Retrieved 8 August 2009 from - Eastern Sport & Culture Planning

Table of Contents

1.“Colonial Effects and Equilibrium Setting -

Development of Physical Education in Hong King

/ W a l t e r K i n g Y a n H o ( U n i v e r s i t y o f M a c a u ) ·····································… … 1

2. Studies on the Status Quo of and Solutions for the Sports

Development in Rural Areas in Hubei Province

/ Guan Liyong & Zhou Xiaodong

(ZhongNan University of Economics and Law) ························… 11

3. Study on Teaching Effectiveness for Physical Education

Teacher in Taipei City Elementary School

/ Kuo, Tzu-Ling, Huang, Sen-Fang, Liu, Su-I, Lee, I-Sheng

(Tzu Chi University, Taipei Physical Education College)·············· 18

4. Perceptions on Hosting the 2008 Olympic Equestrian Events and

Physical Activity Levels among Secondary School Students in Hong

Kong

/ C h e u n g Siu Yin ( Ho n g Ko n g Ba p t is t Un iv e r s it y ) ·································· 3 2

5. The Comparative Analysis of Male Taekwondo Techniques and

Tactics between China and Foreign Countries

/ Zhou Caiyou, Xu Haihong(Physical Education College of Jiangxo Normal University)

Xie Hui(Physical Education College of Jiangxi University of Finance and Economy)······ 40

6. Constraints to Korean Adolescents’ Leisure:

The Value of Recreational Sport Activities

/ Se-Hyuk Park(Seoul National University of Technology )······················ 46

7. Sources of Stress in Malaysian University Athletes

/ Wee Eng Hoe, Kee Kang Mea, Ong Tah Fatt & Nadiah Diyana Tan Abdullah

(Faculty of Sports Science &

Recreation University Teknologi MARA. Malaysia)······················· 53

8. Image Factors Affecting Soccer Players’Likeability

/ Susan Kim and Yoo Yeon Kim

( K o r e a N a t i o n a l S p o r t s U n i v e r s i t y ) ·········································· 6 3

9. An Overview on Experience of China Competitive Sport Development

/ ZHENG Guo-Hua(Physical Education College, Jiangxo Normal University)

XIONG Xiao-zheng(Olympic Research Center of Beijing Sport University)

Xiao Na(Physical Education College,Jiangxi Normal University)··············· 75

10. Qualutative Research on Teaching-Style of Korean Yoga Instructors

/ DeuKja Oh • Booja Kim(Pusan National University, South Korea)········· 84

11. On the Positive Feedback Between Liu Xiang’s Achievement of

110m Hurdle Race and Competitive Action

/ Cheng Qilian, Li Weiyan, Zhang Yuanyuan, Zhang Yanfeng, & Yan Caiqing

(P.E college of Jiangxi Normal Univ., Nanchang, China)············· 94

12. Comparative Study of Body Physique, Physical Fitness between

Korean and Egyptian Physical Education Students

/ Abouzeid Magdy (1), Lee, Jong-Young (2), Mohamed G (1)

(1) Faculty of Sport Education, Alexandria Univ, Egypt

(2) The Univ. of Suwon, S. Korea··········································· 102

13. The Investigation of Exercise/Smoking Behavior and

Health Conditions on College Students in North Taiwan

/ Hsieh, Ming-Feng / Lin, Yi-jia、Su, Wei-Hung, Cheng-Hsiu Lai

( T a i p e i P h y s i c a l E d u c a t i o n C o l l e g e ) ································· 1 1 2

14. Nearly 13 Year’s Analysis on Physique Research State in China

/ Song Zheng-Xue(Kyungpook National Univ., S. Korea )······················ 120

15. A Qualitative Study on Eastern Martial Arts

/ Cho, Ki-jung & Lee, Young-Chul(The Univ. of Suwon, South Korea)······· 130

16. The Analysis of the Emergency’s Influence on Olympic Games

/ Zhou Meifang, Gao Sheng, Zhang Yanfeng, & Li Weiyan

(P.E College of Jiangxi Normal University Nanchang Jiangxi, China)······· 139

17. The Influence of Heart Quantitative Load Experiment in

Middle-Aged Women from all Walks of Life

/ Zhou Ai-qing, Qian Guo-rong, & Ma Lei(JiangXi Normal University, China)···· 148

Colonial Effects and Equilibrium Setting-

Development of Physical Education in Hong Kong

1

Colonial Effects and Equilibrium Setting –

Development of Physical Education in Hong Kong

Walter King Yan Ho

(University of Macau)

Abstrac t

Western colonization is always seen as powerful and effective force in reaching beyond national boundaries to impose new political and economic orders and new set of cultural norms and values upon nations too weak to resist military and ideological onslaught. This scenario suggests a dependent development in colony and a passive condition for receiver in the face of the coming of foreign influence. To further illustrate this pattern of thought, the equilibrium setting as suggested by Parson (1964) indicates a change in one part produces compensatory changes of others to keep the society function smoothly. Thus, social development falls into a pattern with longer the time of contact or greater the impact imposed by the colonizer, the narrow the gap between the colonizer and indigenous society due to the functional effect in keeping the society to go forward in order to ease the differences. A study of the recent physical education development in Hong Kong presents a reverse situation with an equilibrium setting caused by the modifying works from indigenous people. Under this scenario, western thought and practice are adsorbed in a selective way that reflects the understanding, practice and social needs of the indigenous people. The indigenous society changes the foreign practice with new perspectives and presents in a new way for the adoption. The study suggests that colonization provides the sources for change. An equilibrium setting is manifested but at the pace of the indigenous people. Their works makes the development of foreign products in a different way with the existence of new practice for physical education.

Keywords : Equilibrium Setting, Colonization, Development of Physical Education in Hong Kong

Introduction

Western colonization is always seen as powerful and effective force in reaching beyond national boundaries to impose new political and economic orders and new set of cultural norms and values upon nations too weak to resist military and ideological onslaught. As such, colonization involves a country being in a dependent situation in

2 Pan-Asian Journal of Sports & Physical Education social development. It happens when colonial policies are implemented immediately after the establishment of colonial rule in an indigenous society. However, the take over does not represent a direct following of the colonial ruling and act in a passive way to all the development from the colonizer. Rebound to the process of colonization has been seen and rebellion or political uprising is the example to illustrate this simple fact.

These incidences indicate a national development or works from the indigenous people as counter effects for the colonial influence. Colonial experiences are better understood as stimulants or sources for many intellectuals to think on questions about their society, about themselves, their culture and their history. Sometimes many of these questions are seldom asked before by their predecessors. In this case, colonization represents an age of questioning and reformation and the process has special meaning to the indigenous culture (Ho, 1999). This scenario indicates an equilibrium setting where colonizer’s works are important but not dominant.

Regarding to this issue, a study of the recent physical education development in Hong

Kong present a reverse situation with an equilibrium setting mainly caused by the works of indigenous people. Under this scenario, western thought and practice are adsorbed rather than act as an imposed action. The western thought and practice is developed in an intrinsic way that reflects the understanding, practice and social needs of the indigenous people. Within the process of development, the choice of people has the dominant effect to determine the progress of works to the indigenous society. The following examples in physical education from Hong Kong may help to illustrate this point and enhance the understanding of the nature of physical education.

Development of Physical Education in Hong Kong (From 1964 to 2003)

Hong Kong was ceded to British in 1847 after the Opium War. The introduction of physical education in Hong Kong can be seen as a foreign product as there was no concept of this kind in helping students to develop their talent through physical activities in traditional Chinese schools.

The adoption of “laissez-faire” policy in education is what it develops at the very beginning of occupation. Under the policy, British officials were allowed to “refrain from any kind of educational intervention. They could support the rulers and offer them one kind of education or they could develop an education system common to both rulers and ruled. They could have imposed a British type of education regardless of the consequences” (Watson, 1982, p.94). The principle adopted by the officials in Hong

Kong at that time was to set a good standard of work in government schools so that the local schools could follow (Annual report of the Director of Education for the year 1924,

1925). Such attitude in education development dominated the educational field for many years until 1950s when there was a change of political situation in China. The end of the



3 civil war in China in 1949 led to the arrival of large refugees to this city and the government decided to take up a more responsible attitude toward education. The systematic introduction of physical education in schools began in 1964 when inspectors from Education Department returned to Hong Kong after their study in UK. They issued the first Scheme of Physical Education in this year and offered guidelines to physical education teachers. Such action marked the beginning of government commitment to the development of physical education.

When there was a large inflow of refugees from China in early 1950s, the government replaced the “laissez-faire” attitude with more responsible policy in the teaching and learning of physical education. Government decided to send inspectors to England for learning and in 1964 when these inspectors returned from their study, they issued the

Scheme of Physical Education in this year. The Scheme suggested the introduction of games learning in physical education but eventually placed with a specific pattern for the delivery. A “Four Sessions” model in planning the physical education lesson may well to explain the teaching and learning situation.

Table 1: Suggested Duration of Lessons

Activities

Free/Opening Activity

General/Compensatory Activities

Game/Group Activities

Order Activity

Time Allocation

5 – 5 min

7 – 10 min

12 – 15 min

1 – 5 min

Sources: A Scheme of Physical Education for Hong Kong Primary Schools (Parts 1 & 2) (1964).

Although the introduction indicated games learning and new perspective in teaching physical education, the promotion on the use of this model and syllabus were never able to gain the necessary recognition due to the political unrest at that time. The political atmosphere in Hong Kong was deeply affected by the Cultural Revolution in China and many schools were closed.

After the 1968 anti-British riot, the Hong Kong government recognized the need to modernize her education so that the young children would be trained to have critical minds and thus be less motivated by communist ideology. One of the ways was to revolutionize the teaching method and allow children to develop under a democratic environment. Many inspectors were sent to England again and other western countries to study the Open Classroom Concept. The result of this intensive study finally led to the introduction of the “Activity Approach” to all primary schools, and they were encouraged to practice the approach in teaching young children (Lau, 1980). The purpose of putting forth the Activity Approach was as follows (Chan 1980):

1.

To adopt a less formal approach to learning in primary schools;

4 Pan-Asian Journal of Sports & Physical Education

2.

To encourage learning by doing purposeful activities conducive to the full development of the individual child;

3.

To provide a stimulating environment to promote self-initiated learning;

4.

To ensure that the teacher’s role in the learning process is to guide rather than to instruct;

5.

To provide opportunities for children to learn at their own pace according to their own ability; and

6.

To make the school a happy place for children.

When this factor is evaluated, it is obvious that the Activity Approach refers to a kind of learning that requires the learner to do something more than looking at and listening to a teacher or packaged teaching materials, opposing the passive acceptance of ready made and structured answers or predigested evaluation from teachers. In other words,

Activity Approach refers to active learning by the learner, and activities are the means to enhance the learning. This concept strengthened the use of games to reinforce the learning in physical education. Games teaching are then considered as the essential steps to organize the teaching in physical education. This concept is included in every syllabus in physical education and consistently to encourage the use of games for skill development. The following table summaries the work of government from 1975 to

1995 in the development of syllabus in physical education and views on the teaching of the subject. Game is addressed but works as conclusion in every lesson to reinforce the learning of specific skill.

Table 2: Curriculum Document in Physical Education

Syllabus in PE Methods suggested in teaching physical education

Syllabus for Secondary

Schools – Provisional

Syllabus for Physical

Education (Forms I-VI)

(1975) (p.4)

Syllabus for Primary

Schools – Physical

Education (1985) (p.7)

Generally speaking, each physical education lesson should have definite objectives and should comprise three parts .

The first part should provide an opportunity for students to be warmed up,

The next part should devoted to the teaching and practicing of skills and movements ;

The final parts, to the game/dance/apparatus, thus putting into practice the skills or movements learned during the previous part of the lesson .

Generally speaking, each physical education lesson should have definite objectives and should comprise three parts .

The first part should include warming-up activities which help to prepare pupils for the lesson.

The second part should be devoted to the teaching and practicing of skills and movements which would be applied and reinforced by pupils working in groups and in activity situations.

The final part is closing activities.



5

Syllabus for Secondary

Schools – Physical

Education (Secondary -V)

(1988) (p.6)

Syllabus for Physical

Education (Primary 1-6)

(1995) (P.7)

Each and every lesson should have definite objectives and should comprise four parts.

The first part should provide an opportunity for students to be warmed up.

The next part should be devoted to the teaching and practicing of skills and movements.

The third part is group activities, where learned skills are applied in activity situation.

Generally speaking, each physical education lesson should have definite objectives and should comprise three parts . The first part should include warming-up activities which help to prepare pupils for the lesson. The second part should be devoted to the teaching and practicing of skills and movements, which would be applied and reinforced by pupils working in groups and in activity situations.

The final part is closing activity.

Regarding to the development of this teaching method in physical education, the following physical education lesson taken from Hong Kong in 2000 may well to conclude the use of games teaching to reinforce the learning of sport skills and motor development (Ho, 2008a; 2008b).

Table 3: Time allocated for different activities in physical education lesson

Vertical Jump - (Primary Two)

Line Up

Stretching & Warm Up Activities

Skill Learning

Modified Games

Cool Down

Total Class Time

5 min

4 min

12 min

10 min

4 min

35 min

Table 4: Games Teaching – The use of modified to reinforce skill practice

Activities Teaching Sequences

Vertical Jump Vertical Jump with both feet and single leg



Students place a color band on floor and practice vertical jump with both feet



Students place a color band on floor, walk one step forward with single leg jump



Combine vertical jump and single leg jump together, walk freely in court



Single leg jump and land with an alphabetic



Jump with an alphabetic and make a word when you land



Ask students to recall the word

Relay games



Jump with both feet along cones and followed by single leg jump on hoops



Relay games – Jump and travel with the hoop to the finishing line


The modified game serves with two purposes; to reinforce the skill learning and a good mastery of the skill implies a good mastery of the game. Skills form the context for games learning and at the same time games reinforce the development of different skills.

The approach encourages the use of games as the conclusion in every physical education lesson and emphasis the learning pattern from “parts” to “whole”. Group discussions and questioning are uncommon during the class lesson. Demonstration and modeling techniques are the common techniques used in class, although group works are introduced (Please view table 6 on this information. Demonstration is the suggested model by Education Department in 2002). In other words, teacher attempts to build a structured environment with games as challenge for the development of motor abilities and sport skill. The use of this approach is very different to the traditional thought in games teaching (Bunker & Thorpe, 1982).

Forming of Tradition in Teaching Physical Education

The high attention on the teaching of sport skills faces criticism due to its little attention for the development of generic skills and other life quality. As such, the curriculum reform in 2000 focuses on the revision of the physical education curriculum so that it becomes a coherent, integrated and comprehensive physical education program that aims “to improve the educational prospects of students and their health condition, rather than emphasizing too much on sports” (Learning to Learn Key Learning Area

(KLA) Physical Education (Consultation Document), 2000, p.3). The document utilized a large volume of discussion on the development of generic skills, critical thinking, collaboration skills, communication skills, creativity, information technology skills, numeracy skills, problem solving skills, self management skills and study skills. For the curriculum strategies, discussion focuses on assessment, strands, life-long learning, generic skills development, etc. The teaching of sport skills is placed with least priority.

The following table may help to illustrate this factor of development in year 2000 reform works in physical education.

Table 5: Content of Discussion in Year 2000 Curriculum Reform Document

Contents of Discussion in the Consultation

Document

Page

Number

Number of Pages

P.8 1

Strands

Generic Skills and Values and Attitudes in

Physical Education

P.9 1

Modes of Curriculum Planning

P.10 1

PE Activities and Content Organization

P.11-12 2

Teaching, learning and Assessment

P.13-15 3



7

School-based Curriculum Development and

Life-wide learning

Integrated Learning

Learning Objectives in the six Strands

P.16

P.17

P.20-27

P30-47

1

1

8

18

Generic Skills (Critical Thinking,

Collaboration Skills, Communication Skills,

Creativity, Information Technology Skills,

Numeracy Skills, Problem Solving Skills, Self

Management Skills and Study Skills) and related development in Physical Education

Values and Attitudes Related to Physical

Education

P.50-51 2

Integrated Learning

P.54-56 3

Morning Exercise

P.58-60 3

Rope Jumping and Sport Culture Development

P.62-64 3

Fundamental Movement Exercises and its relationship with Strands, Generic Skills,

Values and Attitudes and Assessment

P.66-70 5

Sources: Learning to Learn Key Leaning Area Physical Education Consultation Document (2000)

The reform focuses on curriculum information and necessary changes to create a better development for physical education. Nevertheless, there is no discussion on the delivery pattern and the effective ways to develop generic skills and other life-qualities in physical education. The model “Skill, Skill, Skill and Game” teaching pattern remains unchange in teaching physical activities. Teaching follows a pattern of skill teaching, demonstration, practice, immediate feedback and games at the end to reinforce the learning.

Table 6: The Teaching and Learning Approach in Physical Education

Physical Education

Key Learning Area

Curriculum Guide

(Primary 1 – Secondary

3) (2002) (p.60 – p.62)

Approaches to Learning and Teaching – Organization of

Learning and Teaching:



Lessons could generally be divided into four stages; warm up, learning and practice of skills, group activities and closing activities.

Approaches to Learning and Teaching – Teaching Skills:



Teachers should give ample opportunities for students to practice and avoid lengthy explanations.



Instructions and teaching points should be brief and precise, and complement with demonstrations as far as possible.



Teachers should always provide immediate feedback so that students can understand their own performance and make improvement.

Source: Physical Education Key Learning Area Curriculum Guide (Primary 1 – Secondary 3) (2002)


The Equilibrium Setting – A Concluding Remark

A system is said to be in an equilibrium situation when there is a dynamic working a balance among different interdependent parts. Each subsystem adjusts its context until equilibrium is set. The process of achieving equilibrium is a slow process with time to settle the differences. To make it successful, the development relies on readiness of the society.

For that, Ruscoe’s (1969) experiences in educational development in developing countries may help to further illustrate this concept and to understand the behavior of borrowing others materials in educational development. In his discussion, he emphasized that for a practice to be functionally suitable is one important criterion for borrowing but is not enough to satisfy a nation’s developmental needs. Good techniques are essential components for educational development but they are not in themselves sufficient to ensure its success. Ruscoe (1969) points out that the readiness of a nation is extremely important in the process of borrowing. This information is important to educational planners, because it means that a development program must be able to be adapted to the society and the social components of the society are the prime concern. It is unwise merely to seek out external elements and suggest that a nation change according to those outside elements. In fact this was the mistake that Beeby committed.

Ruscoe (1969) quoted an experience Beeby had when working with a team in South

America to develop their education system in the 50s.

“Twenty years ago I helped to organize what was perhaps the first fully international mission sent to advise a developing country on its plan for educational development. Looking back over a couple of decades, I was horrified at the naiveté of our assumption that all the team had to do was to tell the country what was wrong with its educational system and indicate the general lines that should be followed to improve it. The experts we sent were first-rate, and their reports were as good as any group could have produced at that time and in that place. ... What we who organized the mission almost completely ignored was the capacity of the country at that stage of its development. ... but, in the years between, technically beautiful plans had sometimes come to rest in the dust of pigeon-holes no less ignominiously than the cruder schemes of an earlier generation. It had become increasingly clear that, in the words of Dr. Ruscoe, however ‘necessary’ techniques might be good to a modern plan for education, they were not in themselves ‘sufficient’ to ensure its success. Factors beyond the control of any planner could render his work of little avail” (Cited in Ruscoe,

1969, p.iii-iv).

Although Beeby sent an expert and top-rated advisory team to the developing country, their advice was not appropriate for that country’s developmental stage. What they forgot was the unique conditions and characteristics of the country. Subsequently, the country did not feel the need to accept the plan of the advisory team. His experience indicates that it is important to investigate the internal conditions of a society and the



9 country’s readiness before introducing external influences (Wagner, 1989).

The experience in Hong Kong satisfies this criterion with a readiness situation for development. The sending of inspectors to England in early 1960s marked the beginning of games learning. The riot in 1968 may well to set the urge for reform. The further study on Open Classroom Learning and introduction of Activities Approach consolidated the format (Lau, 1980). Teachers were then received training and the former college of education prepared every young teacher with this concept in teaching.

Schools received extra funding to support the teaching if they decided to choose Activity

Approach in teaching. The large volume means that the society is ready to accept new change. Nevertheless, the lack of further study on the real essence of the Activity

Approach and the delivery pattern in teaching made it fell in line with the traditional understanding in sport learning. Games were the means to enhance the learning of sport skills rather than adopting an approach with games as the dominant focus. Although nearly half of the Hong Kong primary schools claimed themselves as Activity Approach schools, “Pseudo Activity Approach” was in fact the real situation. This refers to the phenomenon that classrooms still practised the traditional skill learning setting but under an Activity Approach atmosphere (Fung, Wong, Leung, Wu, Chan and Chow, 1997).

“Readiness” seems to be the necessary condition for success but it does not guarantee a parallel development between the donor and receiver. The “Skill, Skill, Skill and

Game” model may be a good example to indicates this scenario that equilibrium setting is manifested but at the pace of the indigenous people. That also explains the different development of physical education between the East and West. We share the same message in teaching physical education but with different essence and practice.

References

[1] A Scheme of Physical Education for Hong Kong Primary Schools (Parts 1 & 2) (1964).

Hong Kong:Education Department.

[2] Annual Report of the Director of Education for the year 1924.

(1925). Hong Kong:

Hong Kong Government.

[3] Bunker, D.J. & Thorpe, R.D. (1982). A model for the teaching of games in secondary schools. Bulletin of Physical Education . 18(1), 5-8.

[4] Chan, B. (1980). Evaluating the Effectiveness of the Activity Approach in Lower

Primary

[5] Grades in Hong Kong.

Hong Kong: Social Research Center, The Chinese University of

Hong Kong.

[6] Fung, Y.Y., Wong, H.W., Leung, S.Y., Wu, S.W. Chan, S.Y. and Chow, P.M. (1997). To evaluate the Activities Approach in Hong Kong. In. H.W. Wong (ed.) Compulsory


Schooling: System and Curriculum . Hong Kong: Chinese University of Hong Kong.

197-223.

[7] Ho, W. (1999). British colonization and modern sports education development – the case of Hong

[8] Kong. In G. Pfister and Y.Y. Liu (eds.) Sports – the East and the West.

Sankt Augustin:

Academia Verlag. 72-76.

[9] Ho, W. (2008a) Geographical Mapping in Teaching Physical Education. Paper will be presented at the16 th Biennial Conference of ISCPES. Macau, China. (23-26 July)

[10] Ho, W. (2008b) Games Learning in Tianjin and Hong Kong – An Alternative

Perspective for Teaching Games for Understanding. Poster presentation at the Teaching

Games for Understanding 2008 Conference. Vancouver, Canada. (14-17 May).

[11] Lau. K.F. (1980). Introduction to Activity Approach.

Hong Kong: Education

Department.

[12] Learning to Learn Key Learning Area Physical Education (Consultation Document)

(2000). Hong Kong: Curriculum Development Council, Education Department.

[13] Parsons, T. (1964). The Social System.

Glencoe, Ill.: Free Press.

[14] Ruscoe, G.C. (1969). The Conditions for Success in Educational Planning.

UNESCO:

International Institute for Educational Planning.

[15] Syllabus for Secondary Schools – Provisional Syllabus for Physical Education (Forms

1-VI) (1975). Hong Kong: Curriculum Development Committee.

[16] Syllabus for Primary Schools –Physical Education (Forms 1-VI) (1985). Hong Kong:

Curriculum

[17] Development Committee.

[18] Syllabus for Secondary School Physical Education (Secondary I-V) (1988). Hong Kong:

The

[19] Curriculum Development Committee. Education Department.

[20] Syllabus for Physical Education (Primary 1-6) (1995). Hong Kong: The Curriculum

Development Council. Education Department.

[21] Wagner, E. A. (1989). An overview of sport in Asia and Africa. In W. A. Wagner (ed.)

Sport in Asia and Africa - A Comparative Handbook. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood.

3-11.

[22] Watson, K. (1982). Education and colonialism in Peninsular Malaysia. In K. Watson

(ed.) Education in the Third World . London: Croom Helm. 88-107.

Studies on the Status Quo of and Solutions for the Sports


11

Studies on the Status Quo of and Solutions for the Sports

Development in Rural Areas in Hubei Province

Guan Liyong ＆ Zhou Xiaodong

（ZhongNan University of Economics and Law）

Abstrac

t

The sport event in rural areas is a public event aiming to serve the farmers and improve their physical conditions. Under such circumstances, farmers are the target of the event. Accelerating the development of sport in rural areas is one of the effective measures to carry out the policies on agriculture, rural areas and farmers, which aims to help the farmers build strong physique and eventually makes them more energetically involved in the economic activities. This paper, with the purpose of finding solutions for the sustainable sports development in rural areas of Hubei province, will analyze the status quo of sports development and the problems.

