculum or the elements that make the indigenous
curriculum. For Nigeria and Africa as a whole, the following
elements constitute the indigenous curriculum in Nigerian
indigenous education.
(a) Physical development fitness and good health are
emphasized. The curriculum for the achievement of this
includes the initial playful exercises using sensory and
motor apparatus resulting in adapting the individual to the
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EDU 205 – CURRICULUM AND INSTRUCTION
(b)
(c)
UNIT: 2
physical environment. Later, imitative plays, consisting of
representation of adult life to fit the social needs of
childhood and the competitive games which test the
physical, intellectual and social qualities of acrobatic
displays, weight lifting, jumping, and climbing heights are
introduced. There are unlimited stimulating dances and
drinking. The child first observes adults and tries to fall in
step. This is at times done in the evenings through plays,
songs and dances in which children freely participate under
the supervision of the senior ones.
Closely following physical development is the development
of character. Every one wants the child to grow into a
sociable, honest, enduring, courageous, humble, preserving
and of good raporting at all times. Majasam (1967) in his
study of Yoruba education identified character training and
religious education as two main objectives vigorously
pursued throughout life. This is achieved through
instruction in the elementary social and moral codes, religious instructions, folklores and religious rituals. Often
morality and good manners are transmitted through the
numerous daily proverbs. Children are normally severely
punished for breaking any of the social or moral norms.
After all, Nigerian parents would prefer to be childless than
to have children who would bring shame and dishonour to
the family. There is strict observance of respect for elders,
through various gestures, greetings (often graded),
privileges for elders and taboos. The Yoruba youth stands
up for his senior or prostrate to an elder, while the Hausas
raise drenched right first to an elder while verbally
wishing him to live for long.
Intellectual training was developed through histories
related by parents, elders, proverbs, poems, riddles,
quizzes,
secret
society,
philosophy,
judgments,
incantations. Professionals, like hunters, herbalists, native
midwives, chiefs, cult leaders, priests, often undergo
initiation training, which needs good memory. Only people
of proven intellectualism and of strength of character are
chosen. Money Arithmetic, calculation of dates and keeping
of records, and cult languages were also some aspects of
developing the intellect.
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EDU 205 – CURRICULUM AND INSTRUCTION
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
UNIT: 2
Agriculture was also stressed. The curriculum for
agriculture includes growing of crops, vegetables fruits for
animal rearing, fishing. For example the I jaws are known
for fishing, the Fulani’s for cattle rearing, the Tivs are good
yam farmers.
Curriculum for trades and crafts include cloth and raffia
weaving, black-smithing, carving, sculpturing, painting,
building drumming, hair plaiting, pot-making, beadworking, brass-working, dress-making, leather working,
soap making, wine tapping and wine selling, dyeing, gold
washing and mat making. Not all the trades and crafts are
obtainable among all tribes and localities. This was formal
curriculum.
The most prominent professions are those of herbalists,
priests, witch doctors, civil-local government leaders,
village heads, councilors and shrine keepers.
The contents are only known by the teachers and
practitioners of each profession. The training is largely by
apprenticeship and is a time honoured device for
education. The apprenticeship training system began, as a
wider education process, in the past, in which the
indigenous societies of Nigeria passed in their cultural
heritage from one generation to the other. The skills
crowned by a ‘family’ were highly treasured and some
careers such as native medicine, secret societies black
smithing, etc are zealously guarded. Learning of a craft
often started with personal service to the master,
observation and imitation was the procedure of learning.
Evaluation is through carrying out of a task appropriately.
In agriculture education was purely informal as the
child accompanies his parents to the farm to help them in
rearing their, crops and animals. Learning was by
observation, casual service and imitation.
Community development is emphasized in the broad
Nigerian education. The child grows up as a functional
adult contributing to the development of the community.
In the indigenous education in Nigeria the age groups
learn by contributing to community effort through their
seniors. Roads, market places, bridges, palaces, assembly
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EDU 205 – CURRICULUM AND INSTRUCTION
(h)
UNIT: 2
grounds and social welfare are carried out by all age
groups. Children learn through observation, imitation and
participating in folk tales and activity.
Promotion of cultural heritage is one of the aims of
indigenous education. The child observes, and imitates his
elders in naming ceremonies, religious services, coronation
of chiefs, annual yam festivals, annual dances and shrine
rituals, acrobatic displays of guilds and scouts.
Participation in and cultural education is difficult to escape
provided one is physically and psychologically healthy.
The curriculum at large is organized around persistent life
activities such as entertainment, communication, conservation,
production, distribution and consumption of goods, services,
government and education. Carving for health, family life and
housing are also some of the factors underlying the indigenous
curriculum. These are actually the needs of the people. Another
very important feature which is beneficial is that resources for
the education of the young were found in his locality and it was
easy for him to identify them Curriculum was need-oriented.
Learning experiences were rather direct and the learner learnt
by doing. Evaluation was practical and direct.
The indigenous curriculum was not documented and the
interest of the learner was not sometimes ascertained as he was
given what was obtainable in his locality. It seems to lack what
Johann Pestalozzi advocated in Switzerland and Jean Jacques
Rousseau in France, that teaching plans must grow out of the
individuals plans and interests and not imposed on the learner.
It also lacked some of the qualities of the good curriculum such
as in-cooperating contemporary ideas and updated by the results
of the latest researches Though there was some sort of
evaluation and graduation the Nigerian indigenous curriculum
lacked feedback which is necessary for educational progress and
growth of knowledge.
In any case the indigenous curriculum
does not fall short of the definitions we have seen above as it
provides educational experiences and direct methodology which
are in symbiosis with the society. The curriculum was job
oriented and the individual was involved and integrated into it.