Keywords : Sports event in rural areas, Sports participants, Sports interests

With the development of economy and progress of social civilization, people’s material and cultural living standards have been improved and their life style and production mode have been changed. So they have diverse purposes, like purpose of leisure, of entertainment, and of self-perfection, and demands for physical exercises.

Now over 70 percent of China’s population lives in the rural areas of this big agriculture country. The rural sport is an important part of public sport, whose development is closely related with the improvement of the overall quality of Chinese nation. Thus, the party and the central government always give priority to the rural problems, taking rural development, rural building and improvement of farmers’ living standards as important measures in stabilizing the country. If farmers can’t get rich, there is no real sense of wealth for all Chinese people. If farmers don’t have strong body, it is impossible to improve the overall quality of the Chinese nation. Therefore, the government worked out an outline of the nationwide body-building plan in 1995, taking the improvement of farmers’ physical quality and health as an important thing for social development in rural areas. The year of 2004 was identified as the Year of Rural sport by General

Administration of Sport of China, carrying out many activities in rural areas, like bringing the sports equipments, fitness guidance and sports science to the countryside.

How about the development of rural sport in Hubei province in recent years? How to

12 Pan-Asian Journal of Sports & Physical Education develop the rural sport? These are questions worth discussing.

Research Subjects and Methods

In this paper, the research subject is the rural inhabitants living in 12 prefecture-level cities, 38 municipal districts under the jurisdiction of one autonomous prefecture, 24 county-level cities, 37 counties, 2 autonomous counties and 1 forest region. The scientific research methods adopted in this paper include questionnaire, literature consultation, interview, mathematical statistics and other methods.

Results and Analysis

The status quo of rural sport in Hubei province

The rural sport in Hubei province has a substantial foundation and a long history.

With the rural economic and social development, people’s health awareness among the rural areas has been strengthened a lot. Government begins to attach great importance to support rural sport development. As sport venue and equipment have been greatly upgraded, more and more people take part in physical exercises and sports activities. In

1992, the 2nd National Farmers’ Games was successfully held in Xiaogan, Hubei province, which was an eye-opener to all farmers in the province. Many farmers realized that in the new period of times, they not only need to work at sunrise and rest at sunset, but also need to participate in recreational activities so as to build a stronger body. These changes reflect the sound development of rural sport. In spite of these delightful achievements and outstanding models emerged in recent several decades, the rural sport development is imbalance, even lags behind as a whole. There is a big gap between the reality and the need of times. According to this survey, the basic characteristics of rural sport in Hubei province are followings:

The relative lack of Participants and sports awareness

Hubei province has 60.01 million people, while the rural population reaches to 43 million. Holding one sports game or ball games once a year, which is only the first step in attracting most of rural people to body-building, can’t represent the requirements for sports exercises of numerous rural people. The author has interviewed rural people in 33 villages and towns. Through these visits, the author have found that only 12.6 percent of total rural population will attend physical exercises and recreational activities in spare time, such as fitness, ball games, dragon boat racing, martial art, dragon dance, lion dance, chess and so on; 87.4 percent are doing something irrelevant to sport exercises, such as playing mah-jong, doing chore, chatting, watching TV and so on. All of these only show that most of farmers don’t join physical exercise, as it is far less attractive than TV, card games, and mah-jong. There is a long way to go for rural sport



13 development due to the lack of physical exercise awareness and misunderstanding to sports exercise in rural areas.

The unbalance of rural sport development

This survey shows that the sports activities carried out in peri-urban villages and towns are better than those carried out in remote rural areas, and so are sports facilities.

It is because that they are on the verge of cities, the economic conditions are better than those of remote areas, the per capita living standards are higher, people have stronger awareness of sport function and the local government always attaches great importance to physical quality improvement, taking it as an important measure to construct new socialism village, and greatly invests in sports development. Moreover, farmers participate in sports exercises with stronger enthusiasm. Every year, in order to attract more farmers to participate in sports activities, these villages and towns will hold an interesting sports game or a basketball game, and every village will join the game as a unit. Through these measures, the rural population participating in sports exercises is increasing. On the contrary, the situation in remote village is different.

The sports venues and facilities are unable to meet the needs of sports exercises

The sports venues and facilities are indispensable to sports activities and exercises.

On average each village or town in this survey just has 1.65, less than 2, track fields with over 200 meters runway; each village or town has 6.3 basketball courts. All these sports venues and facilities, such as basketball court, ping-pong table and chess room, are mainly located in enterprises, public institutions and schools. These facilities are only accessed to staff of schools or institutions and their family members. It is known that farmers are very short of sports venues.

The lack of effective organization, management, training staff and experienced executors

According to statistics of this survey, 906 villages and towns of 63 districts, counties and cities all have staff mainly in charge of culture, sport and health work. Since the rural population is distributed in different areas with different timetables of work and rest, it is hard to carry out sports activities and games without effective organization. But many staff put more attentions to cultural management than sports events organization.

So rural sport at the grassroots is unable to be organized and managed effectively.

Moreover, the executors of sports organization in rural areas are lack of formal training, which greatly restrains the development of rural sport.

The analysis on reasons impacting the rural sport development


As a social phenomenon, sport is characterized by its independence and special requirements of development. At the same time, it also is a part of the social structure. In this big social system, sport is closely related to and impacted by other social activities, such as economy, culture and education. The same is true of rural sport. Its external environment will directly impact the development.

Economy

Economy is the main factor impacting the rural sport development in Hubei province since it is the basic of social development and rural sport development. The scale, level and speed of rural sport development depend, to a large extent, on the level of economic development and material conditions provided by economic development for rural sport as well as on the change of personal economic condition caused by economic development, people’s concept, ways of thinking and behaviors. It can be said that, if the economic problem can’t be resolved, the rural sport can’t develop healthily. Physical exercises can’t be realized for the large population in the rural areas. Why does the rural sport in the rich eastern region develop so fast? It is mainly because in these areas, the economy is developed very fast, which has closed the gap between city and countryside.

The economic foundation of rural areas in Hubei province is relatively weaker than those of eastern rural areas. The total rural per capita income of 1998 was only 2103

Yuan, about 50% less than the average level in northeast rural areas. Despite 71.16 million Yuan provincial fiscal expenditure on agriculture, it is far enough for rural areas with an urge to develop sport. Moreover, the rural sport development has been in a marginal place with little economic support and investment. That will seriously affect the healthy and ordered development of rural sport.

Management

The effective organization and management of governments at all levels are an important guarantee for rural sport development. Chinese people get used to following any demands from the upper authority, which means the order from a leader will speed up problem resolving process. So a foresighted leader is crucial to rural sport development. If the leader attaches importance to the improvement of rural people’s physical quality and supports the rural sport development, some difficulties in the way of development will be easier to settle. For those villages and towns directly in charge of sports work, they don’t set up rural sport mechanism at grassroots, resulting in poor management and loose organization. Even though these counties and towns have personnel in charge of sports work, they can’t fulfill the responsibilities for guidance, coordination and supervision, which seriously affect the rural sport development .

Culture and Education



15

Sport is an outcome of social development, influenced by culture and education. So is the rural sport as a part of public sport. Subjected to the traditional idea, most of farmers have misunderstanding and prejudice on sport for a long time. They think sport is not as useful as knowledge to change their destiny. Some famers think that farming is also a physical exercise, or they will only attend sports exercises when they are bored. All of these tell us how farmers think of sport. Although some traditional sports activities, such as martial art, dragon boating race, dragon dance, and lion dance and so on, have been passed down in rural areas, people don’t usually do these exercises and the participants become fewer and fewer.

Solutions for Rural Sport Development in Hubei province

Strengthening government function and put more efforts on promotion

The establishment and practice of the outline of nationwide body-building plan need all people’s action and participation over the country. Nationwide body-building would be an empty slogan without participation of people. Thus governments at all levels attach great importance to rural sport development. We should change our conception, and put people first. We should clearly realize that our efforts to boost the development of rural sport at present will benefit our future generations. It not only brings people stable life and nice mood in the work, but also economic and social benefits. On one side, we should strengthen management. Promoting advanced experience in those villages and towns where sports activities are carried out very well is a necessity as it will boost the overall development of rural sport. In Guohe town, Xiantao, the government unified the planning and use of land by investing 5 million Yuan to dig a

1000 meters long and 120 meters wide special track for dragon boat racing, which can be both used for aquaculture and holding sports games. For those villages and towns where sports activities are not carried out well, it is necessary to reorganize the work within a specified time, effectively bringing the sports equipments, fitness guidance and sports science to the countryside. On the other side, we should provide more fiscal support to rural sport because sports development and economic development will influence each other. The sports administrative departments at all levels should build more sports venues, which are convenient, economical and practical for farmers.

Improving the organization and strengthening personnel training

Since the sports facilities in rural areas are backward, and the rural population is distributed in different areas with various timetables of work and rest, it is hard to carry out sports activities and games without effective organization. The villages and towns should establish a sports workgroup, fitness guidance center and entertainment center or station, which are managed by culture and sports institution at county-level, and assign

16 Pan-Asian Journal of Sports & Physical Education special officers who have passion for sport and be experienced in management; should establish a sports association for farmers and several public fitness clubs and associations of single sport; should provide physical test for farmers regularly and hold activities and games for physical standard test. At the same time, we should put more efforts on sports teachers’ training to improve their professional level, which is beneficial to the further promotion of sport in rural areas and the training of rural sport executors, through whom to attract more people to join physical exercises so as to expand the number of people attending rural sport.

Establishing base and developing with local characteristics

Due to the vast territory and geographical differences in rural areas, the status and development of sports exercises are different. Local Government should explore advantageous or potential sports events in line with local conditions and requirements of development. The government should establish sports development base which not only encourages more farmers to join in, but also drives the rural sport development. For example, the sports base can be established in the following places where the sports events are developed to a certain scale with their own characteristics: Zigui of Yichang

City, the place where the annual dragon boat festival is held, which not only carries forward the rural sport and culture, but also brings about enormous economic benefits to the city; dragon dance teams of Chengui town in Daye, basketball teams of Zelin town in Ezhou, and track and field team of Gongan county are also good options. From the cases above we can notice that the development of rural sport must base on farmers’ interests and local conditions.

In conclusion, the rural sport in Hubei province is developing soundly in a correct direction. But due to some objective reasons, there are still a few of problems in rural areas, such as lack of sports awareness, little participants in sports exercises, and ineffective promotion, especially in the villages or towns where economy relatively lags behind. Such problems have seriously restricted the development of farmers’ physical quality. With further implementation of policies on agriculture, rural areas and farmers, with more effective management and promotion carried out by governments at all levels and with the increasing farmers’ sports and health awareness, the rural sport will have a brighter future.

Reference s

[1] Chinese research team on status quo of public sport. Studies on the status quo of

Chinese public sport . Beijing: Beijing sports university press, 1998

[2] Lv Shuting, Pei Lixin. Studies on Chinese rural sport development centered on small towns



17

[3] Guangdong: Sport academic journal, 2005(5)

[4] Ma Xianying, Yanglei. Rural sport: The bottleneck restricting the rural sport development Beijing: Beijing sports university academic journal, 2004 (4)

[5] Chen Ning. Introduction to Nation-wide fitness [M]. Sichuan: Sichuan education press.


Study on Teaching Effectiveness for Physical Education

Teacher in Taipei City Elementary School

Kuo,Tzu-Ling、Huang,Sen-Fang、Liu,Su-I、Lee,I-Sheng

(Tzu Chi University、Taipei Physical Education College)

Abstract

The role played by the teacher is one of the indispensable elements during teaching process. The proper conduct and behavioral orientation for teacher are pertinent to the ups and downs for teaching quality. Thus, this directly impacts the learning performance for students. Based on this, the purpose of this research explores (1) understanding the current status of teaching effectiveness for Taipei city elementary schools; (2) aspects of difference in teaching effectiveness derived from background variables from different teachers.

This research utilizes queries to collect needed information. The queries include: 1.

Individual information; 2. Teaching effectiveness rating scale and the rating scale adopting the compiled and prescribed “teaching effectiveness rating scale” from Lin,

Guo-Ruei (2001) as research tool. The rating scales include five profiles in teaching preparedness, systematic presentation of teaching materials, teaching strategy, teaching assessment and class management. This research targets at subjects from physical education teachers for elementary schools in Taipei city, with random samplings collected from 24 elementary schools in Taipei City and 10 persons per school with final grand totals of 240 persons. Within these subjects, the effective samplings account for

186 persons with 77.5% returning ratios. Information processing adopts descriptive statistics, independent-samples t-test, One-way ANOVA and Scheffe’s posterior comparisons. The major conclusions for this research are (1) The scoring situation ranked as upper middle range for overall teaching effectiveness of physical education teachers in Taipei City elementary schools; (2) Variables like marriage, seniority, physical education major and academic degree obtained did register significant differences in regard to the impact from physical education teachers upon the teaching effectiveness.

Keywords: Elementary school, physical education teacher, teaching effectiveness

Research Background

Study on Teaching Effectiveness for Physical Education


19

Education is the nation’s long-term plan and subsequent implementation effort, is also how this nation was founded upon. All advanced countries in the world dedicate their resources to national and societal developments and the promoting for education reform is always on top of the priority list, naturally, upgrading the quality of education is equivalent to the act of laying the foundation for future progress of this country at large.

And teacher plays a critical role in education process. The most important work for teacher is teaching, the teaching effectiveness not only can influence the reaching for teaching goals but also the education qualities as well. Therefore, how to upgrade teacher’s teaching effectiveness so as to reach the preset education goals becomes the essentials for current education reform. Teacher with teaching effectiveness will focus teaching performance in teaching process so as to pursue the best possible teaching result. On the contrary, those lacking teaching effectiveness would lead to failure for student’s learning.

The research from Medley(1979)pointed out that: A so called teacher with effectiveness should be the outcome of practicing the teaching professionalism. The teacher not only can be good at what it takes to be a good teacher, but also knows when to apply these capabilities in time. Education is the process of interaction between teacher and student. During this process, teacher plays the role with extreme importance, encompassing provisioning of education contents, utilizing educational methods in addition to solid preparation for counseling works, etc. These efforts intend to prod the students towards successful learning in the end. These are the most direct relationships between teacher and students. Nowadays, with rapid knowledge growth, advancement of technology in addition to changes in society, we need education methods with more efficiency to teach our next generation more than ever (Jian, Yu-Cin 2002). And Huang,

Jheng-Jie (1997) also pointed out: Teacher must possess certain capabilities with good professional attitudes, bountiful knowledge and excellent teaching methods and techniques prior expecting good teaching results. And the implementation and realization for teaching results with substance can be seen unhindered in children, after all, children are the mainstay for education and the teachers are the persons who cultivate the educational fields. As for how to effectively upgrade the teacher with teaching effectiveness and give a free rein in professionalism so as to reach preset educational goals, becomes one of the most critical subjects for those who in the education enterprises.

Based on above background information, it is clear that the role playing for teacher in the educational process is one of the indispensable elements. And the teacher’s proper behavior and conduct orientation definitely influence the quality outcome for education, with direct impact to student’s performance in learning (Siao, Ciou-Ci 2001). And the researches from Dukin ＆ Biddle(1974)and Person ＆ Walber(1979)also discovered that

20 Pan-Asian Journal of Sports & Physical Education some of specific behaviors displayed by teacher during teaching process can upgrade the student’s learning accomplishments. Hence, this research intends to explore from the aspects of teaching effectiveness with further analysis on relevant factors that might influence the teaching effectiveness for physical education teacher. And the findings from this research are expected to be used as references by educational administrative organizations for upgrading the teacher’s professional capability and teaching quality of physical education teachers in elementary school.

Research Purpose

(1) Understand the current status of teaching effectiveness for physical education teachers at elementary schools in Taipei City.

(2)Explore the variances in teaching effectiveness for physical education teachers with different teacher background variables.

Term Definition

Teaching effectiveness: The effective teaching behaviors displayed by teacher during teaching so as to accomplish teaching goals. Rating scales include five profiles in teaching preparedness, systematic presentation of teaching materials, teaching strategy, teaching assessment and class management.

Background variable: This research defines the background variable as the individual background basic information and school environment variable for physical education teacher of elementary school, and it includes five variables: Teacher gender, marital status, teaching seniority, physical education major and academic records, etc.

Physical education teacher: This research defines the physical education teachers as those who have been in the positions of elementary schools in Taipei City in addition to meeting the requirements of having a minimum of at least one class per week in teaching physical education, but not including internship teachers.

Research methods

Research Subjects

This research adopts the physical education teachers of elementary schools located in

Taipei City as prime research subjects. The random samplings collected from 24 elementary schools in Taipei City with 10 persons per school and 240 persons in total.

The effective samplings were 186 persons with effective return ratios reaching 77.5%.

Research Tools



21

This research’s teaching effectiveness rating scale adopts the teaching effectiveness rating scale drawn up by Lin, Guo-Ruei (2001) to measure the teacher’s teaching effectiveness. And the scoring mechanism adopts the 5-point Likert-type scale and the subject under test fills out the comment sheet of rating scale based on the consenting degrees of practical feelings in the format of reliability and effectiveness. As for the aspects of effectiveness: “Teaching effectiveness rating scale” has a total of 5 factors and named respectively as systematic presentation for the teaching materials, teaching strategy, class management, teaching preparedness and teaching assessment. And the sequential explained variances were: 21.22%, 15.01%, 12.39%, 8.45% and 6.94% respectively with accumulated variance explained of 64.00% indicating this variance with good significance. In the aspects of reliability: It adopted the internal consistency from Cronbach α to test its reliability and the teaching effectiveness rating scale with overall reliability in .95 and the systematic presentation with five separate rating scales in teaching materials, teaching strategy, class management, teaching preparedness and teaching assessment, etc, and the corresponding reliabilities are.92, .88, .83, .71and .82 respectively indicating this rating scale possessing good reliability.

Information processing

This research is to adopt descriptive statistics, independent-samples t-test, One-way

ANOVA and Scheffe’s posterior comparisons and so on as the statistic methods to process information.

Findings and discussions

The Current Status for Elementary School Teacher’s Teaching Effectiveness

(1) The current status for the overall and each profile’s teaching effectiveness

From Table 1, we can learn that, the Median scores of overall teaching effectiveness for elementary school physical teacher in Taipei City was M=4.05 with standard deviation of .43. Then from the perspectives of profiling, the highest score was “class management” with median scores M=4.22, next followed by “teaching strategy” of median score M=4.08, then “systematic presentation for teaching materials” with median scores of M=3.99, “teaching assessment” in M=3.98, “teaching preparedness” in

M=3.96. And the overall scores are in the upper middle range. This finding indicated that the teaching effectiveness for elementary school physical education teachers in

Taipei City was generally in good standing.

Table 1: Teaching effectiveness rating scale scoring summary for elementary school physical education teachers in Taipei City

Teaching No. of person Median score Standard

22 Pan-Asian Journal of Sports & Physical Education effectiveness dimension

Overall

Teaching material preparedness

Systematic presentation for teaching materials

Teaching assessment

Teaching strategy

Class management

186

186

186

186

186

186

4.05

3.96

3.99

3.98

4.08

4.22 deviation(SDV)

.43

.53

.48

.62

.49

.55

(2) The current status for each query of teaching effectiveness

Table 2: Scoring Summary of Each of the Query for Elementary School Teacher’s

Teaching Effectiveness in Taipei City

No. Query contents Median SDV

1 Before the start of teaching, I will prepare and make ready all necessary physical educational equipments.

2 Before the start of teaching, I will find out and be aware of the students sporting capabilities and current levels.

3 Before the start of teaching, I will query the facts about the student’s health.

4 Before the start of teaching, I will be well prepared with teaching substitution plan according to teaching requirements in coping with raining or other special situations.

5 During teaching, I will follow the teaching plan and monitor the pace for teaching progress to carry out the physical education program.

6 During teaching, I will inform the students with the contents and goals for the material to be learned from.

7 During teaching, I will provide specific and clear moves for demonstration and illustration purposes.

8 During teaching, I will effectively allocate time slots to maintain a tight and smooth teaching process.

9.

10.

During teaching, I will systematically present teaching materials ranging from simplicity to complex in nature.

During teaching, I will provide ample training time and let students be familiar with the contents of teaching materials.

11.

12.

During teaching, I will integrate the student’s past experience with new material contents.

Before the end of teaching, I will consolidate and compile all materials to be taught.

13.

I will use multiple and varied methods to proceed in student assessment and will not base on mere tests as the foundation for assessing student performance.

14 In assessing the student’s learning effectiveness, I will encompass the assessments from the perspectives of formation

4.19 .63

3.91 .66

4.11 .77

3.61 .81

3.87 .66

3.94 .79

4.24 .69

3.99 .61

4.04 .62

3.99 .65

4.00 .69

3.87 .80

4.10 .72

4.03 .72



23 and summation.

15 I will base on individual student’s diversity to prescribe different assessment standards.

16 During teaching, I will inspect the student’s progress on demand so as to effectively control the student learning progress and scheduling.

17 Prior start of teaching, I will propose questions that might be of interest to students to evoke the learning motives.

18 During teaching, I will immediately provide corrective feedbacks in regard to student’s erroneous movements.

19 During teaching, I will encourage and praise student performance as much as I can to enhance the learning motives.

20 During teaching, I will deploy different teaching methods based on different types of students.

21 During teaching, I will employ different levels of teaching materials based on different student capacities.

22 During teaching, I will approach students with amicable and caring attitude to conduct exchanges with students.

23 During teaching, I will express goodwill and provide assistance to students with learning difficulties or in need of special requirements.

24 During teaching, I will build an amicable and pleasant class atmosphere to facilitate students with high learning emotion.

25 During teaching, I will employ democratic approaches to allow students with opportunities of self-expression and decision-making.

26 During teaching, I will establish teaching norms and orders to require students to follow faithfully.

27 During teaching, I can maintain good class order.

28 During teaching, I will provide students and colleagues with opportunities of interaction to increase mutual understandings.

29 During teaching, I will avoid at all cost of using sarcastic and negative comments especially in criticizing students.

3.81 .73

3.95 .68

3.97 .74

4.26 .66

4.35 .63

3.84 .76

3.68 .74

4.20 .69

4.30 .63

4.21 .66

4.13 .69

4.31 .70

4.19 .73

4.19 .69

4.19 .69

Variance Comparison for Teaching Effectiveness from Teacher Background

Variables

(1) Gender: From Table 3, we can learn about the teaching preparedness(t ＝ 2.64* ， p<.05)of the sub-dimensions for both male and female physical education teachers in addition to systematic presentation for teaching materials(t ＝ 2.39* ， p<.05) which reached significant difference level, i.e. male teachers’ are higher than those of female teachers’. Hence, these research findings are similar to those from CHEN, Mu-Jin

(1997), DU, Ren-Chang (2001), JHANG, Shu-Huei (2002), LI, Ming-Da (2003) and

JHANG, Yu-Ci (2006). And the reasoning behind it may be that the male teachers in general are more or less thinking that they are more competent in jobs like physical education teaching, in addition, their attitudes are much more proactive than those for females (JHANG, Yu-Ci 2006). Consequently, their teaching performances displayed

24 Pan-Asian Journal of Sports & Physical Education better effectiveness.

Table 3: Summary of t test and variance of teaching effectiveness from gender variable

Teaching effectiveness

Gender

No. of person

Medians STD t Value

Overall

Teaching

Preparedness

Male

Female

M

F

67

119

67

119

4.11

4.02

4.09

3.88

.41

.44

.50

.53

1.32

2.64*

Systematic resentation of teaching materials

Teaching assessment

Teaching strategy

M

F

M

F

M

F

67

119

67

119

67

119

4.10

3.93

3.99

3.98

4.12

4.05

.47

.48

.58

.63

.44

.52

2.39*

.07

.92

Class Management

M

F

67

119

4.17

4.25

.51

.57

-.90

*p<.05

(2) Marital Status: From Table 4, we can learn that different marital status of physical education teacher exhibited significant differences in overall teaching effectiveness(t ＝ 2.00* ， p<.05), teaching strategy on sub-dimension (t ＝ 2.72* ， p<.05) and class management (t ＝ 3.38* ， p<.05). And those married scored higher than those were single. This finding is similar to research findings from Sun, Jhih-Lin (1991),

CHEN, Mu-Jin (1997), LIN, Guo-Ruei (2001), SHIH, You-Cheng (2004), SIE,

Jyun-Huang (2004) and JHANG, Yu-Ci (2006). From reexamining the cause, it could be concluded that the married teachers were older, and more experienced in teaching, socializing, teaching activities processing in addition to environmental awareness, class atmosphere building, amicability in communication and strategizing. These are all the possible causes for high teaching effectiveness CHEN, Mu-Jin (1997).

Table 4: Summary of T Test and Variances for Teaching Effectiveness of Martial

Status


Marital status

No. of

Person

Median STD t Value

Overall

Married

Single

131

55

4.09

3.96

.43

.42

2.00*

131 3.96 .52

Teaching preparedness

M

.01

Systematic presentation of teaching materials

S

M

S

55

131

55

3.95

4.00

3.97

.55

.49

.48

.36



25

Teaching assessment

Teaching Strategy

Class management

M

S

M

S

M

S

131

55

131

55

131

55

4.02

3.89

4.14

3.93

4.31

4.02

.58

.69

.48

.49

.53

.53

1.28

2.72*

3.38*

*p<.05

(3) Teaching seniority: From Table 5 we can learn that different teaching seniority for physical education teacher exhibits significant difference in the aspects of overall teaching effectiveness(F ＝ 2.94* ， p<.05), teaching strategy on sub-dimension (F ＝

4.85* ， p<.05) and class management (F ＝ 5.64* ， p<.05). Through Scheffe’s posterior comparisons, it is discovered that for scorings of overall teaching effectiveness and sub-dimensional class strategy categories, those teachers with seniority of 21 years and above scored higher than those with seniority between 6~10 years. This finding is similar to the research findings from LI, Jyun-Hu (1992), CHEN, Mu-Jin (1997),

JHANG, Bi-Jyuan (1999), CHEN, Cing-Si (2000), LI, Sin-Bao (2001), LIN, Guo-Ruei

(2001), SHIH, You-Cheng (2004), SIE, Jyun-Huang (2004) and LIN, San-Wei (2006).

As for the cause like—the longer the seniority, the better the teaching effectiveness, this could be that, for those with less than 5 years of seniority, lacking practical teaching experience could be the cause, in addition to simultaneously in a state of probing for adequate teaching courses and compilation. Therefore, they tend to be less experienced in teaching techniques, class management and interacting with students. On the other hand, those with seniority and older, they accumulated teaching experiences through long term exposure and were adroit at teaching so as to ably cope with incidents with abundant experiences in addition to class management (LIN, San-Wei, 2006).

Hence, those with more seniority would outperform in teaching effectiveness as result.

Table 5: Summary of One-Way ANOVA Analysis of Teaching Effectiveness by

Teaching Seniority


Team N M SD

Source of variance ss df MS F

Team difference

1 42 4.07 .41 Intra-team 1.57 3 .52

Overall

2 32 3.86 .41 Inter-team 32.21 182 .18

3 61 4.06 .44

2.94* 4

＞

2

4 51 4.14 .41


1 42 3.99 .56 Intra-team .24

2 32 3.98 .53 Intra-team

3 .08

50.96 182 .28

.28 N/A

3 61 3.96 .53

4 51 3.90 .49

Systematic 1 42 4.08 .47 Intra-team 1.71 3 .57 2.49 N/A

26 Pan-Asian Journal of Sports & Physical Education presentation of teaching materials

Teaching assessment

2 32 3.81 .42 Inter-team 41.55 182 .23

3 61 3.96 .48

4 51 4.07 .52

1 42 3.99 .68 Intra-team .89 3 .30

2 32 3.83 .59 Inter-team 69.15 182 .38

3 61 4.03 .65

4 51 4.00 .53

.77 N/A

Teaching strategy

1 42 4.12 .48 Intra-team 3.32 3 1.11

2 32 3.80 .43 Inter-team 41.52 182 .23

3 61 4.09 .52

4 51 4.20 .45

4.85* 4

＞

2

Class management

1 42 4.10 .53 Intra-team 4.68 3 1.56

2 32 3.99 .53 Inter-team 50.28 182 .28

3 61 4.25 .55

4 51 4.43 .48

5.64* 4

＞

1

、

*p<.05 Teaching seniority for the team: (1)1~5 (2)6~10 (3)11~20 (4) Above 21 yrs

2

(4) Physical education major: From Table 6 we can learn that teachers of physical education major exhibited significant differences in the aspects of overall teaching effectiveness(t

＝

3.33*

， p<.05), teaching effectiveness on sub-dimension level (t

＝

2.83*

， p<.05), systematic presentation of teaching materials (t

＝

4.71*

， p<.05), teaching assessment (t

＝

2.91*

， p<.05) and teaching strategy (t

＝

2.00*

， p<.05). And those for the teachers graduated from physical education majors were higher than those of non-physical education major. This research finding was similar to the findings from Lin,

Guo-Ruei (2001), LI, Yi-Sheng (2002), SHIH, You-Cheng (2004), SIE, Jyun-Huang

(2004), HONG, Jhu-Mei and LIOU, Hai-Peng (2005) and JHANG, Yu-Ci (2006). And the causes were deducted as that for those of physical education majors during the stage of prior job training, encountered more of the professional trainings in physical education related fields, these trainings whether in education planning, methods or strategies were all compatible with physical education itself. Hence, they had more confidences in teaching. On the contrary, those of non-physical education majors were found to be less familiar to physical education, thus, they possessed less in teaching effectiveness (Lin, Guo-Ruei 2001). Consequently, the school in the process of arranging teaching staff of physical education should evaluate the professional backgrounds for physical education teachers.

Table 6: Summary for T Test and Variances in Teaching Effectiveness for Those

Who with Physical Education Major


Physical education major

No. of

Person

Median SDV t Value



27

Overall


Physical education major team

Non-physical education major team



Systematic presentation of

Physical education major team teaching materials major team

Teaching assessment

Teaching strategy

Class management







*p<.05

35

151

35

151

35

151

35

151

35

151

35

151

4.26

4.00

4.18

3.90

4.32

3.92

4.25

3.92

4.23

4.04

4.31

4.20

.44

.41

.58

.50

.38

.47

.75

.56

.46

.49

.56

.54

3.33*

2.83*

4.71*

2.91*

2.00*

1.11

Educational Backgrounds

From Table 7, we can learn that teachers of different educational backgrounds did exhibit significant differences in the categories of overall teaching effectiveness (F ＝

2.94* ， p<.05) and teaching preparedness in sub-dimension level (F ＝ 4.85* ， p<.05), systematic presentation of teaching materials (F ＝ 5.64* ， p<.05), teaching assessment (F

＝ 3.12* ， p<.05) and teaching strategy (F ＝ 3.63* ， p<.05). Through the method of

Scheffe’s posterior comparisons, we discovered that: Teachers with highest education background in junior college level scored higher than those teachers with university background in overall teaching effectiveness and systematic presentation for teaching materials in sub-dimension level. On another sub-dimensional level for teaching preparedness evaluation, those with highest educational background as high as graduate school, scored better than those at university level. But in the category of teaching assessment and teaching strategy, there was no significant difference observed between teams through applying Scheffe’s posterior comparisons method. Looking back for possible explanation, it could be that those having educational background at graduate level had been exposed quite extensively in physical education domain with various teaching methods and techniques, in addition to higher self effectiveness in teaching,

28 Pan-Asian Journal of Sports & Physical Education therefore it could be easier than others to upgrade teaching performance (LIN, San-Wei

2006). Thus, they tended to be performing better in overall teaching effectiveness and systematic presentation for the materials. In the teaching preparedness, those with normal training college educational background performed better than those with university background. Looking for possible causes led to the conclusion that it could be the teaching professional training period for the former that was longer than those of the university background (FONG, Wun 2001). Another thing worth to mention was that those graduated from normal training college represented longer teaching seniority.

And the length of teaching seniority would also influence the teaching effectiveness for teachers (LIN, Guo-Ruei 2001). Therefore the good performances by those with normal training college certificates are reasonably enough to be understood after all.

Table 7: Summary for One Way ANOVA Variance Analysis of Teaching

Effectiveness in Educational Background


Team N M SD

Source of ss variance df MS F

Team difference

Overall

1 26 4.25 .38 Intra-team 1.84 2 .92

2 140 4.00 .43 Inter-team 31.93 183 .17

5.27* 1

＞

2


Systematic presentation for teaching materials

3 20 4.18 .41

1 26 4.10 .46 Intra-team 2.55 2 1.27

2 140 3.89 .53 Inter-team 48.65 183 .27

3 20 4.22 .44

1

2

3

26 4.25 .48 Intra-team 2.20 2 1.10

140 3.94 .46 Inter-team 41.06 183 .22

20 4.04 .58

4.79*

4.90*

3

1

＞

＞

2

2

Teaching assessment

Teaching strategy

1 26 4.19 .52 Intra-team 2.31 2 1.16

2 140 3.92 .62 Inter-team 67.73 183 .37

3 20 4.15 .65

1 26 4.27 .44 Intra-team 1.71 2 .86

2 140 4.02 .50 Inter-team 43.13 183 .24

3 20 4.21 .44

3.12*

3.63*

Class management

1 26 4.39 .46 Intra-team 1.44 2 .72

2 140 4.17 .56 Inter-team 53.51 183 .29

3 20 4.35 .49

*p<.05 Team by educational background: (1)Junior college(2)University

(3)Graduate school and above

2.46

N/A

N/A

N/A

Summation and recommendation

Summation

(1)The teaching effectiveness for elementary school physical education teachers in Taipei

City is rated generally good.



29

(2)The teaching effectiveness for teachers who are married, with longer teaching seniority, graduated from physical education department or majors, in addition to those with educational background in junior college level, is rated better than average.

Recommendations

(1)This research of findings pointed out that teachers graduated from physical education department or majors tended to have better performance in teaching effectiveness area. Nevertheless, an overview for today’s elementary school’s physical education classes, it seems to be predominately acting as a backup or standby when cancelling normally prescheduled classes. There is no requirement whatsoever regarding teachers having to possess physical education professional background or teachers dedicated to teaching physical education prior are allowed to teach physical education class (LIN, Guo-Ruei 2001). Henceforth, this study recommends relevant organizations to pursue studies in implementing the professionalization for elementary school physical education class in addition to conducting feasibility study for dedicated physical education teacher system.

(2)In the arena for research methods, this research only relied upon query surveys to understand the teaching effectiveness situation. Nonetheless, information collected through this kind of quantification method could be influenced by society’s expectation, recognition point of view in addition to the willingness to fill out the query surveys.

Consequently, this research recommends that in the future, teaching analyses can be employed as research method to further complement the researches conducted.

References

[1] LI, Yi-Sheng (2002). Relevant researches for effectiveness faith, effective teaching behavior and student learning of physical education teachers in Taipei City elementary schools. Master degree thesis, Department of exercise science, Taipei Physical

Education College, unpublished, Taipei City.

[2] LI, Ming-Da (2003). Research on relationship between teaching manners and teaching effectiveness for physical education instructors of elementary school—Using Tainan county and city as examples. Master degree thesis for teacher at Tainan Normal

College with on-the-job training and working towards the master degree in physical education. Unpublished, Tainan.

[3] LI, Sin-Bao (2001).Research on teaching leadership and teacher’s teaching effectiveness for the principal of elementary school. Master degree program for

Administration, National Hsinchu Normal College. Unpublished, Hsinchu City.


[4] DU, Ren-Chang (2001). Impacts from elementary school physical education teacher with different background unto the teaching attitude and teaching effectiveness. Master degree thesis for National education graduate school, Taipei Municipal Normal College.

Unpublished, Taipei City.

[5] LIN, San-Wei (2006). Relevant research for self effectiveness and teaching effectiveness for physical education teachers of Taoyuan County elementary school.

Master degree thesis, Physical education graduate school, National College of Physical

Education and Sports. Unpublished, Taoyuan.

[6] LIN, Guo-Ruei (2001). Relevant researches of physical education teacher effectiveness and beliefs and teaching effectiveness for Taipei City elementary school. Ke Jheng publisher.

[7] SHIH, You-Cheng (2004). Comparative researches for effective teaching behavior and student learning effectiveness of physical education teacher between Chinese and

Japanese elementary schools. Master degree thesis, Department of exercise science,

Taipei Physical Education College, unpublished, Taipei City.

[8] HONG, Jhu-Mei, LIOU, Hai-Peng (2005). Researches on teaching effectiveness for

Tainan City physical education teachers. Journals of 2005 annual sports and academic research and exploration, ROC universities and colleges, 35~43.

[9] SUN, Jhih-Lin (1991). Research on self effectiveness and relevant factors for elementary school teachers, Master thesis, Graduate institute for educational administration and policy, National Chengchi University. Unpublished. Taipei City.

[10] CHEN, Mu-Jin (1997). Research on relationships between leadership skill, class management and strategy and teaching effectiveness for elementary school teacher.

Doctoral dissertation, National education research center, Taipei Normal College,


[11] HUANG, Jheng-Jie (1997). Principles of teaching. Taipei: National Normal University

Bookstore.

[12] FONG, Wun (2003). Relationship between teaching faith and teaching effectiveness for elementary school teacher. Master degree thesis, Education graduate institute, National

Ping Tung Normal College. Unpublished, Ping Tung.

[13] CHEN, Cing-Si (1999). Research on teaching support requirements and teaching self effectiveness for underprivileged class teacher. Master degree thesis, Special education institute, National Chungwha Normal University, unpublished, Chungwha.

[14] JHANG, Yu-Ci (2006). Research on relationship between physical education job dedication and teaching effectiveness for Taoyuan County elementary school teachers.

Master degree thesis, Graduate Institute for Physical Education, unpublished, Taoyuan.

[15] JHANG, Bi-Jyuan (1999). Research on interrelationships between teaching leadership, school teaching atmosphere and teacher teaching effectiveness for junior high school



31 principal. Doctoral dissertation, National education research center, Taipei Normal

College, Unpublished, Taipei City.

[16] JHANG, Shu-Huei (2002). Researches for factors that influence the teaching effectiveness for elementary school physical education teachers. National education research center, Taipei Normal College, Unpublished, Taipei City.

[17] SIAO, Ciou-Ci (2001). Analysis of the teaching behavior for physical education teacher in university—Using one of the fulltime physical education teacher at Shih

Chien University Kaohsiung Campus as example. Zhong Hua Ti Yu, 144=56, Page

42~49.

[18] SIE, Jyun-Huang (2004). Relevant researches on physical education teacher, teacher effectiveness and beliefs and teaching effectiveness for Yunlin County elementary school. Master degree thesis, Department of exercise science, Taipei Physical

Education College, unpublished. Taipei City.

[19] JIAN, Yu-Cin (2002). Research of the relationship between self effectiveness and teaching effectiveness for Taoyuan County elementary school teacher. Master degree thesis, National education graduate school, National Taipei Normal College.


[20] Medley, D. (1979). The effectiveness of teachers. In P. Perterson and H. Walberg (Eds.).

Research on teaching: Concepts, findings, and implication. Berkeley, CA: Mc Cutchan.

[21] Dukin, M., & Biddle, B. (1974).

The study of teaching . New York: Holt Reinhart and

Winston.

[22] Person, ＆ H. J. Walberg, (Eds.). (1979). Research on teaching: Concept, finding and implications. Berkeley, CA: McCutchan Pu


Perceptions on Hosting the 2008 Olympic Equestrian

Events and Physical Activity Levels among Secondary

School Students in Hong Kong

Cheung Siu Yin

(Hong Kong Baptist University)

Abstract

The aims of this study were to investigate the perceptions on hosting the 2008

Olympic Equestrian Events in Hong Kong and physical activity levels among secondary school students. Participants were 1,937 students (Male=773, Female=1,139, Not answered=25) from 6 secondary schools in Hong Kong Island, Kowloon and N.T. They were between 11 to 20 years old (M= 14.3 years ±1.75) and were divided into three age groups. The first part of the questionnaire was modified from the Residents’ attitudes towards tourism and Tourism Development (Andrereck and Vost ,2000) and the

Residents’ attitudes towards tourism (Lindberg and Johnson, 1997). The second section was on the participation in physical activity. Descriptive statistics and 2 x 3 ANOVA were conducted. Results showed that about 70% of students supported Hong Kong hosting the 2008 Olympic Equestrian Events and they also agreed that the 2008

Olympic Equestrian Events was beneficial to Hong Kong. Students rated “Help in the development of tourism”, “Increase international recognition” and “Enhance the image of Hong Kong” as the top 3 positive perceptions, while “Increase traffic congestion”,

“The temporary closure of recreational facilities” and “Tax burden” were the top 3 negative perceptions on the events.

There were 38.3% of students did not participate in any physical activity. The most common physical activity for students was walking. 2 x 3 ANOVA revealed that the physical activity level for male students was significantly higher than female students.

The youngest students were more active than the oldest students. Pearson Correlation found that there was positive relationship between the level of physical activity and level of support on hosting the 2008 Olympic Equestrian Events in Hong Kong. The

Government, schools and parents should encourage students to participate more frequently in physical activities and develop healthy lifestyle. Mega events such as the

Olympics may be helpful to promote sport development.

Key words : olympic, equestrian, physical activity

Perceptions on Hosting the 2008 Olympic Equestrian Events and


33

Introduction

Large scale international sport events such as the Olympic Games or the World cup are mega events which could attract tourists and media attention. Mega events and tourism could have significant contribution to the economy of the hosting city. It was reported that there was a surplus of US$215 millions in the 1984 Los Angeles Olympics

(Gratton, Dobson & Shibli, 2000; Roche, 1992). Thus, hosting these mega events are considered as opportunity to the development of tourism industry, and boost the construction of telecommunication, broadcasting, housing, and employment sectors for the host city (Darkey & Horn, 2009; Gibson ,1998). Lee and Taylor (2005) reported that about 57.7% of tourists visiting South Korea were either directly or indirectly related with the 2002 FIFA World Cup which had significant economic impact on the host city.

Moreover, mega events would generate political, social-economic and environmental impacts before and after the event (Cho & Kim, 2002; Deccio & Baloglu, 2002). Not limited to the benefit in monetary term, mega event, such as the Olympics, is also an international showcase to enhance a city’s global recognition, image and reputation. The successful hosting of the sport event could generate a feeling of national, city and community pride, and has intangible benefits such as image enhancement, nation and identity building and publicity (Pillay and Bass, 2008; Waitt, 2001).

On the contrary, researches stated that the large number of tourists visiting the host city could cause negative impacts. The negative impacts such as traffic congestion and increased crime rates would cause negative impression to the tourists and they could spread negative word of mouth communication impact on the destination and also avoiding repeat visitation (Ap, 1992). Gratton, Dobson and Shibli (2000) reported that there was a loss of $692 million and $178 million in 1976 Montreal and 1972 Munich summer Olympics respectively. In addition, the mismanagement of public funds, traffic congestion, law enforcement strain, and increased crime rates, environmental damage during the event were areas of complaint (Matheson and Baade, 2004). Andranovich

Burbank, and Heying, (2001) and Lenskyj (2002) commented that the Olympic Games did not improve social problems in Atlanta and Sydney in 1996 and 2000 respectively.

As South Africa being the first African nation to host the 2010 FIFA World Cup,

Pillay and Bass (2008) discussed the legacy of the 2010 FIFA world Cup and whether it would be a catalyst for urban development. Although there was estimation that close to

200,000 visitors would visit South Africa cities and it would generate R60bn and create

150,000 new jobs, Pillay and Bass (2008) stated that mega-events are often used as

“ spectacles” to show the urban ”boosterism” of the city and used as public relations ventures. Thus, they questioned the outcome of urban development of hosting the World

Cup in 2010.


Social Exchange Theory

The Social Exchange theory was initiated by George Hormans in 1958 for the understanding of social behavior of human in economic undertakings and was used to understand a framework for explicating movement of resources (Emerson, 1987). This theory was also utilized to “understanding the exchange of resources between individual and groups in an interaction of situation. Interactions are treated as a process in which

“actors” supply one another with valued resources”(Ap, 1992, p.668).

Social Exchange theory and Residents’ Perception

The Social Exchange theory assumed that there was an involvement of resources exchange or seeking a mutual benefit from both parties. Residents of the host city of mega event would support the event if they perceive positive impacts such as increase in job opportunities, income generation, enhanced community infrastructure in their city

(Andriotis & Vaughan, 2003). By investigating the attitudes and behavior patterns of residents of the host community, the administrators would understand more about the residents’ level of support of the host city (Snaith & Haley, 1998). Thus the aim of this study was to investigate the perceptions on hosting the 2008 Olympic Equestrian Events in Hong Kong among secondary school students by the Social Exchange Theory.

Methods

Procedure

The study was conducted from January to March, 2008. Invitation letters were sent to principals and physical education teachers of 6 schools in Hong Kong Island, Kowloon and New Territories. Convenience sampling method was used.

Participants

Participants were 773 male and 1,139 female secondary school students (not answered = 25, N= 1937). They were Form 1, Form 2, Form 3, Form 4, and Form 6 students and were from 11 to 20 years old ( M =14.31 years ±1.75).

Students were divided into three age groups: 11-13 years (n= 436, 45.5%); 14-15 years (n=341, 35.5%); and 16 years and above (n=182, 19%).

Instruments

The questionnaire consisted of three sections. The first section was on perceptions towards hosting the 2008 Olympic Equestrian Events which was developed according to the questionnaires of residents’ perceptions and attitudes towards the impact of tourism from Lindberg and Johnson (1997) and Andereck and Vogt (2000). The section was on physical activity of students and the Physical Activity Questionnaire (Crocker et al., 1997) was used. The last section was on the demographic information.



35

Questions related to the positive perceptions towards hosting the 2008 Olympic

Equestrian Events were as follows: International recognition; increased future development; economic benefits; increased citizen pride; enhanced image or reputation of the city, promote Equestrian in HK; increase the Equestrian participation; increase national Identity of being Chinese; speed up the upgrade of Hong Kong Sport Institute facilities; and closer relationship with China.

Questions related to negative perceptions towards hosting the 2008 Olympic

Equestrian Events were as follows: Traffic congestion; inflation; law enforcement; crime increase; unfair distribution of resources; terrorism; negative attitudes of visitors; and negative attitudes of residents. In addition, students also were requested to rank their overall level of support towards hosting the 2008 Olympic Equestrian Events and whether the event was beneficial to HK.

Result

Perceptions on Hosting the Equestrian Event

Students rated “Assist in the development of tourism”, “Increase international recognition” and “Enhance the image of Hong Kong” as the top 3 positive perceptions, while “Increase traffic congestion”, “The temporary closure of recreational facilities” and “Tax burden” were the top 3 negative perceptions on the events. Details are listed in table 1.

2 (gender) x 3 (age groups) ANOVA was utilized to analyze the statement “In general, the 2008 Olympic Equestrian Events is beneficial to Hong Kong”. The mean for the total population was 5.11, SD = 1.26. There was no gender ( F =0.54, p>.05) and age group ( F =0.55, p>.05) differences.

The mean and standard deviation for the statement “In general, I support the HKSAR to host the 2008 Olympic Equestrian Events” was 5.13

and 1.38 respectively. There was no gender ( F =3.67, p>.05) and age group ( F =0.19, p>.05) differences.

Physical activity level

Students were asked to recall their physical activity level in the last 7 days. Results showed that 29.8% of them “sat” during recess, 33.6% of them “sat” at lunch time, and only 39.8% of them did PA after school. The total physical activity score for the week was calculated by the sum of physical activities - during physical education class, recess, lunch, after school, evening, weekend and weekdays. Results showed that 649 (38.3%) students were inactive, 691 (40.8%) students had low level of PA and they participated in PA only 1-2 times per week; 301 (17.8%) had medium level of PA and participated in

PA 3-4 times per week. Only 52 (3.1%) students had high level of PA and participated in

PA over 5 times per week.

2 x 3 ANOVA revealed that male students were more active than female students ( F =


81.9, p< .05; males, M = 2.56 + 0.86; females, M = 2.17+ 0.70), The younger age group had higher level of PA than the older students ( F = 42.7, p< .05; 11-13 years old, M =

2.51 + 0.78;14-15 years old, M = 2.28 + 0.78; above 16 years old, M = 2.05 + 0.74).

Perception and Physical activity

Pearson Correlation found that there was significant correlation between PA score and level of support (r= 0.078, p < 0.01). The correlation between PA score and the statement “In general, the 2008 Olympic Equestrian Events is beneficial to Hong Kong” was (r= 0.086, p < 0.01). The correlation between the level of support and the statement

“In general, the 2008 Olympic Equestrian Events is beneficial to Hong Kong” was (r=

0.784, p < 0.01).

Discussion and Conclusion

It was the first time for Hong Kong to host the 2008 Olympic Equestrian Events, the

Social Exchange Theory has provided a useful framework to understand perceptions and attitudes of residents on this mega sport event. This study found that Hong Kong students perceived that hosting the 2008 Olympic Equestrian Events in HK would bring benefit and opportunities in tourism and economy. Darkey and Horn (2009) and Lee and

Taylor (2005) also supported that mega sport event would attract tourists and enhance the development of tourism. Hosting major sport events would also increase the city’s international recognition.

In this study, “Assist in the development of tourism”, “Increase international recognition” and “Enhance the image of Hong Kong” were the top 3 positive perceptions. These findings were related to economic development of Hong Kong.

Different results were found from previous study which was conducted in May 2006.