Hence unemployment was scarce though it did not make for open
society. Teaching materials were not far to seek and children
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EDU 205 – CURRICULUM AND INSTRUCTION
UNIT: 2
learnt by doing. The indigenous curriculum provided for
intellectualism, entertainment, useful spending of leisure and
physical development; and a more cohesive society because of
the stress laid on the development of good moral standard. The
medium of instruction was the language of the people.
Understanding of the language as a means of communication did
not pose any problem. Western Education could borrow much
from the indigenous curricula. It could use the local expert
craftsmen to teach children and the method of learning
observation and choosing could make education more useful
especially at the early age. Much of the cultural aspects could be
planned into the new curriculum. Instruction should be in the
children’s own mother tongue. This will make the school
curricula to be centred on the society itself. This is the most
important foundation for development in Nigeria.
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2.4 SUMMARY
The topic discussed the scope of Nigerian indigenous
curriculum, namely physical development, development of
fitness and good health, intellectual training , agriculture, trades
and crafts and most prominents professions such as herbalist,
with doctor, village heads and shrine keepers.
2.5 SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISES
1.
What is/are the scope of indigenous curriculum in
Nigeria?
2.
Discuss any five Nigerian indigenous curriculum
2.6 REFERENCE
Salia, Bao, S.K (1990) Theory And Practice Of Curriculum
Studies. Government Printers, Jos.
2.7 SUGGESTED READINGS:
Skilbeck, M. (1976) The Scope Of Curriculum Studies,
London. The Open University Press.
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UNIT: 2
TOPIC 3:
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGES
3.0
TOPIC:
THE RELEVANCE OF FUNCTIONAL
CURRICULUM
FOR NIGERIA
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3.1
INTRODUCTION -
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OBJECTIVES
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IN-TEXT
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HOW CURRICULUM MAKES NATIONS RICH
AND PROGRESSIVE -
3.3.2
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CURRICULUM TRENDS IN OF NIGERIA
3.4
SUMMARY -
3.5
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SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
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REFERENCE
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SUGGESTED READINGS
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3.0 TOPIC:
UNIT: 2
THE RELEVANCE OF FUNCTIONAL CURRICULUM
FOR NIGERIA
3.1 INTRODUCTION:
This topic discusses the relevance of functional education
in Nigeria in the area of development and poverty
eradication and curriculum trends in Nigeria.
3.2 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this topic you should be able to:
i.
Explain the relevance of functional curriculum
for Nigeria
ii.
Provide the curriculum history in Nigeria
3.3 IN-TEXT:
3.3.1
THE RELEVANCE OF A FUNCTIONAL CURRICULUM FOR NIGERIA WHOLE
Having defined what curriculum is we, will move forward
to examine its importance in Nigeria. It is here that we recall an
anonymous education question which says that “a nation’s
wealth or poverty in a modern world depends on its available
technology.
Let us take the above and relate it to the belief
that the wealth or poverty of Nigeria rests on her curriculum.
The time is development as seen from the episode of the Russian
Sputnik and its effects on the U.S.A. It was not until the former
had sent the Sputnik into space that the latter was alarmed and
realized that its present curriculum was either deficient or
irrelevant or both. It brought about great emphasis on science
and technology, and the now famous American space Centre in
Florida was opened to renewed American scientists. By the midsixties, the rivalry for the colonization of outer space and the
moon by the two super powers was at its peak. We can see from
the above that without the Sputnik incident and without
emphasis on the rapid development of science curriculum, the
Russian-American efforts would not have been possible today.
The antithesis of the above nations who made phenomenal
growth because of adopting a relevant curriculum is also
observed in Britain. In the late forties and early fifties the
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British economy was very buoyant with the spoils of war, but no
effort was made to develop her science curriculum through
research into alternatives for improving means of production for
her industries. In less than twenty years, her economy shrunk
and ran into stagnation because her conservative and obsolete
industries continued to turn out goods that could not compete in
quality and excellence with those of Japan and other highly innovative nations that had greatly modernized their industries. It
was for this reason that two giant American companies Lockheed
and Chrysler at a time in the early seventies were on the brink of
bankruptcy and liquidation. Conservative Britain and its upper
class preferred studies in law and the classics (subjects for the
House of Lords) to reading engineering and business. The ailing
sterling and the endless labour and racial unrests use the
resultant effects of that costly decision.
What therefore is the relationship between economic
development and curriculum planning. Taken either from the
perspective of Cost-Benefit Analysis Model or rate—of-return
approach, it is Well known that a nation that emphasizes and
implements a science curriculum is richer and more advanced
technologically than a nation that emphasizes arts subjects or
arts curriculum. Take the obvious case of present—day Nigeria
and Japan. Whereas Nigeria has about three times the population
of Japan, yet Japanese Gross National Product (GNP) is over ten
times that of Nigeria, oil wealth notwithstanding. The glaring
disparity is attributable to Japan’s superior technology, which
can only be achieved through developing relevant curricular.
3.3.3
CURRICULUM TREND IN NIGERIA
Let us now examine briefly the chequered curriculum trend
in Nigeria in order to identify factors that have been responsible.
Nigeria since its amalgamation in 1914 has largely operated a
foreign curriculum basically geared to the selfish interests of its
British colonial masters. That type of curriculum was one that
encouraged the mass production of “pen—pushers” in the words
of Professor Otonti Nduka (1964) in his remarkable book,
“Western Education and the Nigeria Cultural Background”.
Earlier on, such commissions like Phelps-Strokes (1922),
Harbison (1959), Ashby (1960) Dike (1961), Banjo (1962) and
Taiwo (1964) has shown the irrelevance of the Nigeria
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curriculum to the pressing needs of the society. The Nigerian
curricular in the (1969) conference was the first serious attempt
at indigenizing the curriculum and giving it a sense of direction.
It laid the foundations for the economic and cultural growth of
this nation. Both the Shomade commission (1972), the Nigerian
indignization Degree (1972) and the National Policy on
Education (1977) have now paved the way towards the
promotion and implementation of a curriculum that will be
relevant to the needs and aspirations of the society.
Now what should be the Nigerian curriculum priorities
today? This is a very important issue to settle because no doctor
can cure an illness that has not been diagnosed. So correct
diagnosis and situational analysis are necessary condition for
effective treatment. This is the point that Paulo Freire (1971)
was making in his classical work, “The Pedagogy of the
Oppressed” when he lucidly observed:
“The more accurately men grasp true causality,
The more critical their understanding of reality.
Their understanding will be magical to the degree they fail to
grasp causality.
In my own view, the Nigerian curriculum priorities or
objectives are embodied in the Nigerian Second National
Development Plan (197O-75). This is the view of the National
Policy on Education (2004) as well in its preamble on the
document it was about to launch.
The objectives of the Second National Development Plan
are ~—
(1) A free and democratic society
(2) A just and egalitarian society
(3) A united, strong and self-reliant nation
(4) A great and dynamic economy
(5) A land of bright and full opportunities for all
citizens.
If the curriculum could be made to help to achieve these
lofty objectives, then it would be said that using them as criteria
for determining the national curriculum objectives was a wise
decision and this could encourage development.
Next our curriculum objective should be geared towards
building” a just and egalitarian society. How can the curriculum
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help us achieve this? Nigeria is known to be a society where the
poor finds it extremely difficult to obtain social and economic
justice. As a result the poor grows poorer and the rich get richer.
Poor men in our society today invariably lose their law suits in
our courts of law even where justice is glaringly on their side.
Political victimization is rife in the society.
In addition, let us take up the challenge of how to raise the
curriculum to achieve national goals”. ‘The greatest headache in
Nigeria is how to achieves the above objective. The size, ethnic
multiplicity, differences and educational imbalance, all help to
compound Nigeria’s a political entity. The last civil war was
fought mainly because of the above problems. The scars of the
war are still with us and are likely to remain for a long time to
come. As nation divided against itself can neither stand nor be
virile. No nation can work towards any kind of self—reliance
when it is continually threatened with instability and
disintegration from within.
Again, how can we bring in curriculum to use in checking
this negative feedback in the system and thereby forestall
possible political and economic dependence? Here again Social
Studies is the area of the curriculum that should be looked into
most. Our Social Studies Curriculum should emphasize those
aspects of life where faith, tolerance and eternal brotherhood
are idealized as enduring qualities.
Let us also tackle the issue of how a curriculum could be
used to realize “a great and dynamic economy”. From a survey of
world economic history, how were the great economies of the
world built up? Was it by emphasis on Arts curriculum? By
encouraging
a
mono—valent
economy?
By
haphazard
implementation of a UPE scheme? Of course, none of the above.
Emphasis should be placed on the development of relevant
human resources. Nigeria today has not got enough economists,
accountants, technicians, medical doctors, nurses, engineers,
even teachers—people who are directly or indirectly concerned
with building up of the economy. Emphasis should be placed on
the expansion of our industries and the modernization of our
agricultural section. Nigeria is blessed with fertile plains and
rich human resources, yet she goes abroad to buy food in a
situation where over half of her labour force are farmers.
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How best can curriculum resolve this social and economic
paradox? There should be a complete overhauling of the
curricular where technology would be given the pride, of place.
More schools, colleges and universities- of science and
technology should be built and enrolment by the federal and
many state governments of some colleges and universities of technology is most commendable and a step in the right direction.
Over 70% of the education budget estimate on science and yet
there has been no significant change in productivity. From this it
would become crystal clear that curriculum proposals could be
quite different from actual, curriculum implementation.
Lastly, for us therefore to achieve or realize “ a land of
bright and full of opportunities for all citizens” the curricular
have to be quite relevant to the needs and aspirations of the
country. It is only when a given curriculum is geared towards
the needs, culture and environment of the society for whom it is
designed that its people will be progressive, united and happy.
We all know that curriculum development is quite an expensive
venture, but we take consolation in the fact that it always pays
back huge dividends in the ends.
3.4 SUMMARY
In this topic we learnt about how curriculum made nations
rich and progressive and when the focus is on the science
curriculum. While the Nigeria which had operated a foreign
curriculum has now indegenised its curriculum.
3.5 SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
1.
Explain briefly how curriculum can make
nations rich and progressive.
2.
Nigeria.
Briefly
give
the
curriculum
trends
in
3.6 REFERENCE:
Taba, H. (1962). Curriculum Development: Theory And
Practice. Harcout, Brace and World Inc. New York.
3.7 SUGGESTED READING:
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Dusche, R (1990) Case Of Content: Studying Content As Part
Of A Curriculum Process. New York. John Willey 509.
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TOPIC 4:
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGES
4.0
TOPIC:
4.1
INTRODUCTION -
-
-
-
4.2
OBJECTIVES
-
-
-
4.3
IN-TEXT
-
-
-
4.3.1
CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT
-
-
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-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
MEANING OF CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT
-
-
4.3.2 CURRICULUM DESIGN MODELS -
SUMMARY -
-
-
-
-
4.5
SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISES -
-
-
-
-
4.6
REFERENCES
4.7
SUGGESTED READINGS
-
-
-
4.4
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
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4.0 TOPIC:
UNIT: 2
CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT
4.1 INTRODUCTION
This topic explains the meaning of curriculum planning and
development and the different curriculum design models,
namely objective model, process model and situational
model.
4.2 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this topic you should be able to:
i.
ii.
4.3 IN- TEXT:
4.3.1
Explain the meaning of curriculum development
Discuss the different curriculum design models.