The top three positive perceptions of hosting the Equestrian Events for the 2008

Olympic Games in Hong Kong were “Promote Equestrian event in HK”, “Increase the participation in Equestrian event” and “Speed up the facilities of HKSI after re-provision” (Chan & Cheung, 2008). The positive perceptions were all related to sport development in Hong Kong. The difference may be due to the focus of the event by the mass media and the government. In 2006, residents perceived that the hosting of

Equestrian Events might promote equestrian sport. In reality, it was very difficult to promote equestrian as participation in this sport is more expensive. At the same time, as more news had been published and focused on the economic development of the Beijing

Olympics, this may also influence the students’ perception towards the event.

On the other hand, the negative perceptions, “Increase traffic congestion”, “The temporary closure of recreational facilities” and “Tax burden” were found in this study.

Chan and Cheung (2008) found that the residents’ negative perception were “The



37 temporary closure of recreational facilities” ,“Interruption by the construction work of facilities” and “Interrupt the training of elite athletes of other sports”. Hosting the sport event would affect the daily life of the residents which became their major concern.

Students supported the HKSAR hosting the 2008 Olympic Equestrian Events in HK and they believed that the event would be beneficial to Hong Kong. Students with higher

PA scores had higher level of support on hosting the 2008 Olympic Equestrian Events in

HK. Similar findings were found in Chan and Cheung’s previous study (2008).

In conclusion, students in Hong Kong had positive perception towards hosting the

2008 Olympic Equestrian Events and they perceived that it would attract tourists and enhance international image of the city. Pillay and Bass (2008) pointed out that public participation in the decision-making process is important in the success of hosting the mega event. The sport administrators would understand more about the thoughts of the public through this research and gain their support on the bidding of other major sport events in future.

Table 1: Rank order on mean Score of students’ perception towards hosting

Equestrian Events in HK

Rank n M SD

I.. Positive perception

1 1919 Help in developing tourism 5.41

2 1911 Increase international recognition 5.40

3 1915 Enhance the image of Hong Kong 5.38

4 1918 Attraction of commercial sponsorships to

Hong Kong

5 1913 Increase economic benefits

5.19

5.14

II.. Negative perception

1 1915 Increase traffic congestion 4.48

2 1910 The recreational facilities would temporary be closed due to temporary reconstruction of elite athletes training center

3 1914 Tax burden

4.39

4.35

4 1906 Interruption by the construction work of facilities

5 1911 Inflation

4.28

4.18

1.24

1.23

1.24

1.19

1.24

1.40

1.35

1.38

1.33

1.39


References

[1] Andereck, K.L., & Vogt, C.A. (2000). The relationship between residents’ attitude towards tourism and tourism development Options. Journal of Travel Research, 39 (7) ,

27-36.

[2] Andranovich, G., Burbank, M. J., & Heying, C. H. (2001).Olympic cities: lessons learned from mega-event politics. Journal of Urban Affairs, 23(2), 113-131.

[3] Andriotis, K., & Vaughan, R.R. (2003). Urban residents’ attitudes towards tourism development: The case of Crete. Journal of Travel Research, 42 , 172-185.

[4] Ap, J. (1992). Residents’ perception on tourism impacts. Annals of Tourism Research,

19, 665-690.

[5] Chan, J. K., & Cheung, S. Y . (2008). Hong Kong residents’ perception towards hosting

2008 Olympic Equestrian Events. Hong Kong Recreation Review, 20, 6-12.

[6] Cho, B. H., & Kim, B.S. (2002). Effect of the 24 th Seoul Olympic Games on Korea’s tourism industry in relation to the 2002 World Cup Games.

Koera: Woosong University,

School of Tourism and Hospitality Management.

[7] Crocker, P. R. E., Kowalski, N. P., & Kowalski, K. C. (1997). Convergent validity of the Physical Activity Questionnaire for Adolescents. Pediatric Exercise Science, 9 (4),

342-352.

[8] Darkey, D., & Horn A. (2009). Homing inn on the economic benefits of 2010 FIFA

World Cup: Opportunities for and misgivings of bed-and-breakfast operators in

Gauteng, South Africa. Urban Forum, 20, 77-91

[9] Deccio, C. , & Baloglu, S. (2002). Nonhost Community Resident Reactions to the 2002

Winter Olympics: The Spillover Impacts. Journal of Travel Research, 41 , 46-56.

[10] Emerson, R. M. (1987). Toward a theory of value in social exchange. In K.S. Cook

(Ed.), Social learning theory (pp.11-46). Newbury Park, CA: SAGE.

[11] Gibson, H. J. (1998). Active sport tourism: who participates? Leisure Studies, 17 ,

155-170.

[12] Gratton, C., Dobson, N., & Shibli, S. (2000).The economic importance of major sport events: a case-study of six events. Managing Leisure, 5 , 17-28.

[13] Lee, C., & Taylor, T. (2005). Critical reflections on the economic impact assessment of a mega-event: the case of 2002 FIFA World Cup. Tourism Management, 26, 595-603.

[14] Lenskyi, H. J. (2002). The best Olympics ever?

Social impacts of Sydney 2000. Albany:

State University of New York Press.

[15] Lindberg, K., & Johnson, R.L. (1997). Modeling Residents Attitudes towards tourism.

Annual of Tourism Research, 24(2), 402-24.

[16] Matheson, V. A., & Baade, R. A. (2004). Mega- sporting events in developing nations:



39 playing the way to prosperity? The South African Journal of Economics, 72 (5),

1085-1096.

[17] Pillay U., & Bass O. (2008). Mega-events as a response to poverty reduction: The 2010

FIFA World Cup and its urban development implications. Urban Forum, 19 , 329-346.

[18] Roche, M. (1992). Mega-events and micro-modernization: On the sociology of the new urban tourism. The British Journal of Sociolog y, 43(4), 563-600.

[19]

Snaith, T., & Haley, A.(1998). Residents’ opinions of tourism development in the historic city of York, England. Tourism management, 20 , 595-603.


The Comparative Analysis of Male Taekwondo

Techniques and Tactics between

China and Foreign Countries

Zhou Caiyou, Xu Haihong

（Physical Education College of Jiangxi Normal University）

Xie Hui

（Physical Education College of Jiangxi University of Finance and

Economy）

Abstract

With the focus on the current state “Yin flourishes while Yang declines”(women’s superiority to men on performance )in the Chinese taekwondo field, the present study gives a detailed analysis of techniques and tactics used by Chinese male taekwondo athletes in the international competition, using the data collected from 2008 Olympics and 13th World male Taekwondo Championship. Based on the comparative analysis of the Chinese and foreign taekwondo athletes in the competitions, the study will cover the main skills and strategies exerted by Chinese athletes, intended to explore the major problems, and propose solutions to them, thereby improve Chinese taekwondo athletes’ performance, narrow down the gap between them and the world’s first class taekwondo athletes. The study will provide a sound theoretical foundation for the Chinese athletes to realize the breakthrough of getting no medals in the 2012 Olympics in Britain.

Key words: male taekwondo, techniques & tactics, comparative analysis

Introduction

Taekwondo, which has its first official national championship in 1995, has a short history in China, while maintains pretty quick paces in development. The competition scale has developed from 22 teams with about 300 athletes to more than 60 with 1000 athletes. Under the influence of athletic sports “Honorable Olympics Action” and

“National System”, High-level taekwondo teams have been established by the provinces, municipalities and specialized clubs in succession. In 1995, when taekwondo was for the first time held as national official competition, national taekwondo team has come into existence, assembling excellent coaches and athletes for practice from all over the world.

The Comparative Analysis of Male Taekwondo Techniques and

Tactics Between China and Foreign Countries

41

Within several years, the female taekwondo athletes have got nine world titles and four Olympic gold metals. The unconventional accomplishments have won praise from the world taekwondo. However, the men team has been overshadowed by women team, achieving nothing except getting one bronze medal in the 12 th world taekwondo championship held in Hong Kong.

A look at the current state of world man taekwondo athletes indicates that Asia has been leading the field. Chinese men athletes show little difference on physical, physiological and biochemical indexes compared with the men from the other Asian countries; they also enjoy the basic fitness to get better performance. The Chinese women athletes have gained splendid performance while the men have achieved little despite the same time to begin training, the same training conditions, and the same opportunities to participate in the contests. It shows that they have rather big gap on the mastery and application of techniques and tactics, training methods and measures, etc..

The focus should be held for study to probe into the rules of skills and strategies, the problems in training with the aim of finding unconventional measures to speed up the paces of Chinese men taekwondo athletes.

The study, with the emphasis on the state “Yin flourishes while Yang declines”, has covered the analysis of skills and strategies exerted by men taekewondo athletes with the aid of the video on the 2008 Olympics and 2007 world championship; meanwhile, with the comparison between Chinese athletes and the ones from the other countries in the world contests, the present study has summarized the main skills and strategies practices by the Chinese athletes, probed into their problems and recommended solutions with the aim of improving their skills and strategies, shortening the differences between them and the world first class ones, therefore provides a sufficient theoretical basis for Chinese men athletes to have a breakthrough in 2012 British Olympics.

Latest Trend in Development of the World Men Taekewondo Techniques &

Strategies

Characteristics of Skills Employed by the World Men Taekwondo Athletes

From the rough statistical data of each contest, it is found that the most common six skills men athletes employed are front turning-kick, counterattack turning-kick, back turning-kick, cut-down kick, double chop attack, reverse back kick, with concentration on attack

Fierce Facedown of Athletic Skills in the Competition

According to the rough data, the athletes have resorted to attack from the very beginning almost for each contest; there is no concept of “safe distance” existing in the

42 Pan-Asian Journal of Sports & Physical Education athletes’ mind. Moreover, no chance is offered for a breaking space from beginning to end. The whole competition will be prosecuted under the atmosphere of fierce rivalry on skills, wisdom, professional qualities and mentality throughout.

Especially in the final bout, the athletes will put their good mental qualities and great responsiveness into full play. In the well-matched contest, the athletes’ responsiveness in the final bout will decide the result. For the two significant international competitions, almost one out of five rounds has been decided by “Golden Point”(the first to get score will win in the additional set after 3-3 draw) and “Decision of Superiority”(the referee will decide who to win on the basis of their overall performance when they make even after the additional set). These indicate the fierceness of the whole process, as well as the decisive role of the athlete’s responsiveness to attack in the final round between well-matched opponents.

Firstly, the athletes will employ their techniques and tactics in light of the round scores, the exertion and the traits of the opponents’ skills and strategies, as well as their own physical ability and the severity of the referees in order to defeat the opponents and win the game. The application of skills will be closely connected with the objective of employed skills, the creation of opportunities, and the opponent’s traits; all of these have demonstrated the consciousness of “Integration of skills and strategies.

Secondly, the strong responsiveness of athletes to skills is also shown in the employment of their own skills; when the opponent misfit the space, time or skill etc, the athlete can switch from one act to another, change the attack target and its objective.

From these, it can be found that the athletes have good mastery of time, space and application of acts under confrontation. The talented athletes have strong consciousness of keeping the advantage and various methods to keep the superiority (knee-lifting for attack, close step contact or retreat, successive kicks for breaking to name a few). the talented individuals are very clear-minded to attack and defend when they are close to the opponents or have contact. At close quarters, the skills such as extrication, shoulder-turning, fist-boxing, retreating, force-borrowing, knee-lifting, back-round etc… will be used to attack efficiently and score for almost each contest.

From the rough data of each contest, the successive technical act employed is not only the continuum of kicking. Although it has not been practiced very often in these two big events, the frequency of its use has been increasing along with athletes’ awareness. In each contest, it often happens that athletes create opportunities and catch them to score, switch technical acts, and lead the game continuously. There is also a variety of objects, content, and method for their continuum. This new tendency has illustrated that the training of integration of attacking, defending and anti-attack is vital to the practice of men taekwondo athletes.

Advanced Accuracy and Strength on Technical Act Requested in the New

Rules



43

In accordance with the new rules, the athletes are sure to get the score only if three of the four referees agree to approve the marking. Hence, with the employment of new rules, men athletes are confronted with greater difficulties to score in the competition; higher criterion has been proposed for high grades for the aspects of technical accuracy and strength. Meanwhile, new rules lead to uncertainty of scoring, hence hanging result.

Especially in the playoff, the use of “Golden Point” “Decision of Superiority” to decide the result has asked for higher demand of referee’s professional ethics and specialized knowledge.

Detailed Analyses of the Differences between Chinese Men Taekwondo

Athletes and other Strong Powers in the World

The Causes of and its Manifestation in the Reserve Deficiency of techniques

& tactics

Compared with athletes from the strong powers, the Chinese men athletes show reserve deficiency in skills and strategies, with the main manifestation of no awareness of breaking attacks, lack of reserve overall skills and strategies, insufficiency in confidence, absence of awareness and response reserve resulting in incapability of responding to the switches of opponents. They have shown a big reserve deficiency in act transition, change, switch, Closedown, block, attack-breaking

The reasons for the deficiency lies in the referees’ and athletes poor understanding of the essence and principles of man taekwondo, which causes the deviation of training content, understanding of skills & strategies and their requirement. There is a shortage of research on the correspondence of skills and strategies, disconnection between the training content, methods and the actual contest, discrepancy between training burden and actual combat needs. Some misleading traditional conditioned response reserves have hindered and disturbed the newly-established reserves. The training of skills and strategies has been resting o the practice level, not upgraded to the competitive platform.

The Leading Manifestations and Their Reasons

Compared with the players from the world strong team, Chinese men athletes show deficiency in competition experience. They have lousy self-control; they can not control their own behavior and emotion very well, sometimes would lose control of them.

During the competitive arena, without on clear awareness or act, they can not execute the intention proposed by their referees, only to find themselves in a state of intense, stiff muscles leading to great consumption of physical power.

The chief reason for that is the athletes’ failure to figure out the “competitive knowledge” such as state, mind and action. With so many young players who have been trained for short time, they have little experience on competition, lack of information

44 Pan-Asian Journal of Sports & Physical Education about athletes from other countries, little analysis on the opponents and measures to destroy their skills, where after show little confidence in winning the game. There are few chances for them to participate in high-leveled competition.

The Main Defects in the Competitions and their Reasons

The Chinese men taekwondo athletes show a variety of defects in competitions with the main manifestations of pre-act before attack, excessive aimless acts, fouls, signaling or shouting for score, shakable figure, flawed techniques to name a few.

The leading reasons for the defects lie in absence of high demand for the quality of technical acts in training, blind imitation, lack of coaching, shallow understanding on the negative influences of defects on athletic capabilities, little accurate training received and lousy balance between general and special situations. They have participated in few high-level competitions but low-level ones.

The Main Manifestations of Specific Physical Training Deficiency and their

Reasons

Compared with the athletes from the strong powers, they have shown deficiency in specific physical capacity training. The main expressions are scarcity in specific explosive force, technical act tardiness, weak attack force, lousy speed and endurance, incapability of continuous kicking, bad flexibility resulting in difficulties in executing demanding techniques, technical distortion, or failure to complete the switch between acts; they, top heavy, have poor performance on anti-attack, and tend to fall off the arena.

The chief reason for that are superficial understanding of specific physical training from the athletes and their coaches, no precise concept on specific physical training, loose combination of physical training and specific one and low efficiency on training.

Moreover, they have assigned little time to physical training, with fewer measures and methods compared to others. Younger than the athletes from other countries, the athletes’ physical capacity indexes are under the state of maturity. There is also lack of reasonable valid indexes and standards of specific physical capacity.

Conclusions and Suggestions

A look from the two world taekwondo events has illustrated that the trend in man taekwondo techniques and tactics is strong competition on techniques, mental power, specific professional qualities and psychological qualities through the whole competition. They have signaled the obvious direction of integration of techniques and strategies, integration of attack, defense and anti-attack. The competent athletes have demonstrated their tremendously strong specific physical capacity, which meets the demand on the application of techniques and strategies. new rules not only ask for



45 higher requirement on technical act precision and its force, but also show more demanding expectations out of the referees’ professional ethics and knowledge.

The Chinese taekwondo athletes show disadvantages and differences, compared with athletes from strong powers. It is highly suggested that the Chinese taekwondo athletes take part in more high-quality world events and exchange of training experience with clear plans, aims. They are supposed to increase training requests, hold precise training objectives and measures, and overcome the defects through technical solutions. Study should be concentrated on the measures, methods and reasonable evaluation systems of specific physical training

References

[1] SHEN Xu (2008). The Analysis on Utilization of the Technical in the 2007 World

TaeKwondo Championship . Journal of PLA Institute of Physical Education 1 ）

[2] ZENG Yu-jiu (2005) ‘Skill and Training of Taekwondo Players’, China Sport Science and Technology 41 （ 2 ） 83- 87.

[3] LU Fan, GAO Zhi-hong, ＆ ZHANG Lei (2006). Developing tendency of world men’s

Taekwondo techniques and tactics, and Chinese Men’s Taekwondo s weaknesses——Summary of "Iran Open" and "Karachi City Gold Cup" in 2006 .

Journal of Wuhan Institute of Physical Education (12) ： 96- 98.

[4] FAN Daoming(2005). Current Situation of China Preparing for 2008 Olympic Games in the Item of Taekwondo and Its Conutermeasure , Journal of Chengdu Physical

Education Institute (3) ： 73- 75.


Constraints to Korean Adolescents’ Leisure:

The Value of Recreational Sport Activities

Se-Hyuk Park

(Seoul National University of Technology)

Abstract

Educators and leisure service professionals need to identify adolescents' recreational desires and constraints that limit their involvement in existing sport opportunities. The purpose of this study was to highlight the value of sport activities by examining the constraining factors to participate in recreational sport activities for adolescents in Korea.

The sample consisted of 205 children who are all in sixth grade from an elementary school. The factor structures of the constraint construct were somewhat clear, providing empirical support for the construct validity. The findings indicate that each dimension of constraint is conceptually distinct and differently influences adolescents’ leisure behaviors. Findings also revealed a gender difference in the constraints that vary in recreational sport participation.

Keywords: leisure constraints, adolescents, recreational sport

Introduction

Constraints on adolescents' access to leisure have been well documented over the last twenty years (Kim, 2002; Kloep & Hendry, 2003; Passmore & French, 2001; Raymore,

Godbey, Crawford, 1994; Verkooijen, Nielsen, & Kremers, 2008). Research on issues related to adolescents’ leisure and sport participation in Korea is very limited. There is a lack of national data regarding adolescents’ participation in recreational sport activities and constraints on it. The importance of identifying adolescents’ constraining factors has been stimulated by the wide acceptance of both the practical and theoretical value of the leisure constraints research.

Several sport and leisure scholars have developed a variety of conceptual and methodological models that help explain how constraints on sport and leisure activities might operate (Son, Kerstetter, & Mowen, 2008). Crawford, Jackson, and Godbey (1991) proposed the hierarchical model of leisure constraints, and suggested three categories of constraints (intrapersonal, interpersonal, and structural) based on the nature of the constraint within the individual’s decision-making process.

Constraints to Korean Adolescents’ Leisure:


47

Both social and sociological perspectives have shown that despite differences in age and social class, women experience common constraints to leisure (de Bruyn &

Cillessen, 2008). Within the leisure literature, a considerable amount of both theoretical and empirical research is addressing the relationship between gender and differences in leisure time activities (Henderson, 1994; Mota, Santos, & Ribeiro, 2008; Shaw, 1994).

Rekers, Morey, Raspbuty, Sanders, and Strausset (1989) found that masculine activities included sport related activities, while more passive activities were found to be primarily female activities.

Although the children want to participate in a recreational sport activity, they may be constrained to certain sport and leisure participation mainly due to complex constraining factors. The primary purpose of this study was to explore the constraining factors to participate in recreational sport activities for adolescents in Korea. This paper also identified gender and activity-specific variations in constraints on recreational sport participation.

Considering the practical value of research in the field of leisure constraints and the lack of adolescents' constraints research in Korea, the present study aimed to examine gender differences in the perception of constraints. One research question is developed in order to guide this study: 1) Do the adolescents perceived constraints vary according to gender?

Methods

Data Collection

Questionnaires were distributed to children who are all in sixth grade from a public elementary school located in Northern part of Seoul, Korea. The distribution of the questionnaires took place in class settings. A convenience sampling strategy was utilized to find study participants. Overall, 227 respondents returned completed questionnaires on site. Of the 227 returns, 22 questionnaires were not used because of extensive missing data. One-hundred eleven-one respondents were females, and 94 were males.

The ages of the samples ranged from 11 to 12 years, with a mean age of 11.6.

Instrument

The first section of the questionnaire collected information regarding constraints in recreational sport activities. The scale consisted of 27 items and was based on questionnaires previously developed and modified by Alexandris and Carroll (1997) and

Park (2004). They have good evidence of internal consistency and validity. A five point

Likert rating scale measuring constraints, ranging from 1 = strongly disagree to 5 = strongly agree, was used.


Statistical Methods

A principal components factor analysis with an oblique rotation (oblimin) was performed to determine the factor structure of the constraints scale. Cronbach’s alpha coefficients were examined to provide evidence of the internal consistency of the instrument. The t -test of means was used to measure gender differences in activity constraint scores. All tests of significance were set at an alpha level of .05.The data were recorded and analyzed using the SPSS 10.0 statistical computer package.

Results

The results of this factor analysis are presented in Table 1 in the form of a structure matrix as recommended by Raykov and Marcoulides (2008). The oblique rotation was used because of the possibility that components of the construct are correlated

(Tabachnick & Fidell, 1989). In performing the factor analysis, a minimum eigenvalue of 1 and scree test were used to determine the number of factors to be extracted. The results revealed that there were six factors with eigenvalues exceeding 1.0. On visual inspection of the scree plot, six factors were confirmed. Items were included in a factor if they had loadings of .45 or greater (Tabachnick & Fidell, 1989). Variables have been ordered and grouped by size of loading to facilitate interpretation. Interpretative names for each factor are suggested at the top of each of the columns. Factor scores were computed for each dimension and were retained for use in subsequent analysis.

The pattern of loadings was highly similar to that reported by Park (2004). The six factors in total accounted for 57% of the variance, and were defined as follows:

Psychological constraints (Factor 1, Alpha = .89), Accessibility constraints (Factor 2,

Alpha = .86), Time (Factor 3, Alpha = .80), Lack of partner (Factor 4, Alpha = .78),

Facilities (Factor 5, Alpha = .74), and Safety (Factor 6, Alpha = .72). The values of the alpha for the subscales were satisfactory, as they ranged from .72 to .89 (Nunnally,

1978).

It should be recognized that the percent of the variance explained by each factor may be taken as a rough approximation of the importance of the factor (Tabachnick & Fidell,

1989). The larger the percent of the variance explained, the more important the factor, suggesting that children perceive the psychological factor, which explained 41% of the variance, to be most important. Thus, it can be further argued that intrapersonal constraint is the most powerful constraint on recreational sport participation for the adolescents.

Table 1: Factor Analysis of the Items of the Constraint Dimensions

Factors/Items Factor 1

Psychological

Factor2

Accessi-bility

Factor3

Time

Factor4

Partner

Factor5

Facility

Factor6

Safety



49

Lack of energy

No physical capability

Feel too tired

Not feeling fit enough

Not interested

Not confident

Did not enjoy before

Health-related problem

Transportation takes time

No opportunity near home

No money

Expensive fee

Cost of equipment

Busy life

Work/study to do

No time

Social commitment

Family commitment

No one teach me

Not necessary skills

No one to participate with

No information

Friends don

’ t have time

Inadequate facilities

Inconvenient facilities

Afraid of getting hurt

Safety

Eigenvalue

Variance Explained

Cumulative Variance

.072

.192

.183

.189

.256

.229

.084

.013

.015

.791

.699

.456

.573

.546

.229

.019

.208

.34

.110

.050

.222

.136

.011

.325

.219

.152

.211

.878

.698

.875

.598

.761

.108

.100

.021

-.112

.110

.234

.124

.021

-.11

.042

.191

.108

.103

.221

.622

.767

.249

.584

.232

.076

.291

.176

.029

.107

.212

.132

.24

.290

.013

.087

.209

-.17

.033

.220

.089

.316

.692

.047

.125

.163

.013

.113

-.098

.125

.031

.144

.144

.270

.223

.02

.321

.672

.688

.752

.652

.519

.557

.767

.766

.035

.341

.207

.109

.101

3.134

40.766%

40.766%

.165

.107

.249

.041

.023

.103

.119

.190

.021

.083

-.103

.023

.498

.773

.022

.240

.020

.124

.597

.671

2.982

7.610%

2.341

5.858%

2.095

4.929%

1.789

2.000%

1.289

1.222%

48.376% 54.234% 54.234% 56.234% 57.256%

Note. Only loadings of .45 or greater are underlined.

The mean scores of the constraint dimensions for males and females were calculated, and the significance of differences was assessed through an independent sample t test.

Table 2 demonstrates the mean scores and the standard deviations of the two groups in each of the constraint factors, the t values for the t tests, and the significance levels. In relation to the whole scale, the findings showed that females ( M = 2.52) scored significantly higher than males ( M = 2.13; t = 3.66, p < .05). Among the six factors, statistically significant differences were found in the psychological ( t = 3.21, p < .05) and safety ( t = 2.88, p < .05) dimensions.