MEANING OF CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT
Curriculum development, as many other concepts in
education, is not easy with a range of meanings from one which
involves every type of educational change. Owen, for example,
discussed forms and organization of instruction such as; micro—
teaching, team/teaching, non-streaming and vertical grouping in
his examination of the management of curriculum development.
Johnson, on the other hand defined curriculum development as
the processes whereby a set of learning outcomes are derived for
an educational institution, but does not see it as being concerned
with how such outcomes are to be realized in the context of the
classroom and the school. Both of these positions seem
inappropriate. One legislates too strictly the area of concern, and
the other renders it too loose and ill—defined.
Here is a common or general definition. The term
“curriculum development is considered as “comprising those
deliberately planned activities through which courses of study or
patterns of educational activity are designed and presented as
proposals for those in educational institutions”. This means
curriculum development is a deliberately planned enterprise. It
involves syllabus construction which includes aims, content and
methods. It may be sent to the schools as guides to teachers.
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Courses for the syllabus are normally selected from varied
sources in the society where the curriculum is going to be used.
These are:—
(a) The society—needs, cultural, environment, health, etc.
(b) The Children’s-needs, cultural, physical environment,
etc.
(c)
Subjects—knowledge, disciplines.
(d)
(e)
Teaching and learning—philosophy, psychology
Ideology or beliefs of the society.
In addition curriculum designers believe that their
ideological beliefs influence curriculum development in many
areas. However, no matter what ideologies are involved,
curriculum development implies a degree of systematic thinking
and planning in which individual decisions about content,
teaching and learning are taken, not in isolation, but in relation
to an overall design or framework. At one extreme curriculum
development may result in curriculum innovation where
radically new proposals are produced with far—reaching
implications for teachers—pupil transactions, like the inquiry
method, in social studies versus the traditional method . On, the
other hand, curriculum development may just result in the
modification and reshaping of current courses of study or
syllabus with few new components but with a clearer
explanation of the various elements comprising the course.
4.3.2 CURRICULUM DESIGNS AND MODELS
We have learned that curriculum development is a
systematic and rationally planned activity that takes into
consideration the child, society, subject, teaching and learning
assumptions and ideologies.
This means curriculum development should start first
with the study of the society, the children, the subject and an
examination of the philosophical and psychological foundations
that can be used as base for the course of study. After the
relevant data have been collected, the curriculum worker will
turn to the type of curriculum design or model that could be used
as a guide.
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Three principal curriculum design models have been
produced to guide curriculum experts. They are:
(a)
The “objective” model.
(b)
The “ process” model
(c)
The “situational” model.
It is important to note that these three models do describe
how curriculum is designed but only make recommendations
for design. Their recommendations or prescriptions involve
differing conceptions of the teaching/planning task, and all
three are in need of further refinement and elaboration. This
section will examine and evaluate these guidelines especially
the one used in Nigeria.
(i)
The objective mode
This design model, greatly influenced by behavioral
psychology and systematized into a coherent rational by
Professor Ralph Tyler has directed a great amount of
theorizing and practical activity, especially in the United
States. The Tyler rational, as it has been called, centers on four
major stages, which Tyler considers essential in the
development of any curriculum. The first of these involves
getting clear about goals, i.e., what it is hoped the curriculum
will achieve. Statements of goals need to indicate both the kind
of behavior to be developed in the pupil and the area of content
in which that. behavior is to be applied. Such closely
formulated statements of intent are termed objectives.
According to this scheme, the curriculum maker looks to three
sources—student, society and subject from which he derives
general tentative objectives. He then screens these tentative
goals by means of his philosophy of education and a
psychology of learning. Next, he states the objectives that
survive this screening in practice terms of measurable learner
behavior. These practice objectives serve as the ends for which
the teacher designs effective instructional means.
Figure 1: Tyler’s Model for Curriculum planning
Aims objectives
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Evaluation of
Learning Experiences
learning
selection
of
Experience
Organization of
Learning experiences
According to this scheme, the curriculum maker looks to
three sources student, society, and subject-from which he
derives general and tentative objectives. He then screens these
tentative goals by means of his philosophy of education and a
psychology of learning. Next, he states the objectives that
survive this scheme in precise terms of measurable learner
behaviour. These precise objectives serve as the ends for which
the teacher designs effective instructions.
By studying the learners themselves, particularly their
needs and interests the curriculum maker may discover
worthwhile objectives that might otherwise not have occurred to
him. If he can gather information about the current status of the
learners and compare that status with some conception of an
acceptable norm, then he can generally refer to any difference
between the two as a need.
A second area of useful information regarding the earner
can be secured by studying his interests. The general notion
supporting the usefulness of this source is that the student
learns best those things in which he is interested. Hence, by
selected instructional objectives consonant with learner
interests, the schools can promote more efficient learning For
example, if the curriculum makers discover that a group of
youngsters of junior high school age are particularly interested
in space exploration, they should generate a number of
objectives to match this interest. In the process of studying outer
space, the students may learn all sorts of related skills and learn
them to last for a long time-because they are truly interested in
achieving the objectives
Possible objectives can be found in an examination of
contemporary life outside the school. In general the reason for
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studying the ‘‘ nature of the present society is to be able to
determine more accurately the kinds of competences needed by
today’s citizens.
With this knowledge, educational objectives can be
established which are designed to produce these competencies.
Of course, arguments exist for and against the use of the current
status of society as a source of objectives. However, since the
society does support the very existence of our school system, it
seems only reasonable to consider educational objectives based
on a societal analysis.