Table 2: Results of t Tests for the Perception of Constraint Factors by Male and Female

.274

.234

.165

.109

.105

.160

.392

.309

.208

.108

.224

-.101

.053

.032

.018

.182

.033

.25

.102

.061

.018

.039

.219

.176

.137

.024

.190

.109

.316

.382

.273

.013

.113

.260

.131

.022

-.108

.039

.160

.012

.054

.135

.072

.102

.042

.316


Male Female

Dimension M SD M SD t P

Psychological

Accessibility

Time

Lack of partner

Facilities

Safety

2.48

2.22

2.14

2.12

2.26

1.58

.54

.38

.78

.39

.54

.66

2.81

2.45

2.23

2.56

2.59

2.49

.48

.28

.36

.54

.37

.33

3.21

.21

.53

.18

1.18

2.88

Total Constraints Scale 2.13 .55 2.52 .39 3.66 .02

Note. Mean scores are based on a Likert-type scale of 1 (not important) to 4 (very important).

Discussion

Factor analysis supports construct validity that is the most important form of validity

(Kerlinger, 1973).

The emergence of several factors for the activities would indicate that constraint is indeed a multidimensional construct. The factor structures were somewhat clear, providing empirical support for the construct validity. The findings indicate that each dimension of constraint is conceptually distinct and differently influences adolescents’ leisure behaviors. Although the number of factors differed, the findings are generally consistent with previous research (Crawford & Godbey, 1987).

It was found that the adolescents of different gender experience constraints that vary either in nature or intensity, even though they wish to participate in the same recreational sport activity. The results indicate that females scored significantly higher than males in the whole constraint scale. This finding implies that the experience of being female may well constrain access to certain types of recreational sport participation (de Bruyn &

Cillessen, 2008).

The present research findings may also have practical utility by providing leisure service professionals with insight into how adolescents perceive constraints in their decisions not to participate in recreational sport activities. The leisure service professionals need to develop and provide recreational sport programs in consideration of their needs, interests, and constraints. It is hoped that this research will ultimately support the development of effective recreational sport programs for adolescents in heavy school work. Future research might make use of structural equation models to investigate the relationship between the constraints and desired outcome variables such as intensity of sport participation. In addition, comparative studies concerning

.01

.67

.65

.43

.09

.03



51 adolescents’ leisure constraints among different Asian countries may contribute to understanding cultural and social factors affecting adolescents’ leisure participation.

References

[1] Alexandris, K., & Carroll, B. (1997). An analysis of leisure constraints based on different recreational sport participation levels: Results from a study in Greece.

Leisure Sciences, 19 , 1-15.

[2] Crawford, D.W., & Godbey, G. (1987). Reconceptualizing barriers to family leisure. Leisure Sciences, 9, 119-127.

[3] Crawford, D.W., Jackson, E.L., & Godbey, G. (1991). A hierarchical model of leisure constraints. Leisure Sciences, 13, 309-320.

[4] de Bruyn, E. H., & Cillessen, A. H. N. (2008). Leisure activity preferences and perceived popularity in early adolescence. Journal of Leisure Research, 40 , 442-457.

[5] Henderson, K. A. (1994). Broadening an understanding of women, gender, and leisure.

Journal of Leisure Research, 26 , 1-7.

[6] Kerlinger, F. N. (1973). Foundations of behavioral research (2 nd ed.). New York: Holt,

Rinehart and Winston.

[7] Kim, M. (2002). The constraining factors affecting juveniles’ leisure sport participation.

Journal of Leisure and Recreation Studies, 23 , 17-27.

[8] Kloep, M., & Henry, L. B. (2003). Adult control and adolescent challenge? Dilemas and paradoxes in young people’s leisure.

World Leisure, 45 (3), 23-34.

[9] Mota, J., Santos, M. P., & Ribeiro, J. C. (2008). Differences in leisure-time activities according to level of physical activity in adolescents. Journal of Physical Activity and

Health, 5 , 286-293.

[10] Nunnally, J. C. (1978). Psychometric theor y (2nd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.

[11] Park, S. H. (2004). Constraints to recreational sport participation for adolescents exposed to internet-related delinquency: Developing marketing strategies for increasing sport participation. International Journal of Applied Sports Sciences, 16 (1),

41-54.

[12] Passmore, A., & French, D. (2001). Development and administration of a measure to assess adolescents’ participation in leisure activities.

Adolescence, 36 , 67-75.

[13] Raykov, T., & Marcoulides, G. A. (2008). An introduction to applied multivariate analysis . New York, NY: Routledge.

[14] Raymore, L. A., Godbey, G. C., & Crawford, D. W. (1994). Self-esteem, gender, and socioeconomic status: Their relation to perceptions of constraint on leisure among adolescents. Journal of Leisure Research, 26 , 99-118.

[15] Rekers, G. A., Morey, S. M., Rasbuty, W. C., Sanders, J. A., & Strauss, C. C. (1989).


Differentiation of adolescent participation. Journal of Genetic Psychology, 150 ,

323-335.

[16] Shaw, S. M. (1994). Gender, leisure, and constraint: Toward a framework for the analysis of women’s leisure. Journal of Leisure Research, 26 , 8-22.

[17] Son, J., Kerstetter, D. L., & Mowen, A. J. (2008). Do age and gender matter in the constraint negotiation of physically active leisure? Journal of Leisure Research, 40,

267-289.

[18] Tabachnick, B. G., & Fidell, L. S. (1989). Using multivariate statistics (2nd ed.). New

York: HarperCollins.

[19] Verkooijen, K. T., Nielsen, G. A., & Kremers, S. P. J. (2008). The association between leisure time physical activity and smoking in adolescence: An examination of potential mediating and moderating factors. International Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 15 ,

157-163.

Sources of Stress in Malaysian University Athletes 53

Sources of Stress in Malaysian University Athletes

Wee Eng Hoe

Kee Kang Mea, Ong Tah Fatt & Nadiah Diyana Tan Abdullah

(Faculty of Sports Science & Recreation Universiti Teknologi MARA.

Malaysia)

Abstract

Involvement in sport as an athlete can be immensely stressful. Many factors have contributed to stressful situations and the understanding of what causes stress would help alleviate if not eliminate potential sources of stress. This study is a survey research concerning the perceived stress of student athletes on their sport participation. The data were collected from the administration of a questionnaire to a sample of 273 student athletes (aged 18-26) using convenient sampling. The instrument contains 45 items related to stress which were divided into 6 sub-factors; selection (7 items), finances (5 items), training environment (10), accommodation during competition (6 items), travel

(9 items), and competition environment (8 items). The validity of the instrument was

0.969. The sample consisted of 59 per cent male athletes and 41 per cent female athletes.

Data analysis revealed that the three main sources of stress experienced by both male and female athletes were issues related to finances, selection and accommodation during competition. T-test results showed no significant differences in perceived stress for all the 6 sub-factors according to gender, age groups and category of sport. However there was significant difference in factor relating to finances when athletes participating at the college and zone levels were compared. They were dissatisfied because of ‘having to pay part of team expenses’ and ‘allowance paid during competition was not sufficient’.

Further analyses also revealed that male and female athletes were not satisfied on the issue of ‘financial supports differ among different sports’.

Key words: stress management, athletes

Introduction

Involvement in sport as an athlete can be immensely stressful. When stress is experienced over an extended period without relief, it leads to burnout (Martens, 2004).

Many factors have contributed to stressful situations and the understanding of what causes stress would help alleviate if not eliminate potential sources of stress.

Stress is an unavoidable aspect of everyday life. Athlete like everyone else suffers

54 Pan-Asian Journal of Sports & Physical Education from one form of stress or another at some point in their lives. When athletes experienced stress stimulus, they are stressed; their bodies tries to adjust to different circumstances or the continually changing environment around them. In this process, the body is put to extra effort resulting in "wear and tear" thus affecting the body's normal way of functioning.

There are several factors that contribute to the possibility of developing stress symptoms. Since everyone is unique and responds to stress differently, the specific causes of stress differ from one individual to another. A situation may be stressful for someone but the same situation may be challenging for others or has no effect at all

(Aldwin, 2007). However, stress is not always necessarily harmful or bad. Hans Selye

(1956) concur that effect of stress depends on how one handles it. The stress of exhilarating, creative successful effort is beneficial, while that of failure or humiliation is detrimental. Stress can be therefore negative, positive or neutral.

Scientists theorize that certain genetic and developmental situations can affect one’s respond to stressors. Abusive behavior or neglect by coaches or other sport officials may cause long-term abnormalities in the systems that regulate stress. Developmental stress can lead to the development of a particular personality type that causes one to over-respond to stressful events. Genetic factors may also contribute to the causes of stress.

In sport, stress is believed to be related to the emphasis on winning. This has worsen with the attitude of ‘winning at all costs’ has permeated the athletic scene. Researchers have found that adolescents’ participation in competitive sports is linked with competition anxiety and self centeredness (Santrock, 2003). Adolescents become overworked and begin to see sports as too demanding when pressured by parents and coaches. Winning is certainly a goal of competitive sports, but sometimes players feel more than just the thrill of the game. Being in an environment that stresses winning at all costs can make athletes completely stressed out (Teens Health, 1995-2004).

Women are more likely to suffer from symptoms of stress. Goyen and Anshel (1998) examined sources of stress between male and female adolescent athletes, ages 13 to 17 and found that girls perceived parental criticism and verbal abuse by spectators and coaches as markedly more stressful then their male peers. Conversely, boys viewed performance error and bad refereeing as more stressful than girls did.

Stress is a process, a sequence of events that will lead to a particular end. It is defined as a substantial imbalance between demand (physical and/or psychological demands) and response capability, under conditions where failure to meet that demand has important consequences (McGrath, 1970). According to McGrath (1970) stress occurs according to four-stage process which is environmental demand, perception of demand, stress response and behavioural consequences. Environmental demand includes physical

Sources of Stress in Malaysian University Athletes 55 and psychological factors. Individual’s perception of the environmental demand means the amount of psychological or physical ‘threat’ perceived. Stress responses (physical & psychological) of individuals may include arousal, state anxiety (cognitive & somatic), muscle tension and attention changes. Behavioural consequences include performance or outcome.

According to Lazarus, stress is a feeling experienced when a person perceived that the demands exceed the personal and social resources the individual is able to mobilize.

Lazarus’ Model of Stress (Lazarus, 1999 in Burton & Raedeke, 2008) proposed that appraising a potential stressful situation among athletes involved three aspects namely competitive demand, personal control and coping strategies. Athletes’ evaluation of how a demanding situation will affect their performance in order to achieve the set goals is considered the competitive demand. Burton and Raedeke (2008) emphasized that the more important the goal and the greater the uncertainty about reaching it, the greater the competitive demand. Personal control refers to athletes’ perceptions of how well they can manage the competitive demand and achieve important goals (Burton & Raedeke,

2008). Athletes’ ability to control stress depend very much on two factors. The first is their perception on the stress whether it is surmountable. Secondly whether they have the performance capability (knowledge, skills, tactics and preparedness) to perform and achieve important goals. Personal control is low if athletes perceived that sources of stress could not be reduced or eliminated and they do not have the capability to achieve the goals. On the other hand, personal control is high when athletes’ perceived that the sources of stress could be controlled and they have the capability to perform well so as to achieve the set goals. Athletes will appraise their competition in order to gauge whether they can be successful or otherwise. A confident athlete who perceived competition (stress) as controllable and perceived that they have the capability to perform well is said to be engaging ‘challenge appraisal’. This provide the athlete positive thoughts and helps him focus on competition. Conversely, an athlete who perceived that they are ill prepared and could not overcome the stress is said to be engaging in ‘threat appraisals’. Subsequently this leads to fear of losing and feeling pessimistic about the competition. Consequently this athlete will use ineffective problem management strategies, thus fail to achieve important goals.

Athletes are human beings that could succumb to pressure from various issues such as personal, environmental, leadership and team issues. As such athletes need to manage their stress in order to perform well (Martens, 1987, 2004). Many athletes faced enormous pressure that could not be solved easily. For instance top Malaysian swimmer

Siow Yi Ting had to skip 2005 SEA Games because of her studies at the University of

Wisconsin, USA which require her to pass the first-year semester examination (Anon,

2005b). Similarly Khairul Safwan had to miss SPM Examination for Doha 2006 Asian


Games (Anon, 2006b) because of training and competition. On the other hand, selection seemed to be the reason why two gold in Manila SEA Games could not make National gymnast See Hui Yee stay with the Malaysian team. She quitted after six years of service, all because of dissatisfaction for being left out of the Commonwealth Games

(Anon, 2006a). Similarly Shalin Zulkifli who has been the mainstay of the national women’s bowling team since SEA Games debut in Singapore in 1993, was surprised over her exclusion from the Manila Games. Reason for her exclusion was said to be her decision to decline national call-up (Anon, 2005a).

With the above-mentioned problems encountered in the local sport scene, this study plans to investigate the sources of stress among student athletes in local public universities.

Methods

Participants

The sample consisted of 273 undergraduate athletes (160 males, 113 females) aged

17-26 years (M = 20.4 years, SD = 2.5) and they have participated in 23 sports. Forty nine of the athletes participated in individual sport (e.g. shooting, weight lifting, athletics, rhythmic gymnastic and martial arts), 192 in team sport (e.g. netball, basketball, volleyball, hockey, and softball) and 32 in mixed sport (e.g. badminton, archery, ping-pong and squash). The level of involvements or skill of athletes was categorized as national (n = 15), state (n = 114), zone (n = 12), district (n = 21), university (n = 82), college (n = 15), and school (n = 14).

Data collection

An inventory was adopted from a dimension (environmental issues) of organizational stress proposed by a qualitative study carried out by Fletcher and Hanton (2003). The inventory consisted of 45 items which were sub-divided into six sub-scales of selection, finances, training environment, accommodation, travel and competitive environment.

The perceived level of stress was determined by participants by ranking on a 5-point

Likert-type scale. Each item response ranged from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). The athletes were given as much time as needed to complete the questionnaire.

Results

Table 1: Sources of stress and ranking of sub-factors for the whole sample (N = 273)

Mean

Sub-Factors No of items

Unweighted Std.

Rank

Scores means Deviation

Selection 22.82 7 3.26 7.08 2


Finances

Training Environment

Accommodation during competition

Travelling for competition

17.17

31.00

18.89

5

10

6

3.43

3.10

3.15

4.89

9.09

6.23

1

5

3

27.96 9 3.11 8.78 4

Competition Environment 24.22 8 3.03 7.06 6

The ranking of sources of stress is identified in Table 1. The participants were affected more by the financial supports, the selection related issues as well as issues pertaining to accommodation during competition. They ranked those issues as first, second and third respectively. Similar ranking of the three main sources of stress were demonstrated by male athletes (n = 160) and female athletes (n = 113).

Table 2: Sources of stress according to the three main sources (selection, finances and accommodation during competition)

Sources of stress Whole sample

(N = 273)

Males

(n = 160)

Females

(n = 113)

Selection of athletes

Inappropriate selection process

Perceived unfairness in selection process

Ambiguous selection process

Unclear selection method

Unclear selection criteria

Prolonged selection process

Late selection (approaching the date of competition)

Finances

Inadequate financial support

Athlete has to pay part of expenditure

Differential financial support among sport

Inadequate allowance paid during training

Inadequate allowance paid during competition f % F

127 48.5 82

129 47.3 80

144 52.7 85

133 48.7 81

135 49.4 81

113 41.4 67

127 46.5 78

% F

51.2 45

50.0 49

53.1 59

50.6 52

50.6 54

41.8 46

48.7 49

151 55.3 89

126 46.1 78

55.6 62

48.8 48

166 60.8 104 65.0 62

165 60.4 100 62.5 65

167 61.1 99 61.9 68

121 44.3 77 48.2 44

%

39.8

43.4

52.2

46.1

47.8

40.7

43.3

39.9

Accommodation during competition

Unsatisfactory organization of accommodation

Inadequate accommodation facilities

Too many athletes accommodated in a single unit/room

131 48.0 86

129 47.3 83

53.7 45

51.8 46

54.9

42.5

54.9

57.5

60.2

39.8

40.7


Accommodation is noisy

Accommodation is not comfortable

123 45.1 78

119 43.6 78

48.8 45

48.8 41

39.8

36.3

Inability to sleep well 123 45.0 76 47.5 47 41.6

Note: For males and females, percentages were derived within each group. Frequency calculation is based on total responses of ‘agree’ and ‘strongly agree’.

Results in Table 2 showed three main sources of stress and their sub-elements for the whole sample as well as according to gender. The stressors are classified according to the frequency and percentages obtained from the athletes who responded as ‘agree’ and

‘strongly agree’. When the ‘selection of athlete’ were analyzed, overall (responses >

50%), the athletes were stressed because selection process was ambiguous. The same sentiments were felt by female athletes. However, the male athletes were stressed in five of the seven elements (responses > 50%). Male perceived that the selection process were inappropriate and unfair. They felt strongly that the selection process was ambiguous and the selection method and criteria were unclear to them.

In terms of finances, athletes perceived that their stress were due to ‘inadequate financial support’. They concur that allowances paid during training and during competition were not adequate. They also agreed that differential financial supports were administered to different sports.

When accommodation during competition was analyzed, only male athletes perceived stress (responses > 50%) in two areas. They were unsatisfied the adequacy of accommodation facilities and too many of them were crammed into a room or unit.

Inferential statistical analyses yielded some significant results in three factors relating to finances. Male and female athletes were significantly different on the issue of

‘financial supports differed among different sport’ (t = 2.092, p = .037). Male athletes

(M = 3.6820) were more stressed than the female counterparts (M = 3.3915) on the issue.

Significant results were also obtained when athletes according to level of involvement were analyzed. Athletes at the college level and zone level differed in the issues of

‘having to pay part of all expenses’ (F 6,266 = 2.490, p = .023) and

‘allowances paid during competition were not sufficient’ (F 6,266 = 2.369, p = .030).

Athletes playing at the zone level (M = 4.1725) were more stressed as compared to athletes playing at the college level (M = 2.7747) on the two issues.

Discussion

The purpose of this study was to examine the sources of stress experienced through sport participation at different levels of involvement and the influence of gender on stress. Three main sources of stress (according to rank) were identified and labeled as

‘selection’, ‘finances’ and ‘accommodation during competition’.

It was hypothesized that sources of stress would be a function of gender. The results

Sources of Stress in Malaysian University Athletes 59 indicated a significant difference between male and female athletes on issue of finance, specifically ‘financial support among different sports’ where male athletes were more stressed. This finding is contrary to the report by Goyen and Anshel (1998) that men experienced significant lower acute stress than women following performance-related stressors.

On selection issues, results indicated that male and female athletes were stressed because selection process was ambiguous. In addition, the male athletes were stressed in another four related issues of ‘inappropriate selection process’, ‘unfair selection process’, ‘unclear selection method’ and ‘unclear selection criteria’. Those stressful situations could be due to lack of developed philosophy among coaches. Martens (2004) stressed that without well-developed philosophy a coach may find himself lacking direction and readily succumbing to external pressures. Having philosophy will remove uncertainty about training rules and many facets of coaching.

The predicaments that were faced by the athletes may also be viewed in terms of coaching leadership. Gallucci (2008) emphasized that effective leaders must have integrity, decisiveness, competence, and vision. In relation to coaching, Gallucci (2008) emphasized that coaches must have integrity which involves not taking advantages of one’s position and not playing favourites. In addition coaches must be competent in terms of having knowledge and skills to coach. Coaches also need to be decisive in making good decisions quickly, especially under pressure such as selecting athletes. The results relating to selection of athletes seemed to point to this direction that coach handling the team lack integrity, decisiveness and competence. Further, selection issues may be connected to trust. Trust is especially important when one is vulnerable in relation to another person. Athletes are in vulnerable positions in relation to coaches because coaches make important decisions about the roles of athletes on teams (Galluci,

2008).

In terms of finances, athletes in this study perceived that their stress was due to

‘inadequate financial support’, ‘inadequate allowances during training and competition’ and ‘different sport received differential financial supports’. Funding of sport teams has been difficult and coaches are forced into assuming the responsibilities getting money for their teams. The multifaceted responsibilities of sport coaches has prompted Martens

(2004) to remind coaches of ‘the seven managers you need to be’ which included a financial manager and listed the functions they have to perform pre-season, in-season and post-season. Coaches acted as ‘financial manager’ has to obtain funds, prepare budget, know approval processes for expenditure (Martens, 2004) and failing to fulfill those function will only put his sport team in disarray which would ensure discontents among athletes. Adequate funding requires effort to canvass. One successful funding model may be that of Wick Athletic Association, Hartwick College (New York) which

60 Pan-Asian Journal of Sports & Physical Education brought fundraising to campus in supporting its student athletes, their teams and coaches; to garner financial support from parents, friends and alumni annually through membership drives and on campus discounts deals (Wick Athletic Association,

September 3, 2007).

As noted by Martens (2004) coaches often doubled up as ‘policy manager’ and they need to review organization policies and establish policies. It is through this process of building policies, athletes may not suffer in terms of financial aids for training as well as for competition. The policy applied to athletes of the University of Utah’s Office of

Athletic Compliance (16 Aug 2009) could be a good example. University athletes’ meal allowance policy ensured that all student athletes on a team must receive identical meal allowances and meal-allowance may not be used as a reward or punishment for team’s or student-athlete’s athletic performance. During an away-from-home competition, student-athletes may receive three meals per day and pregame or post game meal on game day.

The result relating to athletes’ accommodation during competition showed that males athletes perceived stress and were unsatisfied on the adequacy of accommodation facilities provided and too many of them were sharing a room or unit. This contravenes the policy practiced by the University of Utah (Athletic Compliance Unit, University of

Utah. Retrieved 16.8.2009) where it was stated that c oaches should arrange for hotel accommodations and a ll rooms are to be double occupancy except for head coach, and trainer if approved by the sport’s supervisor. The inadequacy of accommodation of athletes has led the Canadian elite alpine athletes refusing to stay at the Canada’s elite alpine competitors will not stay in the $131-million 2010 Olympic Athletes Village built to house them during the Games (CanWest News Service, December 23, 2007). It was reported that when athletes are competing they will not be staying at the village.

In addition the they felt that athletes bound for the Olympics will have been preparing for years, and they want to be sure that every single aspect thought of prior to going into competition which include the bed they sleep in, the food they eat, the utensils they use, everything and would not want to risk anything.

In short, common features of stressors are taxing one's resources such as personal dispositions, expectations and cognitions, thus creating cognitive overload, and/or threatening the person's well-being (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984). Further, those unpleasant events could negatively influence numerous cognitive and psycho-physiological processes that, in turn, have a deleterious effect on sport performance in the absence of using effective coping (Anshel & Delany, 2001;

Giacobbi, Foore, & Weinberg, 2004).

In summary, it is important to understand individual differences in determining sources and intensity levels of stress before and during training and competition.


Individual differences such as culture and skill level should be looked into more closely.

Perhaps a qualitative approach should also be incorporated into studying stress among athletes.

References

[1] Aldwin, C. M. (2007). Stress, coping, and development: An integrative perspective

(2nd ed.). New York: Guilford Press.

[2] Anon (2005a). The Star , 24 October 2005.

[3] Anon (2005b). The Star , 25 October 2005.

[4] Anon (2006a). The Star , 11 March 2006.

[5] Anon (2006a). The Star , 1 September 2006.

[6] Anshel, M. H., & Delany, J. (2001). Sources of acute stress, cognitive appraisals, and coping

[7] strategies of male and female child athletes. Journal of Sport Behavior, 24, 329-353.

[8] Burton, D. & Raedeke, T.D. (2008). Sport psychology for coaches . Champaign, IL:

Human

[9] Kinetics.

[10] CanWest News Service (December 23, 2007). Canadian athletes won’t stay in Whistler village .

[11] Retrieved 8 August 2009 from http://www.canada.com/topics/news/national/ story.html?id=18beb940-c3c0-4854-9554-

[13] 1d384b38c0e0. Retrieved 8 Aug 2009

[14] Gallucci, N.T. (2008). Sport psychology: Performance enhancement, performance

[15] inhibition, individuals and teams.

NY: Psychology Press.

[16] Giacobbi, P., Foore, B., & Weinberg, R. S. (2004). Broken clubs and expletives: The sources

[17] of stress and coping responses of skilled and moderately skilled golfers. Journal of

Applied Sport Psychology. 16, 166-183.

[18] Goyen, M.J. & Anshel, M.H. (1998). Sources of acute competitive stress and use of coping

[19] strategies as a function of age and gender. Journal of Applied Developmental

Psychology, 19, 469-486.

[20] Lazarus, R. S., & Folkman, S. (1984). Stress, appraisal, and coping. New York:

Springer.

[21] Martens, R. (2004). Successful coaching . Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.

[22] Martens, R. (1987). Coaches guide to sport psychology . Champaign, IL: Human


Kinetics.