This teaching methods and materials should be consistent
with the principles, concepts and criteria inherent in such
activities. In this design the ‘process’ is specified i.e., the content
being studied, the methods being employed and the• criteria
inherent in the activity. The end-product produced by pupils is
not specified before hand in terms Of behavior but can be
evaluated after the event by the criteria. Stenhouse illustrates
how such a model can be applied to the planning of curricula in
any form of knowledge: “if you define the content of a
philosophy course, define what constitutes a philosophically
acceptable teaching procedure and articulate standards by which
a student’s work is to be judged, you may be planning rationally
without using objectives”:15
He used this model on the Humanities Curriculum Project
of which he was a Director. The project aimed-at developing in
pupils an understanding of social situations and human acts and
the controversial value issues which they raise. It deals with
themes such as war, poverty, education and relations between
the sexes. Discussion is used as teaching methodology where the
teacher neutral. Behavioral objectives are absent, and the
teacher does not promote any particular point of view or
response in his pupils, in place of objectives, the emphasis is put
on defining acceptable principles or procedure for dealing with
such issues.
We discussed that the objectives model has its roots in
behavioral psychology and the process model in philosophy of
education. The ‘situational’ model has its roots in cultural
analysis as developed by Shilbeck. The model puts curriculum
design and development firmly within a cultural framework in
views such design as a means whereby teachers modify and
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transform pupils experience through providing insights into
cultural values, interpretative frameworks and symbolic
systems. The model underlines the value under nature of the
design process and its inevitable political character at different
pressure groups and ideological interests seeking to influence
the process of cultural transmission. Instead of making
recommendations in vacum it makes specific provisions for
different planning contexts by including as one of its most
crucial features, critical appraisal of the school situation. The
model is based on the assumption that the focus for curriculum
development must be the individual school and its teachers, i.e.
that school—based curriculum development is the most effective
way of promoting genuine change at school—level. This is where
curriculum experts will go to individual schools, work with the
teachers to develop curriculum or improve teaching of a subject.
It may be organized just by the head teacher or teachers or
teacher supervisors or ministry officers: According to Shilbeck,
the model has five major components.
1.
Situational analysis which involves a review of the
situation and an analysis of the interacting elements
constituting it. External factors to be considered are broad
social changes including ideological shifts, parental’ and
community expectations, the changing nature of subject
disciplines and the potential contribution of teachers
support systems such as colleges and universities. Internal
factors include pupils and their attributes, teachers and
their knowledge, skills, interests, etc.
2.
Goal formulation with the statement of goals embracing
teacher and pupil activities (though not necessarily
expressed in behavioral terms). Such goals’ are derived
from the situational analysis only in the sense that they
represent decisions to modify that situation in certain
respects.
3.
Programme building which comprises the selection of
subject matter for learning, the sequencing of teaching,
learning episodes, the development of staff and the choice
of appropriate supplementary material and media.
4.
Interpretation
and
implementation: Here
practical
problems involved in the introduction of a modified
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curriculum are anticipated and then hopefully overcome as
the installation proceeds.
5.
Monitoring,
assessment,
feedback
and
reconstruction1which involves a much wider concept of
evaluation than determining to what extent a curriculum
meets its objectives. Tasks include providing on—going
assessment of progress in the light of classroom
experience, assessing a wide range of outcomes (including
pupil, attitudes and the impact on the school organization
as a whole) and keeping adequate records based on
responses from a variety of participants (not just pupils).
Shilbeck’s situational model is not an alternative to the
other two but it is a more comprehensive framework which can
encompass either ‘process’ being designed. It is flexible,
adaptable and open to interpretation in the light of changing
circumstances. For teaching, teachers can start anywhere and
activities can develop concurrently. “The model outlined does
not presuppose a means end analysis. It simply encourages
teams or groups of curriculum developers to take into account
different elements and aspects of the curriculum development
process, to see the process as an organic whole, and to work in a
moderately systematic way”. Please, note that this model gets
those involved in curriculum development to consider planning
systematically and links their decisions to wider cultural and
social considerations.
4.4 SUMMARY
The topic discussed the meaning of curriculum
development while the three curriculum design models, are
objective, process and situational. As comprising those
deliberately planned activities through which courses of
study or patterns of educational activity are designed and
presented as proposals for those in educational
institutions.
4.5 SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISES
1.
2.
How can you define curriculum development
Discuss the main components of the three curriculum
design models.
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4.6 REFERENCES
Audrey, J and Howards, T. (1972) Developing A Curriculum
George Allen University.
4.7 SUGGESTED READINGS:
Thenick, V.E. (1980) The Concept Of Curriculum Design.
University of Chicago press.
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TOPIC 5:
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGES
5.0
TOPIC:
CURRICULUM PLANNING IMPLEMENTATION
AND EVALUATION
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
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5.1
INTRODUCTION
5.2
OBJECTIVES
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-
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5.3
IN-TEXT
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5.3.2 CURRICULUM EVALUATION
-
-
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5.4
SUMMARY -
-
-
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5.5
SELF- ASSESSMENT EXERCISES -
-
-
-
-
5.6
REFERENCES
5.7
SUGGESTED READINGS
-
5.3.1 CURRICULUM PLANNING AND
IMPLEMENTATION
-
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5.0 TOPIC:
UNIT: 2
CURRICULUM PLANNING, IMPLEMENTATION
AND EVALUATION
5.1 INTRODUCTION:
In this unit, attempt has been made to discuss the process
involved in curriculum planning and implementation. In
addition the method of evaluating the curriculum has also
been discussed.
5.2 OBJECTIVES:
At the end of the topic, you should be able to.
i.
Explain how curriculum is being planned and
Implemented
i.
iii.
5.3 IN TEXT:
5.3.1
List and explain the principles of designing
curricula:
a. Content
b. Learning experience
c. Evaluation
Discuss how curriculum can be evaluated
CURRICULUM PLANNING AND IMPLEMENTATION
In
our
discussion
of
curriculum
planning
and
implementation we shall be limited to Ralph Tayler’s four
fundamental questions for Curriculum Planning from his book,
Basic Principles of Curriculum and Instruction:
1.
What educational purposes should the school seek to
attain?
2.
What educational experiences can be provided
which might help pupils to attain these purposes?
3.
How can these educational experience be organized?
4.
How can we determine whether these purposes
are being attained?
These questions have sometimes been reduced to even
greater simplicity by means of the following model:
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1.
Aim/Objective;
2.
Content;
3.
Method and learning experience
4.
Evaluation.
Since the Nigerian education Programmes are based on this
model, we shall look at it in details starting, with aims and
objectives. For any foreign curriculum to be effectively adapted
it must meet the requirements listed above. Curriculum Planning
and Development starts with situational analysis, as already
discussed and then followed by Aims and activities.
(1)
AIMS/OBJECTIVES:
The main objective of education is “to change
individuals is some way, to enable them to perform skills which
otherwise they would not
perform to develop certain
understating, insights, and appreciations”. The statements of
these expectations or desired outcomes are usually called either
educational aims or educational objectives.
Aims, usually Linked with objectives are generally taken to be
the first step in curriculum planning of any kind. We cannot, it is
claimed, choose methods, select materials, topics, subject
matter, test for success, until our purposes and intentions are
settled and stated.
It is useful at this point to make distinction between aims and
objectives. There are perhaps three main ways of going about it.
The simplest distinction is between general and particular. Aims
are broad statements of intent, such as in the Sierra Leone’s
Social Studies Syllabus for Primary 2, it has the following aim
“to develop creative thinking”. Objectives are more specific, such
as in the Sierra Leone’s primary 1 Syllabus “the pupils will be
able to distinguish between house and home”.
A second distinction is that between evaluative and
descriptive statements. Aims involve making value judgments
prescribing or commending something. Objective describes what
the learner will be able to do when he has successfully
completed the learning process.
A third distinction might be put this way: objectives are like
targets to be shot at, milestones to be passed. An aim is more
like a signpost or a compass, giving a direction in ‘which to
travel, a standard to which to refer. Aims thus, cannot be
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specific, having to do with policy, priorities, strategy rather than
tactics. Emphasis on specifying the objectives of a lesson or
course has become widespread in teacher education, or inservice courses, in schools where rethinking of the curriculum
takes place. What is being asked is usually:
1. That the pupil becomes the subject of the verb; what will the
pupil
have achieved at the end of the lesson, by half term, etc.
2. That the teacher thinks less of the content of what he teaches,
more
of what the learner will be able to do; for instance, he will be
able to explain the differences between a home and a house.
3. That this be specified as clearly as possible, for instance
“name and
identify simple laundry equipment”.
This means objectives should be stated in behavioral terms.
The task of defining objectives in behavioral terms is not
easy. Once the general idea of what is required has been
understood, only practice will make the definition perfect. There
are however, certain general principles which the teacher will
find valuable in approaching this job.
1. Objectives must be directly and appropriately related to the
learning
experiences provided in the course, e.g., if your objective in
Social Students is, “children will be able to identify home,
compound, and house” then your learning experiences will
include an observation trip to a compound followed by
discussions.
2. Objectives must be capable of being achieved and evaluated
within
the course. It must be stated in practical terms. For example,
if your objective is, “The pupil will touch and name parts of
the body” it could be evaluated by asking the child to touch
and name parts of his body.
3. Objectives must be stated in terms of observable behavior.
That is the outcome or effect can be known easily. For
example, to develop an appreciation of the principles of
democracy is not as good as “to recognize and give examples
of the principles of democracy in action in local government
practices.”
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4.
UNIT: 2
Objectives must be appropriate to the level of instruction
aimed at in the course whatever you are aiming at, it must be
at the level of your pupils.
The next step in Social Studies Curriculum Development is
the selection and organization of content.
(2) CONTENT:
After deciding on the objective, the teacher will now think
of the type of content and learning experiences he can provide
for his children which will help him achieve the objectives.
Firstly, what is learning experience?
1.
Learning experiences are methods used by the
children to learn
2.
Content is the knowledge, skills, attitudes and values
to be learned.
Content and learning experiences are closely connected.
For instance if pupils are discussing some pictures, the
pictures and what the pupils and teacher say or ask about
them can be regarded as the content, while watching at the
picture discussion might be regarded as the learning
experience. Let us look at the content first.
(a)
ContentWhat our teachers teach is normally sent to them from the
Department of Education in the form of a Syllabus (content).
They are free to add or subtract according to the needs of their
children and the environment they live, e.g., trial syllabus in
English, Maths, Social Studies, Science and Home Economics
suggested learning experiences and activities are sent to the
teachers for use also. Before content is included in a course it
should satisfy these criteria.
1.
Validity: Content is valid when it is authentic or true. For
example the Capital of the Gambia is now Banjul not
Batliurst. Any study of The Gambia should show Banjul if
one wants it to be valid. But if any area of the content is not
true to your own environments you have a right to change
it. For example if the domestic animals included in the
Social Studies Syllabus do not exist in your school
environment as domestic animals, change it and use the
ones that exist in you r area. Remember that facts are
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2.
3.
4.
UNIT: 2
changing very fast and you must keep abreast with the
changes if you want to teach valid content always. Secondly
content or method is valid if it is possible for the objectives
to be achieved through its use. For example if in maths the
objective is “the children should be able to recognize a set
as a collection of objects haying a common property” the
content chosen should show this.
Significance:
For content to be significant it should be
based on a number of carefully selected principles, concepts
or ideas and fact. For example, science and social studies
with skills, concepts, principles and facts carefully selected.
Both emphasize the study of the child’s environment which
is relevant for Africa.
Needs and interests of the learner: For content to be
valid it should meet the needs and interests of the children.
It must be applied with caution. For example the social
studies content is based on the child’s immediate
environment which extends to the wider world at the same
time including active methods.