[23] McGrath, J.E. (1970). Major methodological issues. In J.E. McGrath (Ed.). Social and

A.

psychological factors in stress (pp.19-49). New York: Holt, Rincahart &

Winston.

[24] Santrock, J. (2003). Adolescence (9th ed.). New York: McGraw Hill.

[25] Selye, H. (1956). The stress of life. New York: McGraw-Hill.

[26] Teens Health, The Nemours Foundation, (1995-2004). Handling Sports Pressure and

A.

Competition. Retrieved 10 March 2009 from

B.

http://kidshealth.org/PageManager.jsp?dn=KidsHealth&lic=1&ps=cat207&cat

_id=2013.

[27] University of Utah, Office of Athletic Compliance (2009). Retrieved 10 Aug 2009 from

[28] http://athleticscompliance.utah.edu/index.php?Itemid=151&id=137&option=com_cont ent&task=view .

[29] Wick Athletic Association (September 3, 2007). Retrieved 8 August 2009 from

[30] Http://www.hartwick.edu/x21204.xml.

Image Factors Affecting Soccer Players’ Likeability 63

Image Factors Affecting Soccer Players’ Likeability

Susan Kim and YooYeon Kim

(Korea National Sports University)

Abstract

This study is about image factors affecting soccer players’s likeability. Based on the results of the study, the following conclusions were drawn: First, among national soccer players whose performance is up to a certain standard, better performance does not necessarily make a player more likeable. Instead, attitude and physical appearance contribute to fans’ liking of players. Also, although players’ expressiveness can contribute to a players’ likeability, in the case of Korea’s national soccer players, its affect is negative because players’ tend not to have good speaking skills. Since all of the above-mentioned image perceptions do not differ with respect to gender, age, education, and occupation, the measured perceptions and yielded results are stable across different target groups. Lastly, soccer fans with a religion are perceptive of players’ religious behavior regardless of any difference in religion, and since the majority of soccer fans have a religion, their ability to identify with a player with a religion makes that player more likeable.

Keywords: image, soccer, fans likeability

Introduction

Because of Korea's outstanding performance (4th place) in the 2002 World Cup, its national players received great attention from the public, and soon they all became sport stars. According to a survey responded by 800 Korean adults, Ji-Sung Park(now a player for the Manchester United) was shown to be the most popular player, and Joo-Young

Park and Young-Pyo Lee were shown to be the second and third most popular player, respectively (YTN STAR, 2006).

Since Koreans have a tendency to watch games, either directly or on TV, when sport stars are playing (Cho, 2009), the popularity of the national soccer players lead to the popularity of professional soccer after the 2002 World Cup. Considering that the greatest source of income for professional sport teams is ticket sales, the importance of athlete marketing on the part of teams and the league in attracting spectators to the games is evident.

In an environment where consumers are bombarded with advertisements, business

64 Pan-Asian Journal of Sports & Physical Education corporations also did not hesitate to use the national players as models in their ads to draw attention. This use of sport stars as models has shown to be effective in other ways as well. According to Na and Kim (2003), sport stars have a positive effect on consumers’ attitude about the advertised product, and according to Cho and Park (2002), sport stars have a greater effect on consumers’ intention to buy an advertised product than typical celebrities do. Further support was given by Lee and Shin (2004) who reported that sport stars’ trustworthiness, performance and appearance positively affect consumers’ attitude toward ads and their products and by Cho (2002) who reported that sport star’ physical attractiveness positively affect consumers’ buying intention of advertised products.

Stars whether they be sport athletes or celebrities, however, demand enormous amount of money. Thus, the ability to identify and approach potential stars is valuable.

This requires knowing which image factors make a player attractive to fans and evaluating each athlete on the basis of the factors. This knowledge also can give insight on how to strategically market athletes.

First, an understanding of the concept of ‘image’ is important. All information (e.g., thoughts, feelings, knowledge) gathered directly or indirectly about a player goes through a data processing stage, and during this stage, many attributes are identified and evaluated. In general, the attributes are performance, personality, behavior, sociality, physical appearance, and cultivation related, and image is the resulting subjective and overall impression (Choi, 2003).

Of all the attributes, performance is the only objective attribute, and it is the most basic requirement for becoming recognized as a sport star (Lee, 2008). Others, on the other hand, are subjective, and they are evaluated based on information gathered from athletes’ behavior during games, interviews, ads, and news. Unfortunately, media attention given to team sport players is limited because the media prefers winners, such that highly performing team sport player tends to be neglected when the team loses.

Therefore, image perceptions of individual sport athletes tend to be higher.

In the case of the 2002 World Cup, however, all players performed outstandingly and drew major attention. This leads to the following question: ”Among many outstanding players of the same sport, why is one liked more than another?” This study purports to answer this question. While Kim and Choi(2003) attempted to identify image constituting factors that affect sport players’ likeability, the factors were limited to performance and attitude related attributes, and while Lee (2008) showed that appearance affects a player’s likeability, the appearance variable in the study did not include the player’s looks, and the study was limited to foreign pro-basketball players.

Finally, considering that the majority of Koreans, including sport stars have a religion, this study purported to add religion as another factor in affecting player likeability. In

Image Factors Affecting Soccer Players’ Likeability 65 summary, the purpose of this study was to identify factors which affect sport stars’ likeability when there are many sport stars in the same sport and to determine whether appearance that includes looks, as well as religion, could be included among the factors.

Methods

Participants

The participants of this study were 440 adults drawn from 4 soccer games held in

Seoul and in the Gyonggi area during the 2007 season using the convenience sampling method. Upon excluding 4 questionnaires that were not completely responded to, data from 436 questionnaires were actually analyzed.

The demographics of the participants were as follows: Gender-wise, there were

266(61.0%) males and 170(39.0%) females, and age-wise, those in their 20s, 30s, 40s, and 50 and over were 228(52.3%), 74(17.0%), 76(17.4%), and 58(13.3%) persons, respectively. Education-wise, junior high school, senior high school, undergraduate, and graduate school graduates were 10(2.3%), 154(35.8%), 232(54.0%), and 34(7.9%) persons, respectively, and occupation-wise, students, business owners, employees, housewives, and others were 106(24.3%), 62(14.3%), 126(28.9%), 62

명

(14.2%),

80

명

(18.3%) persons, respectively. Lastly, religion-wise, Protestants, Catholics,

Buddhists, those having no religion and those with other kind of religion were

116(26.6%), 48(11.1%), 104(24.0%), 160(36.9%), 6(1.4%) persons, respectively.

Instrument

This study consisted of a survey research. The survey included 6 multiple choice questions about the respondents' demographics (e.g., gender, age, education, occupation, religion), 32 Likert type questions about a soccer players' attitude, performance, public services, physical appearance, religious behavior, speaking skill, and media exposure, and one Likert type question about the level of liking felt by the respondent toward the soccer player. Also, all of these Likert type questions were responded to on a 5 point scale (e.g., 1=very negative, 2=negative, 3=average, 4=positive, 5=very positive).

In addition, there were two questionnaire forms. One asked about the most popular

Ji-Sung Park, a Buddhist, and the other asked about the third popular Young-Pyo Lee, a

Christian. Young-Pyo Lee was chosen over the second most popular player Joo-Young

Park, another Christian, because the former was more well known as a devout Christian.

First the survey was subjectively examined for its clarity and validity by an expert group formed by a sport marketer, research methodologist, and three soccer fans, and through this process, potential problems were identified and resolved. Next, the survey was distributed, responded by the self-administration method, and re-gathered. Then, questionnaires that had 3 or more questions unanswered or incorrectly answered were

66 Pan-Asian Journal of Sports & Physical Education discarded.

In turn, application of the principal component factor analysis with the varimax rotation method to the data extracted the 7 expected factors (See Table 1). This before and after consistency in the survey structure gave additional support to the survey's validity, and since the Cronbach's alpha values for all the items in each factor ranged from .66 to .95, the survey was judged to be reliable.

Data analysis

The data were analyzed using Window SPSS/PC (11.0 version), and the following methods were specifically applied. First, descriptive analysis was conducted on all data.

Second, multiple regression analysis was conducted in order to identify which of the 7 image related factors affect fans’ liking of soccer players. Finally, one-way ANOVA was conducted in order to identify the differences in fans’ perception of those factors affecting player attraction according to the fans’ demographics, and Scheffe post hoc test was conducted to identify the specific differences.

Table 1: Factor analysis of soccer players’ image items

Item Factor 1 Factor 2 Factor 3 Factor 4 Factor 5 Factor 6 Factor 7

Attitude Perform

-ance

Social responsibility

Appear

-ance

Religious behavior

Media exposure

Expressive

-ness

Sincerity

Positivity

.850

.232

.844

.204

General manners .828

.130

Fan consideration .812

.061

.054

.098

.134

.254

-.051

.025

.035

.130

.023

.045

.028

-.046

.180

.045

.195

.114

-.036

.057

.104

.153

Humility

Activeness

Confidence

.807

.281

.769

.194

.750

.326

Member Affection .728

.097

Coach affection* .663

.303

Game Manner .653

.201

Passing

Scoring

Ball stealing

.312

.834

.147

.767

.325

.754

Assisting .413

.705

Leading game flow .394

.571

Shooting .466

.545

Soccer Clinic .024

.006

Public services .088

.036

Fan services .152

-.029

Donations

Fashion

Looks

.223

.122

-.064

.069

.087

-.031

-.041

-.011

-.016

.086

.021

.113

.124

.014

.194

.109

-.105

.234

.016

.158

.096

.089

.274

.093

.074

-.031

-.008

-.007

.125

.319

-.026

.118

.232

.126

.081

.073

.023

.087

.038

-.110

.120

-.129

.866

.855

.837

.551

.030

.015

.017

.076

.227

.030

.165

.097

.728

.723

.025

.073

.044

.089

.059

.320

-.055

.114

.070

.140

.075

.143

.057

.379

.155

-.042

-.002

.301

-.223

.042

-.056

.202

.043

.068

.159

.081

.156

.059

.165

.014

.228

-.123

-.255

.106

.134

.376

-.054

.055

-.171

.382


Body

Hair style

.157

.147

.208

.158

Prayer -.077

-.009

Give glory to God .097

.056

other behavior .122

.015

.162

.115

.171

.075

.209

.721

-.053

.104

.116

.611

.179

-.161

-.109

.004

.864

.087

.181

.046

.817

.098

.224

.109

.816

.013

-.215

Advertisement .288

.103

Interview .338

.212

News .450

.266

.139

.170

-.041

-.004

.120

.750

.205

.033

.073

.715

.107

.149

.050

.622

-.250

Goal ceremony .161

.109

Speaking skill .367

.010

.140

.194

.375

.294

.067

.607

.379

.078

.135

.580

Eigenvalue 7.507

3.657

2.907

2.734

2.472

2.083

1.546

% of Variance 23.459

11.428

9.085

8.543

7.724

6.509

4.832

Culmulative % 23.459

34.888

43.972

52.515

60.239

66.748

71.580

Cronbach’s alpha .946

.887

.864

.866

.864

.790

.664

Results and Discussion

Results

1) General perception of players’ image and player likeability

The following are the results of conducting descriptive analysis on the 7 player image factors and on player likeability. As shown in Table 2, fans perceived players’ media exposure (M=3.68, SD=.841) the most, followed by players’ attitude (M=3.61,

SD=.815), performance (M=3.43, SD=.777), expressiveness (M=3.42, SD=.842), physical appearance (M=3.38, SD=.914), religious behavior (M=2.82, SD=.918), and social responsibility behavior (M=2.80, SD=.736).

Table 2: Descriptive analysis results for player image factors and fans’ liking of player

Variables M SD

Media exposure

Attitude

3.68

3.61

.841

.815

Image

Performance

Expressiveness

Physical appearance

Religious behavior

Social Responsibility behavior

3.43

3.42

3.38

2.82

2.80

.777

.842

.914

.918

.736

Liking of player 3.86 1.18

2) The affect of player image perceptions on player likeability


The following are the results of applying multiple regression analysis in order to identify image factors affecting fans liking of national soccer players. As shown in Table

3, players’ attitude (ß=.597), religious behavior (ß=.165), expressiveness (ß=-.148), physical appearance (ß=.145) affect player likeability in the magnitude of the given order. Also, the affect of all attributes, except expressiveness, was positive, and these image factors explained 38.4% (R 2 =.384) of the variance for player likeability.

Table 3: The affect of player image factors on player likeability

Image factors B SE B B

Image Factor Gender M SD F t

Constant

Attitude

.108

.840

.277

.085

.597

.389

9.853

***

Performance

Social Responsibility behavior

Physical appearance

Religious behavior

-.031

-.044

.181

.206

.085

.072

.058

.054

-.022

-.029

.145

.165

-.378

-.619

3.133

3.803

**

***

Media exposure .027

Expressiveness -.199

**p<.01; F=37.504 p<.001 R 2 =.384

.065

.066

.020

-.148

.426

-3.025

3) Differences in fans’ perception of influential player images according to fans’ demographics

**

(1) Difference according to gender

As shown in Table 4, fans’ perception of player images does not significantly differ according to fan’s gender.

Table 4: Result of one-way ANOVA of player image perceptions according to gender

Post hoc

Attitude

Male

Female

Male

3.603

3.636

3.392

Physical appearance

Female 3.372

Religious behavior

Male

Female

Male

2.761

2.912

3.384

Expressiveness

Female 3.476

(2) Difference according to age group

.851

.758

.949

.861

.911

.925

.865

.805

.166

.047

2.802

1.215

ns ns ns ns

As shown in Table 5, fans’ perception of player images does not significantly differ according to fan’s age group.

Table 5: Result of one-way ANOVA of player image perceptions according to age group

Image Factor Gender M SD F Post hoc

Attitude

Physical appearance

20s

30s

40 s

50 and over

20s

30s

40 s

50 and over

3.574

3.571

3.658

3.785

3.358

3.261

3.456

3.548

Religious behavior

Expressiveness

20s

30s

40 s

50 and over

20s

30s

40 s

50 and over

2.859

2.605

2.780

2.985

3.364

3.404

3.453

3.620

(3) Difference according to education level

.893

.858

.844

1.130

.831

.919

.834

.785

.763

.985

.776

.829

.913

1.019

.778

.939

1.175

1.285

2.121

1.484

ns ns ns ns

As shown in Table 6, fans’ perception of player images does not significantly differ according to fan’s education level.

Table 6: Result of one-way ANOVA of player image perceptions according to education level

Image Factor Education M SD F Post hoc

Attitude

Junior high

Senior high

3.005

3.633

Undergraduate 3.615

Graduate 3.664

Junior high 2.866

1.088

.874

.752

.824

1.104

1.944

ns

Physical appearance

Senior high 3.310

Undergraduate 3.443

Graduate 3.455

.884

.910

1.036

1.782

ns

Religious behavior

Junior high

Senior high

2.933

2.866

Undergraduate 2.818

Graduate 2.607

Expressiveness Junior high 3.000

1.322

.979

.842

.926

.781

.799

.862

ns ns



Senior high 3.428

Undergraduate 3.415

Graduate 3.470

.892

.809

.895

(4) Difference according to occupation

As shown in Table 7, fans’ perception of player images does not significantly differ according to fan’s occupation

Table 7: Result of one-way ANOVA of player image perceptions according to occupation

Image Factor Occupation M SD F Post hoc

Attitude

Physical appearance

Student 3.720

Business owner 3.701

Employee 3.597

Housewife 3.632

Other

Student

3.430

3.459


Employee 3.368

Housewife 3.401

Other

Student

3.245

2.985

.708

.909

.836

.865

.786

.845

1.003

.902

.923

1.680

.729

ns ns

Religious behavior


Employee 2.677

Housewife 2.873

Other

Student

2.868

3.448

Expressiveness


Employee 3.392

Housewife

Other

3.459

3.300

.950

.935

1.039

.829

.984

.850

.801

.792

.846

.971

.825

1.953

.861

ns ns

(5) Difference according to religion

As shown in Table 8, perception of players’ religious behavior statistically and significantly differ according to the fan’s religion , F=2.658, p<.05, and result of Scheffe post hoc test shows that both Protestants (M=2.91) and Buddhists(M=2.95) perceive players’ religious behavior more than the Catholics(M=2.52).

Table 8: Result of one-way ANOVA of player image perceptions according to

Image Factors Affecting Soccer Players’ Likeability 71 religion

Image Factor Religion M

Attitude

Physical

Appearance

Religious behavior

Protestant

Catholic

Buddhist

3.645

3.814

3.540

Non-religion 3.601

Other religion 3.133

Protestant 3.335

Catholic

Buddhist

3.560

3.345

Non-religion 3.405


Protestant

Catholic

2.919

2.520

Buddhist

Non-religion

2.958

2.776


Protestant 3.375

Expressiveness

* p<.05

Discussion

Catholic 3.593

Buddhist

Non-religion

3.490

3.361


SD

.870

.625

.817

.828

.618

.945

.771

.884

.963

.491

1.033

.866

.939

.818

.389

.825

.783

.926

.820

.816

F

1.506

.987

2.658*

.974

Post hoc ns ns

Protestant,

Buddhist

>Catholic ns

First, it was shown that players’ performance does not significantly affect fans’ liking of a player. This does not mean that outstanding performance is not necessary. It is, and

Kim and Choi(2003) supports this notion by stating that outstanding performance is necessary to become a sport star. Since only sport stars were subjects of this study, the affect of different levels of performance on player likeability could just not be examined.

Thus, result indicates that when players’ performance is above a certain quality level, better performance does not necessarily lead to fans’ liking the player more.

Results also showed that players’ attitude and physical appearance affect players’ likeability. This affect of players’ attitude is given support by Kim and Choi(2003) who showed that specific attitudes and manners on the part of players during interviews and fan meetings affect players’ image, popularity, or value. Meanwhile, the affect of players’ physical appearance is given support by Lee(2008) who showed that it was the factor that attracts fans the most to foreign players in Korea’s pro- basketball.

Unlike other variables, however, the affect of players’ expressiveness on their

72 Pan-Asian Journal of Sports & Physical Education attractiveness was negative. This is partially supported by Lee(2005) who said that interviews without a doubt impacts on each player ‘s personal image and that the impact may be positive or negative depending on the quality of interview given by each player.

Since players’ speaking skills were measured to be above average, the result can be interpreted to be that players’ speaking skill falls short of fans’ expectation. Thus, players must be made aware of the influence of the media, and players should make great efforts to improve their speaking skill.

Finally, while attitude and physical appearance could be expected, it was not sure whether religion would be a factor that affects player likeability. Thus, the major interest of this study was to determine whether players’ religious behavior affects player likeability, and if so what is the degree of its influence in comparison to other expected factors. Results showed that religion does affect player likeability, and upon determining whether different religious groups perceived players’ religious acts to different degrees, it was found that (1) fans with a religion appear to be more perceptive of players’ religious behavior; (2) Protestants and Buddhists perceived pertinent acts more than the

Catholics regardless of difference in the religion; and (3) religion appears to matter because the majority (63. 1%) of fans have a religion.

This liking of athletes with a religion by fans with a religion may be explained by the concept of social identity which is “that part of an individual’s self-concept which derives from his or her knowledge of their membership in a social group or groups together with the value and emotional significance attached to that membership” (Tajfel,

1981, p.255). This means that fans derive a sense of identity from their religion and that they perceive others of the same religion as in-group. Thus, as team attractiveness and team similarity affect team identification (Kim & Kim, 2009), player attractiveness and player similarity appears to affect player identification. Here, player attractiveness can be measured by player attitude, appearance, and expressiveness, and player similarity can be measured by the following scale: has no religion(1), believes in God but not in one particular God(2), has a different religion but is not a Buddhist, Catholic nor

Protestant(3), has a different religion but is a Buddhist, Catholic, or Protestant(4), has the same religion(5). It appears that players’ hometown may be another possible similarity measure, and it is of the authors’ interest now as to whether player identification is an antecedent variable to player liking.

Conclusions and Recommendations

Conclusions

Based on the results of the study, the following conclusions were drawn: First, among national soccer players whose performance is up to a certain standard, better performance does not necessarily make a player more likeable. Instead, attitude and

Image Factors Affecting Soccer Players’ Likeability 73 physical appearance contribute to fans’ liking of players. Also, although players’ expressiveness can contribute to a players’ likeability, in the case of Korea’s national soccer players, its affect is negative because players’ tend not to have good speaking skills. Since all of the above-mentioned image perceptions do not differ with respect to gender, age, education, and occupation, the measured perceptions and yielded results are stable across different target groups. Lastly, soccer fans with a religion are perceptive of players’ religious behavior regardless of any difference in religion, and since the majority of soccer fans have a religion, their ability to identify with a player with a religion makes that player more likeable.

Recommendations

Based on the limitations and results of this study, the followings are recommended for future study. First, future study should expand the geographical area from which participants shall be selected and attempt to obtain a more even age group distribution during the selection process. Second, future study should increase the reliability of the image factors’ measurement scales, as well as expand data to more than two soccer players. Third, future study may add home town to religion as a possible player similarity variable and identify whether player similarity affects player likeability.

Lastly, the following recommendations are made for athlete marketing. For one, players must practice hard to maintain or improve their performance level, show good attitude during game play, improve communication skill and use interview actively and effectively to project a good image. In addition, players should take care of how they look and be not afraid to reveal their religion and act in their faith.

References

[1] Cho, C. W. (2009). The effects of attributes of pro baseball stars on team image and loyalty. Unpublished master thesis, Kyunghee University.

[2] Cho, K. S., & Park, C. H. (2002). A comparative study on the effectiveness of advertisting of sports

A.

player and typical consumer model. Korean Journal of Health, Physical

Education, Recreation, and Dance , 41 (5), 81-93.

[3] Choi, M. I. (2003). A study on sports star image components . Unpublished master thesis, Hanyang University.

[4] Kim, J. B., & Choi, M. I. (2003). Sports star constitution factors. Korean Journal of

Advertising, 5( 1), 69-93.

[5] Kim, Y. M., & Kim, S. (2009). The relationships between team attributes, team identification, and sponsor image. International Journal of Sport Marketing and


Sponsorship , 10(3), 215-229.

[6] Lee, E. H. (2005). Psychological analysis on national soccer players on media interviews. Unpublished Masters Thesis, Sungkyunkwan University.

[7] Lee, J. H., & Shin, S. H. (2004). Analysis on the advertising effects of sport star model’s attributes according to types of pro-sports spectators involvement.

Korean

Journal of Sport Management , 9 (2), 95-111.

[8] Lee, N. M. (2008). The relationship of foreign player’s image, likeability, and cultural embracing. Korean Journal of Sport Sociology, 21 (4), 735-754.

[9] Na, J. H., & Kim, Y. J. (2003). The influence of sport star endorsers on product attitude.

Korean Journal of Sport Management, 8 (2), 153-162.

[10] Tajfel, H. (1981). Human groups and social categories: Studies in social psychology .

Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press.

An Overview on Experience of

China Competitive Sport Development

75

An Overview on Experience of

China Competitive Sport Development

Abstract

ZHENG Guo-hua

(Physical Education College, Jiangxi Normal University)

XIONG Xiao-zheng

(Olympic Research Center of Beijing Sport University)

Xiao Na

(Physical Education College, Jiangxi Normal University)

China's competitive sport development model is based on the constant effort to resolve the problems encountered in practice, as an answer to the actual needs. It is not the transcendental model of experience as a whole, actually, the formation and the evolution of China's social development is a continuous exploring process for the compatible routine for the social needs. However, historical experience tells us that sport would acquire its development on the condition of the coherence of the sport development model and the social development model. Therefore, in line with the socialist market economic system, the sport development model can not be limited to the existing system (or model) for simple repair, in fact, it must be based on the creation of the practice, and consistent with our current direction of the reform and development of

China's social development of the convergence of sport development model.

Keywords: Competitive sport

；

Development

；

Model

Introduction

In 2008 Beijing Olympics China has achieved the best result in the history with the most gold medals and the secondary most medals. To some extent, the achievement should be attributed to the recognizing basis of China competitive sport development which includes theory on economy level relation, political system priority, key target, and social responsibility division. With the recognizing basis, China explores an adapt-to-China developing road and model of competitive sport, with the historic task to better nation image and to promote international prestige, with the essential task to improve sport level, with the main target to get excellent results in international events and do credit to motherland, and with the developing thoughts to give priority to country and complement to society.