Learner ability: For content to be valid, it must be within
the grasp of the pupils or it must be understood by them.
Content must be available in forms which are appropriate to
the pupils, and these will, of course be different for
different pupils. It is also important that what children
learn must be connected with their experiences. This
suggests the need for a variety in the availability of content
and the way it is learned. All these criteria, (some are more
important than others) are suggested for application to
content before they are included in the curriculum
(b)
Learning experiences:
It means simply the activity pupils engage in while
learning. It concentrates attention on what the pupils do, e.g.,
discovery method, experiment, discussion, field trip, etc.
Learning experiences, should meet a number of criteria such as
validity, comprehensiveness, variety, patterns, relevance to life.
1. Validity: Any method is valid if it contributes towards the
achievement of the objective. Therefore, only those activities
which actually do contribute towards an outcome should be
presented. For example, if in social studies we want children
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to know what a compound, home and house are, we should
take them on a field trip to a compound a have and a house
followed by discussions and drawings of each. Such
experience is valid in so far as it actually does bring about the
behavioral change specified in the right direction.
2. Comprehensiveness:- The scope of the learning experiences
should be wide enough to include all objectives.. If for
example, the children in science hope to learn about their
environment and develop skills, the learning experiences
should provide experiences on those lines.
3. Variety and Suitability:- Experiences or activities provided
should be varied and suitable to the level of the pupils. For
example you should not take 8 year old children on a field trip
that is over two miles where they will have to walk. Vary your
activity all the time. It means also for activities to be suitable,
it should be related to the needs, interest, and abilities of the
pupils.
4. Pattern:- Methods should be balanced to provide sufficient
activities to meet the needs of the pupils. Activities provided
should also be given sufficient time for its completion. This
cannot be done without the objectives, and the class in mind.
For example, it is suggested that social studies should have
one double period for practical work and one period for
discussion. Methods should also be relevant to life. For
example practicals provided should be relevant to what the
children will have to do in the future.
5.3.2
CURRICULUM EVALUATION:
In this section, I shall address two important, aspects on
evalution. The first one will deal with the type of evaluation for
teachers and the second will deal with evaluation for curriculum
experts or workers. The following questions will be answered.
What is curriculum evaluation? What guidelines should be used
to evaluate learning? How can pupil’s evaluation be provided?
How can participative evaluation (as stated in the Africa’s
culture) be provided? How can charts, checklists and other
devices be used in ongoing evaluation? How can test items be
constructed to fit instruction? What models or approaches can be
used for curriculum evaluation? First, what is curriculum
evaluation?
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Curriculum evaluation is the collection and use of
information for decision making about a curriculum or an
educational program. It includes measuring and assessing pupils
and their work so that judgment could be made based on the
results of the measurement and assessment.
For example, if a teacher gives a test to a class and a child
scores 80% that is Measurement, but if the teacher compares
that child’s grade with grades of other pupils in the group, he
will be judged to be either good or bad, passing or failing,
satisfactory or unsatisfactory, then an eva1uation has been
made. It may also be the teacher’s observation of the child’s
attitude towards, for example domestic animals, which will lead
the teacher to judge the child as either having a positive or
negative attitude towards domestic animals.
The evaluation aspect of each lesson unit is very important.
Evaluation is based on the objectives and it is the attainment of
these which is being evaluated. Evaluation should be based on
the child being able to demonstrate a certain amount of
understanding, perform a certain skill or exhibit a definite
attitude. The child’s behaviour at the end of the lesson should
indicate whether or not learning has taken place. The evaluation
common in the social studies syllabus, therefore, refers directly
to the curricular objective and tells exactly what is expected of
the child at the end of the sub-unit.
Evaluation has many important functions. Aims and
objectives can be clarified and redefined as a result of the nature
of children’s learning.
Through evaluation teachers gain insights into children’s
learning.
Through problems, and weaknesses. Evaluation
evidence is helpful in planning learning activities methods of
teaching and revising the curriculum program. Teachers and
pupils can feel secure if results are used constructively to
strengthen the curriculum. Finally, evaluation is essential in
fathering evidence needed to interpret and report students’
progress and to carry out an accountability program.
This means teacher’s should be committed because the
demands are high if we want our children to acquire functional
education.
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CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
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Evaluation should be based on certain principles for
developing and using evaluating devices effectively in all aspects
of appraisal or testing. They may be used in guiding selfevaluation, in teacher appraisal of classroom experience, and in
appraising the overall effectiveness of the program. These are: —
1. The teacher should have a comprehensive focus that values all
objectives of the programme not on one aspect. He should aim
at achieving objectives dealing with content, kills, and
concepts, attitudes and values. None should be overlooked
when he is assessing learning.
2. Evaluation should be included in the teaching of every unit.
Teachers that are effective always observe and note students
progress and need which may cause changes to improve
instruction. Some of the most valuable assessment procedures
are discussion, teacher observation, short tests, and check
lists. They provide immidiate feedback to the benefit of both
teachers add students.
3. Evaluation should be an on going process. It should be done in
every lesson, from day to day and throughout the year.
Teachers should continuously carry out diagnostic, formative
and summative evaluation on the pupils and curriculum
materials. Formative evaluation provides evidence on daily
learning and the effectiveness of instruction before applying
the curriculum on the learners Summative evaluation at the
end of units provides evidence on the attainment of unit
objectives. All three should be blended together as a part of
instruction and used to improve teaching and learning.
4. Teachers, parents, supervisors, administrators and students
should work together for an effective evaluation. Children
should be encouraged to answer questions and also evaluate
themselves. Parents should also be encouraged to discuss
goals, and achievements of their children. Supervisors and
curriculum workers should work with the teachers to provide
an effective evaluation program.