The Recognizing Basis of China Competitive Sport Development Model

The evolution process of China competitive sport system from the labor responsibility system, physical culture commission concentrated system to centralizing two-track system, is not only the exploration to our competitive sport but also reflection of the basic understanding of our sport development, The basis can be summed up as theory on economy level relation, political system priority, key target, and social responsibility division

The Theory of Economic Level Relation - - the Relation between the

Athletics Sport and Insufficiency of Total Investment

When we summarized pro and con two aspects of China sport development and lessons in 1980s, we realized that “Sport development must adapt to the economic construction and production development level, not only restricted by the national economic development but also promote the national economy and serve for the economic construction.” “ The scale and speed of sport development finally depend on the national economic development.” [i] This was the reflection based on the “Great Leap

Forward” in late 1950s, but we did not stay on it. At the same time, “The sport development should not passively rely on the economic conditions and ignored the human subjective initiative, it would accomplish nothing”. Some scholars pointed out that a country’s competitive sport development depended on the international statue of gross national product, mass sport development depended on the gross national product average per person. In China, the international statue of gross national product was growing, but the position of gross national product average per person was relatively backward. Despite the contradiction of fund input and need in China sport development was obvious, but it had certain total quantity. If the fund could be relatively centralized, the sport development was very promising. On dealing with the relation between the sport development and economic development level, we could neither exceed the overall level of social economic development nor depend on the economic development passively. We should create condition positively and play the maximum benefit based on the condition provided by economic development level, and realized surpass-and-leap development model.

The Theory of Political System Superiority - - the Relation between

Athletics Sport Development and National Political System

Although China is a developing country, the political advantage of the socialist system provides the political safeguard to the competitive sport development. “ In China, the sport integrates with the national plan, so we can utilize the superiority of socialist system to implementer the centralized and unified leadership and mobilize the initiative



77 of each area and each aspect, allocate financial resource and physical resources according to the proportion and focus. That can make the sport develop faster under the backward economy. [iii] They think that as long as they play the political advantage of socialist unified organization and coordination and the “the whole nation system” which strengthen to use the limited fund, they will alleviate the conflict of demand growth and investment insufficient, and realize the goal of moderately advanced development of certain part. Chinese political advantage of socialist system ensures the effectively integration of social resources and makes the sport work develop according to main task in different time. The principal conflict during the sport development determines the key work and main developing goal in a period, and provides the powerful political safeguard to the use of “whole nation system”.

The Stress-on-Target-Task Theory—the Relation Between Competitive Sport

Development and Work Stress Selection

In 1980, the report of China Physical Culture and Sport Commission to Central

Committee emphasized: “ In different times, areas and units, we should focus on what should be focused, do not use the force averagely. No focus, no policy. The popularization is the foundation, but it is not the main aspect of conflict. Now that we have entered the Olympic Committee, the task of raising is urgent.” [iv] The key of our work was to seize the main contradiction to solve and promote the development of the whole work according to the main problem emerging in the work in a period. Although

China invested less total quantity to sport, we could improve our technical level in short time. Since our sport development incorporated into national plans, we could apply the advantages of planned economy and the limited fund to competitive sport. Comparing with the average use of various aspects of whole sport and low level simultaneous development, we could promote comprehensive development of sport by centralized use, key breakthrough, and general driving by key point. Seizing the main contradiction in our work identified our work target and work principles, which was the important work experience advocated by Chinese Communists from the Great Revolution. We were forced to choose “Shorten the battle line, protect the key” in 1960s and took initiative to choose the “Athletics sport is put in advance” in 1980s. Today, we choose the strategy of “Strive for Olympic Games”. All of this is based on this understanding foundation.

The Theory of Social Responsibility Division—the Relation between

Competitive Sport Development and Nation, Society.

In 1984, The Report about How to Improve the Technical Level by the National

Physical Culture pointed out: “Sport is the major event among us, it can not develop well only depend on the Physical Culture and Sport Commission. Under the leadership of Communist Party, sport must strengthen the division cooperation with section of education, health, trade union, Communist Youth League, the women’s federation, the


People’s Liberation Army and other departments, and play active role in Chinese Sport

Association, the sport branch, the industrial sport association, the individual sport association and the basic unit association.” [v] So the Decision of the State Physical

Culture and Sport Commission to reform the sport (draft) designed that the Physical

Culture and Sport Commission above the province and city stressed the competitive sport and that society must be responsible for the mass sport. “Various sport should be responsible by all sectors of department. Various systems and various professions established their own sport federation and sport association, and carried out sport under their own leader. All levels of physical culture and sport commissions strengthen the unified leadership, coordination and supervision.” It just tried to break up sport development and define the emphasis and task of the physical culture and sport commission. When we entered the construction of the Chinese characteristic socialist market economic system, competitive sport development implemented the two-track system and strengthened the development target of “Strive for Olympic Games”. But this understanding had not changed [VI] , which just tried to integrate the social resources comprehensively from simple administrative responsibility division to the benefit adjustment. The Government was mainly responsible for the task of “Strive for Olympic

Games”, stressing focus, and seizing main contradiction. The development of non-Olympic project and social sport was orienting to the market, the development task was undertaken by society and macro-managed by government functional department.

No matter it was the administrative responsibility system division or the benefit principle guidance, China started to advocate the theory of “limited government” from the current operation of the National Sport Administrative Department from 1950s. It just took the different measures under different economic systems.

The Successful Experience of Chinese Competitive Sport Development

In general, from the above review of historical evolution, China competitive sport explore a developing path and developing model that suited for Chinese national competitive sport conditions based on the historical task of improving national image and enhancing international prestige, and insisting on improving the technical level, obtaining the excellent results in the Olympic games and other international competitions, doing credit to the motherland as main goal, taking the selection and focus as basic principle, taking the country as main part and society as supplement. There are following experiences.

Insisting on the Main Target of "Win for the Motherland”

Since the 20 th century, changing the international image of “East Asian patient”, making China stand among the world and participating in the international peace competition, have become the invariable feelings of Chinese people. The introduction of



79 the modern sport bore the historical load of winning for the motherland, striving for the nation and getting excellent results in international sport competition from the very beginning and all the Chinese expected much too much towards it. Since the foundation of the People's Republic of China, Chinese competitive sport development adheres to the main target of “win for the motherland” and development direction of getting excellent grades in international competition during different periods. All strived to raise competitive sport level and obtain the outstanding results, which satisfied the demand of nation and society.

In 1950s, we proposed the principle of “the combination of popularization and enhancement” in order to adapt to the need of international sport exchange, which promoted the construction of new competitive sport and brushed the new record of old

China. In 1960s, we proposed the developing target of “shorten the battle line, guarantee the key” according to the social current condition. Table-tennis and mountaineering made remarkable achievements and were honored as “the spirit of the atomic bomb”.

All these encouraged the determination of whole nation to overcome the difficulties;

“Training in stadium, holding motherland in heart, looking to the world” now became the essential target of athletic sport. Since 1980s, we have created the “Olympic model” under the drive of constructing the powerful sport nation and “running out of the Asia, stepping into the world”. It opened the door to the world, highlighted the “Olympic games bring honor” as the work center and consummated the “whole nation system”.

We realized the dream of several generations of sportsmen pursuing the Olympic Game gold medals, and jumped to the forefront of the Olympic Game gold medal row; the voice of “to unite and revitalize the Chinese nation” condensed the determination of all nation to rise; red flag rose and national anthem haunted in the international arena, which inspired the whole nation,……competitive sports had tremendous development while it served for the country and society.

The current existing way of sport is the product of the economy, politics and culture.

Sport development and society development is the interactive process. The cognition on sport and demand of society are decided by its function in society development that is determined by the coherence of the sport development way and social development direction. So, how the sport serves for the society, namely the “orientation” of sport in the society development is the premise of sport to realize its own development. Why

China competitive sport is attached much importance and have made fast development is to adhere to the developing target of “win for the motherland” that is the mission endowed by the history since introduction of modern history and also expectation of the whole people since 20 th century. Meeting these requirements, China sport receives the support of country and society and integrates its own development into the modernization process, so as to realize its own development when serving the society.


Insisting on the Basic Principle ‘to Do and not to Do” and Guarantee the

Stress

What kind of strategy we do choose is not only relates to the speed of competitive sport development but also its developing direction. That China competitive sport can transform from the “East Asia Patient” to “A World Sports Power” in short time lies in choosing the basic principle.

Since 1960s, we have summarized lesson of so-called “Great Leap Forward” and been fully aware of the relation between sport development and economy. We chose the developing strategy of “shorten the battle line, guarantee the key” under the condition extremely short of social resources. We adjusted the working key according to

“to do and not to do” principle. While we were stressing the competitive sport development, we determined the work policy of giving priority to key project by dividing the sport project into key project and non-key project. The limited resource was used to ensure the development of table-tennis, climbing, mountaineering, athletic, swimming and etc. Great achievements was obtained during short periods: for example,

China athletes broke the world record in men weightlifting, women high jump and

100-meter men breaststroke, got the first world champion in table-tennis, and created the human history by climbing Mountain Everest from north slope…… These achievements not only made us surpass the world level in some events but also produced great social impact. Since 1980s, the developing strategy of “competitive sport in advance moderately”, “strive for Olympic Games” and different measures towards the Olympic projects and non-Olympic projects all carry out the principle “to do and not to do”.

Competitive sport realized the high-speed leaping-and-surpassing goal with insufficient investment.

Social economy, politics, culture are all the basis of the athletics sport development and important factor to restrict competitive sport development. Competitive sport cannot develop deviating from the social reality. Our country is a “after-developing” country among those developing ones, where the universal problem is the conflict between high-speed leaping-and-surpassing development and insufficiencies of total social resources. Our task of competitive sport is to catch up with and surpass the developed countries with limited resources. We chose the developing guideline of “to do and not to do” that suited for our country . It established the basic thought for formulating the policy of China competitive sport development and constructed the necessary policy environment for its fast development, so as to realize the developing goal.

Insisting on the Developing Strategy - Take the Country as Main Part and

Society as Complement

Competitive Sport is activities with high internationalization and organization.



81

Authoritative and powerful developing body is the important premise to promote organization activities. It is impossible in China for competitive sport to exist and develop of without government’s support when transforming from the traditional society to modern society. Under the socialist planned economy, each enterprise was integrated into national plans, and the state is the main body to promote the social enterprise development. Sport, especially competitive sport in need of large quantity investment, was completely integrated into the national development plans. The country allocates the fund according to the departments. The State Physical Culture and Sport

Commission tried to assign the responsibility of mass sport to each department in order to strive for more fund and developed competitive sport with the fund allocated by the government. This is the “department responsibility system” advocated in 1950s and

“sport socialization” in 1980s. Under the planned economy system, the government formed the athletics sport and mass sport. They respectively took the Physical Culture and Sport Commission and labor responsibility system of various departments as main developing body.

In 1990s, we entered the developing stage of constructing the Chinese characteristic socialist market economic system. And the allocation of social resources gradually transferred from planned distribution to the way of taking the market as main body and plan as complement. The sport investment tended to develop with diversified trend. But there were weakness in our social organization from the very beginning; it was difficult for government to bear the main responsibility of athletics sport development, especially the responsibility of realizing the dream “win for motherland in Olympic games”. The government was the main-investor and main-carrier of the dream. The State Sport

General Administration was gradually adjusting the administration-integrated means to benefit-integrated means during the evolution process of “sport socialization” from

“labor responsibility division system” to “participating interest system”. Through the

“two-track” system of sport project development, the government tried to professionalizing part of projects on the basis of insisting Olympic projects invested primarily by the country and push non-Olympic project to the society, attracted and conformed social resources, enriched the fund of athletic sport development. Our athletics sport development presented the input-and-implementing system that took the country as main body and society as supplement.

During the developing stage of consummating our socialist market economic system,

China competitive sport have made rapid development under the situation that sport social organization cannot undertake the duty of competitive sport development, which closely connected with the idea of taking country as main body and society as supplement. The “two-track system” under this guidance not only guaranteed the implement of “win for motherland in Olympic Games” but also solved the survival and

82 Pan-Asian Journal of Sports & Physical Education developing problem of non-Olympic projects.

Insist on Keeping Pace with Times and Selecting Adapt-to-Society

Development Model

In general sense, sport develops with the development of society. However, many historic facts prove that society development doesn’t mean the development of sport and sport development is not necessarily developing with the society with the same pace.

Sport is not a natural existence, but it is the cultural process of society and individual selection; it is also a special culture activity. It does not depend on the direction of selecting main body; however, its role or function implements the will of selecting main body. It is these two characteristics that sport development is neither the natural process nor the purely subjective selecting process. Therefore, following the rule of competitive sport development and selecting the adapt-to-society developing model are to ensure fast development of competitive sport. We construct the competitive sport development model through the theory of innovation-system innovation, management innovation, competition innovation and training innovation. China competitive sport system reflects our exploration to its developing model during the evolution process from the labor division responsibility system and physical culture commission centered system to two-track system.

From 1950s, we began to explore the development model that suited for our competitive sport based on former Soviet Union. Initially, we attempted to establish the

“labor responsibility system” to promote its overall development. In early 1960s, with the lesson of the “Great Leap Forward” we proposed the strategy guiding principle of

“shorten battle line, guarantee the key” according to the experience of “to fight with superior military”, constructed the talents system with three-level training and the elite athletes management system, and established the training ideas of “training inwards and fighting outwards”. A competitive sport development model led by the State Physical

Culture and Sport Commission was built. Until 1980s,to return to Olympics and do credit to motherland, we gradually formed the “whole nation system” led by Physical

Culture and Sport Commission above province and city which took the Olympic games as leading and the professional-athletes-training system as main body, deployed uniformly and carried out with combination of managing and performing by the government. At present, China's competitive sport development model has the following characters through the socialist market economic system reform since 1990s: insist on taking the government as leading and “strive for Olympic games ” as main developing strategy, choosing the “two-track” developing route, strengthening the leverage function of the Olympic Games and National Games resources integration, combining national plan and market-oriented. So far, it proves that this development model is the wise choice, the system to guarantee tremendous achievements, and the system innovation



83 of China towards world competitive sport development.

The occurrence and development of sport develops with the interaction of social economy, politics, military and custom in certain areas and nations. Sport’s longitudinal diachronical movement constitutes the continuous developing process of different times and the historical cultural form of different developing levels; sport latitudinal synchronic movement demonstrates the national cultural shape of different existing way.

Sport development generally shows the historical feature that unifies historical cultural form and national cultural form. The out-of-date sport cultural shape will face abandonment if it can’t keep pace with time and become the history. However, sport of any era that specifically exists in different nations and regions presents its unique developing path and existing way with some certain national cultural shape. Therefore, insisting on independent innovation, keeping pace with the times, choosing the adapt-to-actual-conditions developing route, and constituting the competitive sport development model according to the different society development stage, are all the important experiences, which can help China realize leap-and- surpass development in competitive sport.

References

[1] National Physical culture commission Policy research office (1982) . Sport

Document Assembly (1949-1981) [M]. Beijing: People's sport publishing house.

[2] Wu Shaozu (2000). Experience and Development Design on China Competition Work.

Journal of Sport Science. 20(1), 32-35.

[3] Wu Shouzhang (1998). A Study of Competitive Sport Development Strategy of China in

2010 . A Compilation of Papers from China Sport Development Strategy

[Symposium] .

[4] Xiao Linpeng and Yang Zhiyong. (2003). On Evolution of Development Concept and

Model of China Competitive Sport . Journal of Physical Education. 10(2),135-136.

[5] Xiong Xiaozheng (2002). A Historic Review on China Sport Reform . Beijing: Beijing

Sport University Press.

[6] Yang Hua (2002). Experience and Existing Problems of China Competitive Sport

Development Since 1980 . Journal of Chengdu Sport University. 28(1), 1-7.

[7] Yang Hua, Chen Ning and Hao Qin etc. (2002). Evolution and Reflection of China

Competitive Sport Development Strategy since Reform and Opening . Journal of

Chengdu Sport University. 28(3), 1-7.

[8] Yu Chonggan, Liu Zhimin and Ding Haiyong (2002). Current Situtaion and Exsiting

Problems of Sustainable Development of China Competitive Sport Development .

Journal of Shanghai Sport University. 24(2), 8-11.


Abstract

Qualitative Research on Teaching-Style of

Korean Yoga Instructors

Deukja Oh

•

Booja Kim

(Pusan National University, South Korea)

The efficiency of Sport for all programs like Yoga is affected by the ability of physical instructors in most cases. Accordingly it is important that physical directors get specific knowledge and skills about the process of teaching-learning. Therefore the purpose of this study is to understand about the state of yoga lesson and analyze the instructor-teaching style, finally indicate the direction of desirable teaching style for improving the quality of yoga lesson. In this study, the sample of the participants includes 8 Yoga instructors who are working in college, public health center and private institute at least for 3 years. We used in-depth interviews one of the qualitative research method. Collected data were analyzed through inductive classification, content analysis, specialist consultation, and literature analysis. Also, we implemented triangulation, specialist consultation, the review of study participants, and original data review for ensuring validity and reliability of this study. For researching teaching styles of yoga instructors, we categorized a sphere of observation into teaching, demonstration, feedback, controlling and manage of lesson. After in-depth interview and participant observation we found 5 styles of teaching method through the yoga instructors. The conclusion of in this study, Teaching styles of Yoga instructors in this study was

'command style', 'mutual studying style', 'interesting-provocative style', 'solution style' and 'sincerity style'.

Key words : yoga instructor, teaching style, qualitative research

Introduction

In case of education, that is any act of experience that has a formative effect on the ability of an individual, the other side, physical education which is a course taken during primary and secondary education that encourages psychomotor learning in a play or movement is very important as an education for the whole person to pursue enhancing the value of individual through the movement (Kim&Huh, 1999).

‘Sport for all’ try for aims of social education, social welfare, prevent medicine and popularization of sport. And the purpose of sport for all instructors is not only to instruct

Qualitative Research on Teaching-Style of

Korean Yoga Instructors

85 of skill, but also to unify of community, human interchange, to pursue of healthy allowance life via Sport for all, and finally to foster harmonious competent person physically, mentally and socially.

The value of sport for all in order to effective learning of program participants can be influenced by teaching ability of physical instructor, because in case of physical instructor, they have a relationship with participants directly through physical activity.

Besides expert knowledge and skills of teaching-learning is important for instructor’s competitiveness.

Generally approach of teaching style was focused to find the best teaching method.

Some studies for categorizing teaching style were advanced to develop better teaching strategy. For the necessity of teaching method study in sport for all, there are many studies of teaching method like aerobics, dance, pilates (Kim & Huh,1999; Yoon, 2004;

Oh, 2005), but the study of yoga which is emerging one of the sport for all is insufficient yet.

Yoga refers to traditional physical and mental disciplines originating and religious and philosophic meaning in India. But in these days, yoga is a healing system of theory and practicing, it is combination of breathing exercise, physical postures and meditation

(Iyengar, 2006). While yoga evolved as a spiritual practice in Hinduism, in the western world, a part of yoga, known as Asana, has grown popular as a form of purely physical exercise. Some western forms have little or nothing to do with Hinduism or spirituality, but are simply a way of keeping fit and healthy.

Especially in Korea yoga became greatly popular almost about 10 years ago with well-being trend and was in the limelight of modern people who are suffered with stress, inactivity and obesity since general idea of yoga, mind and body relaxation with asana, meditation and breathing, was correspond with Korean sentiments. KCTI presented that yoga participants increased from 6.3% in 2006 to 11.8% in 2008 as a study on leisure activity of common people (Korea Culture & Tourism institute, 2008). Now, yoga is anchored in a sphere of sport for all in Korea and is taking a lesson at many private academy, public health center, college and lifelong education courses (Park, 2008).

The efficiency of Sport for all programs like Yoga is affected by the ability of physical instructors in most cases. But Lee(2000) reported that in Korea the quality of sport for all program has bastardized as teaching method and composition of physical instructors were inadequate. In case of yoga, with the population of yoga, many yoga associations issued a yoga instructor certificate, but there’s no state registered yoga instructor educational facilities, lots of yoga instructors were produced indiscreetly without systematic and effective education of teaching-learning. In accordance with this situation that standardized teaching style was absent yet in Korea.

In this context, it is necessary to find out teaching style of yoga through understanding of professional yoga instructors who are working in field as it stands, to

86 Pan-Asian Journal of Sports & Physical Education research of yoga teaching method in order to pursue the specificity of yoga instructors and improve the value of yoga lessons.

Therefore, the purpose of this study is to find the situation of Korean yoga lessons as it is, to analyze Korean yoga instructor’s teaching style compared with teaching method of western physical director and to help offer basic data of the direction for yoga teaching method.

Methods

Participants

To analyze about the yoga instructors’ teaching style, the qualitative data were obtained eight yoga instructors who are teaching yoga for more than 3 years. The selecting method of participants is reputational case selection (Goetz & LeCompe, 1984) which is a process to select the participants by recommendation of experts or general reputation through expert discussion.

The characteristic of participants is as following <Table 1>.

Table 1: The characteristic of participants

Name*

Misun Lee sex age female 49

Academic career

Ph. doctor

Denomination of lecture university

Career(yr)

12

16

11

Hwayun Lee

Jungeun Park female 45 bachelor female 35 University graduate female 37 Master degree Sumi Sun

Eunju Park

Yunjung Huh

Sunhwa Lee

Bomi Kim female female female female

29

28

27

27

College graduate

University graduate

University graduate

University graduate

*The name of participants is fictitious name.

Academy

Public health center

University

Public health center

Private yoga academy



9

4

3

3

3

Data collecting

Data collecting is progressed several times by in-depth interview from June, 2009 to

August, 2009. In-depth interviewing is a qualitative research technique that involves conducting intensive individual interviews with a small number of participants and is ideal for investigating personal, sensitive or confidential information (Em, 2007). Each interview time took about 1 hour, a place of interview was selected their lecture room as



87 a comfortable, peaceful site for participants. Before the interview, we contented them and recorded their contents of interview and additional question interviewed by phone or e-mail .

Data analysis

In Qualitative study, data analysis coincides with data collecting and these processes are continued repeatedly (Kim, 2001). On this study, the data of recording was transcribed and confirmed with recording contents and modified. And we analyzed to divide inductive classification, content analysis, specialist consultation, literature analysis by transcription.

Collected data were analyzed through inductive classification, content analysis, specialist consultation, and literature analysis. Also, we implemented triangulation, specialist consultation, the review of study participants, and original data review for ensuring validity and reliability of this study.

Validity and Reliability

For enhancing of validity and reliability, we set and practiced following strategy of study: triangulation method (Padgett, 1998; Em, 2007), specialist consultation which is(Padgett, 1998), a review of study participants (Guba, 1981) and raw data review.

Triangulation refers to the application and combination of several research methodologies in the study of the same phenomenon and facilitates validation of data through cross verification from more than two sources and in particular it. We tried to make sure reliability and validity of this study by triangulation method and specialist consultation and analyze of raw data and participants study data with specialist who are professor and researchers related yoga.

Result

For researching teaching styles of yoga instructors, we categorized a sphere of observation into teaching, showing a posture, feedback, controlling and manage of lesson. After in-depth interview and participant observation we found 5 styles of teaching method through the yoga instructors. The result of in this study, Teaching styles of Yoga instructors in this study was 'command style', 'mutual studying style',

'interesting-provocative style', 'solution style' and 'sincerity style'. Teaching style of yoga instructors is as following <Table 2>.

Table 2: Teaching style of Yoga instructors

Style Teaching

Demonst

-ration

Feedback

Controll

-ing

Manage of lesson command · Instructor-cent · Linguistic · Negative-enc · Active · One-sided


Style mutual studying

Style solution

Style

Interesting

-provocative

Style ered demonstration

· Rare ouragement demonstration

· Instructor-cent · Correct · Interaction ered

· interrelationsh ip

· participant-ce demonstration

· Demanded

Feedback

· Continuous ntered

· interrelationsh ip

· Participant-ce demonstration

· Very Rare

Feedback

· Inducing ntered demonstration Feedback sincerity

Style

· Task · Variety presentation

· Teaching-cent demonstration

· Expression ered · Gesture

· General

Feedback operation

· Showing assistant

· passive · Social operation

· A little · Concentrat ive practicing

· A little · Encourage ment and praise

· Inducing laugh

· Self-regul · Reflection ation confidence of participant’ s opinion

· Make full use of time

Command Style

°·

In command style, lesson was conducted by instructor-centered and in general command is used all over the lesson. Instructor usually used linguistic command and explanation, set the aims of curriculum and action and tried to practice them. Instructors who were categorized command style commonly had an assistant showing yoga poses.

The more instructors get old and advanced career, they tended to be characterized by command style. The situation of command style is as following.

Yoga instructor indicates assistant’s pose and say, “Watch his pose and make practice, this is grasshopper posture.” Yoga participants try to emulate the posture, but it is not easy and instructor command again, “Raise your leg up more, don’t get wider your heels!” (Misun Lee)

Instructor makes participants stretch and worm-up. She inform yoga pose and give a command, “one, two, three, four,…. ten. Stop. Next pose is seated and twist.”Sometims she showed yoga pose and choose music CD. (Sumi Sun)

Mutual studying style

The substance of mutual studying style was to induce social interaction between



89 participants and provide a feedback. So participants experienced a role of learner and observer, carried out tasks. In general this style was showed in public health center or college lecture, since it was relatively useful for control many participants.

“Today, we have learned 12 poses. Next class, we will test of it so practice with your partner. Watch your partner’s poses and assist them make the pose easily then, check right or not.” (Jeungeun Park).

“Let’s talk and discuss about your problems with your partner. Tell the partner about yoga pose and feelings when you meditated.”(Enju Park)

Solution style

In Solution style, instructors offer participants’ own time to practice poses themselves and gave a feedback individually. Usually between break times, instructor pointed out participants pose and indicated to practice, offered time to practice fully and then naturally class progressed. This style was usually presented in college lecture or advanced lecture for being instructor. Particularly, in yoga expert course or college lectures, participants made progress yoga class themselves for 10 minutes as a teacher, and it was evaluated by their grade.

Yoga instructor give a feedback constantly during a lesson, and participants try to do equally, but they make repeat mistakes, instructor offers practicing time.

“Now practice each and all for 10 minutes, and take a break 5 minutes.” (Sumi,

Sun)

“Next time, we’ll test for yoga. Students make imaginary class with partner, embody the contents of class and teach other students. Let’s show the ability of yoga instructors. The standard of valuation is to do pose perfectly, to progress a class smoothly and to handle an emergency situation.” For the test participants prepare uniform, music, yoga poses and meditation line with partner. (Misun

Lee)

Interesting-provocative style

We can found interesting-provocative style at introduction steps of lectures, was a participants-centered teaching method. The characteristic of this style was to praise participants and to give a laugh as a joke. Interesting provocative style was usually showed in private academy. In this case, Instructors usually used conversational tone and praised and encouraged participants because lots of participants consist with middle-age women and the situation of this style is as following.

One participant who is class leader in this week checke the attendance and make

90 Pan-Asian Journal of Sports & Physical Education participant stretch.“Who read the good passage this time?”Instructor asks. “Yes, it’s me.” One participant turn on the music and read a good passage. Other participants say it was very impressive, and then talk about the good passage.(Yunjung Huh)

After the class, instructor takes a cup of tea with participants sitting around and talks about the yoga and gossip. Sometimes participants ask to instructor about their symptom or pain of their body, she give folk remedies. (Sunhwa Lee)

Sincerity style

Sincerity style was presented in main stage of the lesson, instructor who have a tendency of sincerity style demonstrated the poses all over the class. They spent most of their time to explain and show yoga poses. Many of instructors chose this teaching style, and then they taught to focus on correcting participants’ poses and meditation .

Instructor explains each posture in detail and an effect of each posture in spite of doing last time. Instructor demonstrates the pose as well as explaining how to pose the posture. (Yunjung Huh) .

Discussion

In this study, we found 5 teaching style of yoga instructors, 'command style', 'mutual studying style', 'interesting-provocative style', 'solution style' and 'sincerity style'.

Teaching style of western physical director which is similar to Korean yoga instructors is as following <Table 3>.

Table 3: Comparison of teaching style between yoga instructor and Western physical director

Korean Yoga teaching style Western physical teaching style

Command style

The dread type (Cooper, 1982)

Field-independent style (Piper, 1978)

The command style (Mosston, 1986)

Mutual studying style

Solution style

Interesting-provocative style

The reciprocal style(Mosston, 1986)

The practice style (Mosston, 1986)

The self-teaching style(Mosston, 1986)

Sincerity style

The exertion type (Bucher, 1983)

The task type(Blake & Mouton, 1964)

A trait of command style is exact accomplishment which is to hang on instructor’s sleeves during practice performance. In this case, instructors tend to lay a course rather



91 than get an atmosphere of class.

Command style was alike in the character of the dread type (Cooper, 1982), field-independent style (Piper, 1978). Its teaching method was composed with instructor-centered teaching and linguistic direction or command. In this style,

Instructors used the cramming method of teaching rather than mutual teaching system and also gave a feedback for remedy or correction. Participants who experienced teaching of command style can make their purpose well through repeated learning, accord and accuracy, safety (Mosston & Ashworth, 2002).

Mutual learning style which was presented in Korean yoga instructors was similar to

Mosston’s the reciprocal style (Kang, 2000; Mosston., et al, 2002). Instructor set all of curriculum and standards, give a feedback to participants And participants make a pair and practice their assignments. Participants experienced a role of learner and observer, carried out tasks.

In Solution style, Instructor provided practicing times for participants and gave an individual guidance. It was characterized by Mosston’s the practice style similarly, and the features are as following. Instructor provides proper answer and collects to information of participants, and participants can decide on place, managing, start time, rhythm and pace, break time, question, interval, posture, appearance and clothes

(Mosston., et al, 2002). In this study, when participants repeated same error during the lesson, solution style was the same situation with the practice style as instructor stopped to do yoga and explained poses or showed an example again.

Interesting-provocative style that is a participants-centered teaching method was to praise participants and to give a laugh as a joke. It is analogous to Mosston’s the self-teaching style, in this, participants become the subject of learning experience and planning, and they experienced learning activity within the variety episodes (Kang, 2000;

Mosston, 1986). In Korean teaching style of yoga, participants set the leader, prepared music and good phases themselves for the class, and after the class instructor took a tea time with participants. In this course, participants got accomplished their role naturally.

Lastly, sincerity style had similar features with the exertion type (Bucher, 1983), the task type (Balk & Mouton, 1964). In this style, usually lectures were organized completely, considered skill development and interaction between instructor and participants restricted within education. This style was similar to Bucher(1983)’s educational content-centered teaching method, presented that the course of teaching-learning systemically standardized, interrelation between instructor and participants occur just in case of educational contents.

5 teaching styles of Korean yoga instructor were similar to teaching method of western physical director. But Korean yoga instructors who took a style of sincerity tended to make much of explaining about desirable yoga pose and effects and

92 Pan-Asian Journal of Sports & Physical Education demonstrate all of poses directly. In most case of Korean yoga instructors were characterized by two or three overlapping teaching styles, but sincerity style and command style were common characteristics of Korean yoga teaching style.

Conclusion & Suggestion

In this study, to understand about the state of yoga lesson in Korea and analyze the instructor-teaching style, finally indicate the direction of desirable teaching style for improving the quality of yoga lesson, we chose 8 Yoga instructors who are working in college, public health center and private institute at least for 3 years and used in-depth interviews one of the qualitative research method. Collected data were analyzed through inductive classification, content analysis, specialist consultation, and literature analysis.

For researching teaching styles of yoga instructors, we categorized a sphere of observation into teaching, demonstration, feedback, controlling and manage of lesson.

After in-depth interview and participant observation we found 5 styles of teaching method through the yoga instructors. The conclusion of in this study, Teaching styles of

Yoga instructors in this study was 'command style', 'mutual studying style',

'interesting-provocative style', 'solution style' and 'sincerity style'.

In accordance with the result of this study, we suggest as following for the direction of follow-study and improvement of teaching-method in Korean yoga instructors.

We suggest that yoga instructors make an effort to take inquiring attitude of their works. Most of yoga instructors got more sympathetic of their work and taught according to their conviction and tried to apply variety yoga program and teaching method despite of poor given conditions. But, systematic progress and evaluation of yoga lessons was insufficient. If it makes up for good through apply 5 yoga teaching styles mentioned in this study to yoga lessons, yoga instructors can improve efficiency of teaching method and the quality of lessons.

References

[1] Blake, R. R., & Mouton, J. R.(1964). The new managerial grid.

Houston, Texas: Gulf

Publishing Company.

[2] Bucher, C. A.(1983). Administration of Physical Education & Athletic Programs. St.

Louis : The C. V. Mosby Company.

[3] Cooper, K. H. (1982) The aerobics program for total well-being .

New York : Bantan

Books 137-143

[4] Em, Miran(2007). Reliability and validity in qualitative research. Seoul : Gunja

[5] Goetz, J. P., & LeCompte, M. D.(1984). The constitution of society. Berkeley, CA:

University of California Press.



93

[6] Guba, E. G.(1981). Criteria for Assessing the Trustworthiness of Naturalistic Inquiries.

Educational Communication and Technology Journal, 29 , 75-92.

[7] Iyengar, B.K.S.(2006). Light on Life.

St Martins Pr.

[8] Jo, Kyuchung(2008). A Interaction and Coaching Behavior Analysis for Teaching

Learning of Dance Sport Instructors . The Korean Society of Sport Science , 17(3),

557-595

[9] Kana, Shin-bok(2000). Developing teaching skills in physical education . Seoul :

Bokyung

[10] Kim, Kyungsuk., & Huh, Yunsun.(1999). Qualitative Research of Aerobics Instructor's

Teaching Styles. Journal of sport and leisure studies. 11(1), 145-155.

[11] Korea Culture & Tourism Institute (2008). A white book on Leisure . Seoul : KCTI

[12] Kim, Yunok(2001). Qualitative study method and design for educational study . Seoul,

Muneumsa.

[13] Lee, Younghwan(2000). A study on quality of physical director. Korean Society of

Sport Philosophy.

[14] Mosston, M. (1986). Teaching physical education : From Command to discovery columbus , OH: Merrill

[15] Mosston. M. & Ashworth. S.(2002). Teaching Physical Education of Mosston.

Jo

Mihye., Hwang, Hyunja., You, Jungae., Kim, Yunhee., & Choi, Heejin. co-translation.

Seoul : Dae-han Media.

[16] Oh, Ji sun(2005). An Analysis of Pilates Instructors' Teaching Behaviors and

Instructional Contents. Unpublished master's thesis, Kookmin University, Korea

[17] Padgett, D. K.(1998). Qualitative methods in Social Work Reacher . You,

Taekyun(2001). Co-translation. Seoul : Nanam

[18] Park, Bongsup.(2008). The Effects of Strength, Strength and Walking, Strength and

Yoga on Obese Middle-aged Women`s Physical Fitness for 12 Weeks . Journal of korean physical education association for women, 22(1), 53-65.

[19] Piper, D. W. (1978) The Efficiency and Effectiveness of Teaching in Higher .

[20] Yoon, Hyun Jung (2004). The Effect of the Dance Professor's Teaching Method on

Learning Participation Style . Unpublished master's thesis, Kong-Ju University, K


On the Positive Feedback Between LiuXiang’s

Achievement of 110m Hurdle Race and

Competitive Action

Cheng Qilian，Li Weiyan，Zhang Yuanyuan，Zhang Yanfeng，

＆ Yan Caiqing

(P.E college of Jiangxi Normal Univ., Nanchang, China)

Abstract

In 2000, Sun Haiping, the famous and experienced coach found that Liu Xiang has the gift on sprint hurdle race. Then Liu was introduced into Shanghai P.E Technical

College from less sports school to receive the special training of 110m hurdle race. His general achievement was 13” 73. Through the training of less than two Olympic periods,

Liu won the race with the achievement of 12” 91 as the record-breaker in 2004 Athens

Olympic Games, and then he created the new world record of 12” 88 in 2006. And his achievement grows with the development of his competitive action, which forms a positive feedback for us to study.

Key words:

G raph of achievement, Competitive action, Psychological energy, Positive feedback

Introduction

The athlete’s achievement is the peak of the triangular file which is in a particular competitive environment of athlete’ physical, competitive namely mental and technical aspects of them [1] . However, now the physical situations of athletes have no obvious difference, which means their achievements depend on the positive feedback between technical situation and competitive action. In order to prove the correctness and practical significance of the concept, Liu Xiang, an athlete of 110m hurdle race, as an example, not only leveled the world record of Athens Olympic Game in 2004 when he received less than two Olympic cycles, but also created new world record in Lausanne Athletic

International Races with the achievement of 12” 88 after two years [2] . Breaking the record which was kept by English famous athlete Colin Johnson 12 years ago with the achievement of 12” 91, it loaded the world of sports annals by Chinese athlete who is

Liu Xiang. Why he could level the world record in 2004 and improve 0.03” two years later? Many people asked that why he could not break the record in 2005? Someone said that the playing condition of Liu Xiang was at low ebb in 2005 and he needed to adjust.



95

Some other person said that he had had the ability to break world record only lacking of the competitive action, that is to say “revolutionary consciousness” namely the self-revolution of “heart” [3] . Obviously physical and technical situation are the bases of good achievements, but sometimes it is the mental factor that affect the progress of achievements. It is exactly the theme deepen studied in this paper about the relationship between material and mental, which tried to analyze the positive feedback between

LiuXiang’s achievement of 110m hurdle race and competitive action, that is the argument spirit reacted to the substance.

The author of this article used the Marxist philosophy, implemented people-oriented in order to stimulate people's initiative and creativity, found and strengthen the real experience of the competitive behavior of the athletes with the concept of scientific development, through systematical sports historical materials and Olympic literature and a comprehensive collection of research related to Liu Xiang's training, competition and social activities for better and deepen study about it.

Analysis and research

Many reasons on unbroken record in 2005

In 2004, Liu got the achievement of 12”91 in the final match of 110m hurdle race with his stubborn wits and perfect confidence, leveled the world record as the winner of

Athens Olympic Game, which brought great ecstasy and encouragement to Chinese people. According to the training principle, Liu’s main task in 2005 was recovering from physical consumption and gradually into training special techniques for the international races in 2005 except for the needed social activities. But when he returned to the country and his hometown, Shanghai, with great exciting and happiness in the first time of his life, lots of people’ celebration everywhere, dinners and various of social activities, which would consume his physical fitness no doubly, especially excessive entanglement of the commercial activities, he could not focus on training and adjust his physical and psychological aspects well, which leaded to the low level of his achievement.

After the Athens Olympic Game, lots of social and commercial activities not only affected LiuXiang’s physical fitness and resulted in body’ fatigue, but also interrupted his mind and weakened his will power which directly resulted in a series of ill psychological phenomena such as thinking disorder, distraction, diminished willpower and etc. In short, all above would bring serious consciousness obstacles for athletes’ nervous system, which would inevitably lead to extend the recovery of training of a new round of competition aspects, and shape a negative impact for technical power stereotypes, finally affect his achievement. In 2005, LiuXiang set off major events many times in the United States and Europe, his best performance in this season was 13”05, the stable value is 13”15, according to his real competitive aspect, it was not the best

96 Pan-Asian Journal of Sports & Physical Education period for competition in 2005, the physical, technical and rhythm sense are not stable enough, only achieving 73.63%--84.62% of 12”91 in Athens Olympic Game, the gap is

1:0.1538-0.2637

[3] . As a result, his coach Sun Haiping made adjustment in time, who decided to let LiuXiang make a closed training about body and skills back to Beijing.

The second place in 110m hurdle race of Athletic World Championship in 2005 proved that he adjusted well in his training, he entered into the final with the achievement of

13” 42, and won the runner-up with 13” 08, which is only 0.01’’ slower than the champion, it was his better performance in the adjustment and recovery phase. Although

LiuXiang had finished the tasks of training and races in 2005, his achievements weren’t really good enough. He did not run less than 13”00 and had a certain gap with his best in

Athens Olympic Game. So he could not break the world record in 2005 and realize

Colin Jackson’s prediction that Liu would break record in 2005 and the expectation of

Chinese people.

The synchrony of technique and competition is necessary to break world record

If LiuXiang would create a new record of 110m hurdle race, it is important to scientifically physical and technical training, but waking up the action consciousness and recovering the mental energy cannot be ignored. So intensifying the positive feedback of competitive action is the way to success. It was less than four years since

LiuXiang entered into Shanghai P.E Technical College from less sports school to receive the special training of 110m hurdle race, whose progress depended on his natural condition and hard training. It isn’t easy for him to level the world record from the achievement of 13”73 to 12”91. Let us recall the evolution of 110m hurdles’ world record: on September 7, 1972, the athlete, Milburn ,who is 22-year-old came from the

United States created the world record with the achievement of 13”24 for the first electric timer at the Munich Olympics. It was thirty-four years from then; there were six athletes from four countries who created world record eight times. One of the premier athletes in the United States, who created world record three times in three years and was the first one to run less than 13.00’’ at twenty only, the achievements in his hand increased as much as 0.28’’ in total. Since then, it took twelve years from 12”93 to

12”91 [3] . LiuXiang’s big progress of 110m hurdle race lies on his good physical control, explosive force, speedy quality, sensitive rhyme analysis and strong feeling, especially his latter run-way technology to maintain forward is excellent. Colin Jackson, the former world record keeper, who believed Liu Xiang’ hurdle race technology was the most perfect in the world. The center of gravity is very appropriate, the calf when hurdled has been just wiping the hurdle and maintaining a good position forward, which formed an ideal type, but always affected by the level of training and psychological qualities.

Too many social and commercial activities and short-time matches with seldom

On the Positive Feedback Between Liuxiang’s Achievement of


97 systematical physical and technical training in 2005 definitely causes negative influence, which not only cannot give full play to physical and technical capacities, but also have mental block with no confidence. Therefore, Sun Haiping gave up unnecessary activities and matches for systematical training and strengthened competitive consciousness to spontaneously educate sports behaviors. The inner motivation and necessary outer motivation should be intensified to encourage athletes for further fighting.

In 2004, Liu Xiang won the champion on sprint hurdle race in track and field for the first time in our country, which finally broke the situation of 110 meter hurdles which belonged to African-American situation all along, Liu leveled the world record. It is understandable that athletes showed a good heart-felt passion and even fanatical passion for their outstanding achievements; but as a good athlete, who should control his emotions well and show the affirmation, stability and deep emotion in the world and keep peaceful mind for the great achievements. Athletic conducts in the campaign include the language behavior of athletes no doubtly through media interviews or press conferences, whose words will affect the whole world and society. When Liu Xiang won the champion with the achievement of 12”91 at the Athens Olympic Games, he was too excited to say some improper words such as China has me; Asia has me and so on in the face of journalists for the first surprising results. The National People's Congress proposed that Liu Xiang played on behalf of the 1.3 billion Chinese people, whose win should be celebrated, but who should be control his emotions and show the image of

Chinese people's profound friendship. In fact, the slogans of “China has me, Asia has me” and “the same world, the same dream” are not consistent, but not in line with the scientific development of things, furthermore athletic performance will not stop at a level. The National People's Congress showed cares for Liu Xiang’s healthy growth and hoped for a bigger victory.

Opinions from National People's Congress gave Liu Xiang outer motivation greatly, which promoted the initiative cooperation between coach Sun Haiping and Liu Xiang so that he could concentrate on training systematically. Even his family were mobilized, when Liu didn’t go back home for a long time for tension training, his mother always said sincerely, “Liu Xiang belongs to the country, he is too busy.” Under the press from outer motivation of organization, family, coach and predecessor, Liu created huge power of reaching the aim through his inner motivation. With correct competitive sense, Liu trained physical qualities and searched techniques hardly to intensify his will power for efficient improvement of his achievement. After a whole year’ expectation in 2005, we finally heard of the good news from Lausanne in the morning in July 12 th 2006 that Liu broke the world record made by Colin Jackson 13 years ago with the achievement of

12”88. What kind of power that was? That was the power of human spirits which reacted materials and explained the positive feedback between techniques and

98 Pan-Asian Journal of Sports & Physical Education competitive behaviors with his competitive sense leaded by positive attitude. Liu took the crown for six times in eight matches including one breaking world record with average grade of 0.15” less or more than 13.10” from June 13 th to September 23 rd 2006

（表 1 ） [4] , which means that 2006 is a year when Liu was on his best athletic mood.

Since 2006, the systematic training was strengthened, which made Liu Xiang’s competitive aspect resume speedy and promoted the bodily functions, but only with the reservation of physical and movement energy, as well as the self-confidence, will, mental energy, etc. will be worked fully, can his competitiveness show.

Table 1: Results of Liu’s six wins in eight races in 2006

Time Place Results Average result

May 6th Osaka International Race

*13”22

May 28th

July 8th

Eugene Classic

CH.Vincent Gloden

*13”21

13”19

July 11th

August 7th

League

Lausanne Race

Shi Jiazhuang National

Race

*12”88

*13”30

September 9th Stuttgart Athletic Final

*12”93

Match

September 17th Athens International Race

13”03

September 23rd Shanghai Golden Match

*13”07

13”10±0.15”

(12”95-13”25)

P.S. Liu wined the race with *.

In July 11 th 2006, when the athletes came from all the world stood on the starting line of 110m hurdles, Liu Xiang was in an awake state, whose technology was perfect very much from the beginning to the end, and finally created the new world record of 110m hurdle race people expected always with the achievements of 12’’88. In fact, Liu Xiang broke the world record is entirely reasonable, as early as in 2004, Liu Xiang has run

12’’90 in high-intensity training test before the Athens Olympic Games, which proved that Liu has the ability to broke the world record of 110m hurdle race already. Moreover

Liu took the crown for six times in eight matches in 2006 including one breaking world record with average grade of 0.15” less or more than 13.10”, and ran into 13’’ twice

(Table 2) [3] .

Table 2: Comparison of Liu’s results in 2005 and 2006

Time Playing round

2005 16

Average result

Result examination

13.16±0.14 0.94/>0.05

Stable result interval

13.02-13.30



99

2006 8 13.10±0.15 0.94/>0.05 12.95-13.25

According to table two, it can be seen that the result examinations in 2005 and 2006 are no obvious difference, but the chance rate Liu ran in 13 seconds in 2006 takes 25%, near the world record. It means he still has the potential to be faster.

Taking Liu’s mental advantage for harvest in Beijing Olympic Game

It took Liu Xiang only two years to improve 0.03’’on the world record of the 110m hurdle race, which has loaded history of the Olympic Games with the achievements of

12’’88, some people say that it is alarming rate in the history of the Olympic Games, why not? People-oriented and carrying forward people's driving force can not be ignored in addition to the positive feedback competition action to technology. Liu Xiang could level and break the world record in two years should be attributed to his technical strength and psychological advantage.

Colin Jackson, the previous world record keeper of 110m hurdle race, judged Liu’s technique as the perfect all over the world by now, while outside persons thought his psychological quality as the best one in world athletes. It appears in his high level confidence and intelligence for 110m hurdle race. He always performs his techniques and defeats himself constantly like nobody around, no matter what kind the race is and who the opponents are. When he first received training in his seventeen, he improved the achievement from 13”73 to 13”23, taking the first place in the 9 th National Race.

Then in the Lausanne A-level Race of 2002, Liu broke the world youth record having kept by American athlete for 24 years with 13”12. He got the second place of Athletic

Golden Race and the third place of World Championship in his 20 the next year. In

Japan International Race the same year, with 13”06 he not only broke his own Asian record of 13”12, but also beat American hurdle expert Jonson and strengthened his will to win in the coming of Athens Olympic Game.

Before the Athens Olympic Game in 2004, Johnson “told” Liu to run “four matches” on Olympic Game with “care”, and Liu deal with it calmly, he has already had mental preparation. Liu made an extraordinary achievement of 12”90 in an impulsive test. So he firmly aimed to run into 13 seconds in Athens Olympic Game and scientifically engaged the coordination of controlling four match concepts and real feelings of achievements(Table Three) [5] .

Table 3: The comparison of Liu’s four race plan and real results in Athens Olympic

Game

Turn 1 2 3 4

Name of match

Preliminary match

Semi-final Semi-final Final match


Planning power

Planning results

Real results

80-85

13”30

13”27

85-90

13”28

13”26

90-95

13”20

13”18

100

12”90

12”91

Performance in race

Relaxing run

Relaxing run

Speedy and relaxing run

Full accelerating

The sources above completely prove Liu’s ability of self-control and time analysis.

The planning results are close to real results, which mean his strong sense of rhythm and psychology and lay the foundation for victory in Athens meanwhile.

Great changes on Liu’s movement feelings have taken place which from a short passion in Athens to the positive, long-lasting and stable enthusiasm, Whether an interview in the game, or in the course of the game, Liu appeared more modest and prudent, no matter what kind the race is and who the opponents are, love and respect each other in order to achieve “the same world, the same dream”. Game is competition, in which one must use tenacious perseverance to overcome difficulties and strive for victory. Everyone knows the story the champion in the ninth road, in Osaka, Japan

Track and Field World Championships in 2007, Liu Xiang in the 110 m hurdles final, with his alarming will, in the worst road, beat many strong opponents, won the champion with the achievement of 12’’95. This is a victory of the technical quality combined with psychological quality.

In a word, Liu Xiang is a very individual and pragmatic athlete, who has strong self-confidence and willpower, 12’’88 has become a history, and he believed he could run faster. In Shanghai International Golden Race in September 26 th 2006, Liu was

0.04’’slower than Johnson on the starting rate, but with his strong willpower and the advantage of latter run-way, finally won the champion with 13’’07, which proved Liu

Xiang had big potential in starting technology. Let’s look forward the better results in the coming of Beijing Olympic Game in 2008.

References

[1] Teaching material group. Sports psychology （ Eight chapter, Sports competition psychology ） [M].Nanchang

： Correspondence department of Jiangxi Educational

College Press ， 1998:109-125.

[2] Sports Scene.12”88-Liu Xiang created Chinese time [N].Nanchang Evening

Newspaper ， 2006 － 07 － 13.

[3] Mai Xueping. Liu Xiang will create new world record [J].Chinese University Athletics



101

2007:264-266.

[4] Sports Scene. Liu