5. The central function of evaluation is to determine whether the
objectives have been achieved. This means, as already
mentioned, objectives should be clear and specific so it will be
easy to evaluate them. Clarity may be achieved by stating
objectives in performance or behavioral terms as shown
above.
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6. Evaluation can be done in a variety of situations. For example,
children’s growth in attitudes, interests, concepts and groupaction skill can be appraised in group planning, discussion,
staring, reporting, and evaluation. The way students behave
in dramatic activities and role playing reveals many evidences
of growth. How they use materials, share materials with
others, and give suggestions, accept new corners, arid work
together are of special importance. Students should be
evaluated in these and other situations to determine whether
key learnings are transmitted to their behavior. Creative
efforts also reveal evidence of leaning. It is therefore
important that the teacher uses different situations to
evaluate his pupils content materials and his own teaching.
7. Many and varied instruments and techniques of assessment
can be used to gather information on outcomes of instruction.
They are
Observation
Discussion
Interviews
Case study
Teacher-made tests
Published tests
Questionnaires
Checklists
The selection of any of the devices above depends on the
following conditions:(a) The situation under which children are working.
(b) The type of behavior involved. Examples below will
make the above condition clear.
If a teacher wants to gain insight into the use of concepts,
attitudes or group processes, the children should be observed in
discussions, play, and similar situations. The teacher can record
the observations. In a record book. If, on the other hand the
teacher wants to test the attitudes of children towards certain
objects or situations or persons; tests or attitude, questionnaires
should be used.
Teachers should not use only one device to evaluate a given
objective. For example, observation may be used continuously
even though checklists, ratings or tests are employed. A
combination of devices is generally better than a single device.
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The important thing is to decide on the type of evidence
recorded, and then to select and use those devices that will
secure it. Here is an example:
“Concepts and main ideas - observation, group
discussion, tests, samples of work, individual and
small group interviews.
Thinking processes - observation, group discussion,
charts, checklists, interviews, samples of work., Basic
skill-observation, tests, chart, check - lists,, group
discussion, worksheets, rating devices.
Attitudes, values and behavior patterns - observation,
questionnaires, checklists, rating devices, anecdotal
records, recordings, discussion interviews”.
It is important for teachers and curriculum workers to note
that as far as possible, assessment instruments selected for use
in any curriculum programme should meet the criteria of
validity, reliability, objectivity, practicality and applicability
(curricula
validity),
usefulness,
appropriateness
and
descriptiveness. The instruments should measure what they
purport to measure and should do so consistently and accurately.
They should give similar results for different persons and be
easy to administer, relatively inexpensive, and not too time
consuming. They should be appropriate to the level of
development of the group with which they will be used arid fit
into he overall program of evaluation, and the evidence they give
should describe the behavior of the children.
5.4 SUMMARY
This topic discussed how curriculum planned and
implementation using following format: Aim/objectives
content, method and learning experiences and evaluation
process.
5.5 SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
1.
2.
How is curriculum planned and implemented?
Explain how curriculum can be evaluated
5.6 REFERENCE
Audrey, J and Howards, T. (1972) Developing A Curriculum.
George, Allen University.
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5.7 SUGGESTED READINGS
Henick, V.E. (1980) The Concept Of Curriculum. University
of Chicago Press.
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SOLUTION TO EXERCISES
TOPIC 1
1. Curriculum was defined as the list of subjects on the time
table, which included Arithmetic, reading writing, singing,
Geography, History, Religion and Craft.
a.
Subject Centred curriculum is a graded course of
different subjects carried on in schools and colleges.
b.
Society-centred curriculum utilizes the experiences of
the pupils for society.
c.
Child-centred curriculum looks at curriculum as also
activities in school used for influencing the child
based on his/her needs and characteristics.
TOPIC 2
1. The scope of curriculum in Nigeria includes school subjects or
planned activities and experiences at school.
2. Physical development fitness and good health whose
curriculum includes the initial playful exercises of sensory
and motor apparatus resulting in adopting the individual to
the physical environment.
3. Intellectual training development through histories related by
parents, elders, proverbs etc.
4. Agriculture, which includes growing of crops vegetables
fruits, animal rearing and fishing.
5. Professions such as herbalist Priests, witch doctors, village
heads etc.
6. Community development emphasized in the broad Nigerian
education where the child grows as a functional adult
contributing to the development of the society.
TOPIC 3
1. Relating to the belief that the wealth or poverty of any
nation rest on her curriculum. Although there are the
science and arts curriculum, a nation that emphasizes a
science curriculum is richer and more advanced
technologically than a nation that emphasizes arts subjects
or arts curriculum.
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CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
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UNIT: 2
2. Since the amalgamation of Nigeria in 1914, it has largely
operated a foreign curriculum basically geared towards the
selfish interest of British colonial masters. However, the
Nigerian curriculum conference of 1969 was the first
attempt at indigenizing the curriculum and giving it a
sense of direction. This laid the foundation for the
economic and cultural growth of the country.
TOPIC 4
1. Curriculum development comprises of those deliberately
planned activities through which courses of study or
patterns of educational activities are designed and
presented as proposals for those in educational
institutions.
2. a. The objective model
b. The process model
c. The situational model
TOPIC 5
1 Curriculum can be planned and implemented through the
following process.
identification of aims/objectives
Identification of content
Method (learning experience)
Evaluation
2. Curriculum can be evaluated through measuring and
assessing of pupils and their work so that judgement could
be made based on the result of the measurement and
assessment.
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CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
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UNIT: 2
TOTUR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT
1.
What do you understand by curriculum?
2.
Discuss
what
you
understand
by
the
Nigerian
indigenous curriculum.
3. a.
b.
4.
How can you define curriculum development
Outline the process of curriculum development
How can you plan a curriculum on your subject of
specialization?
5. a.
b.
What is curriculum evaluation?
How can you assess your students performance at the
end of your course/subject?
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CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri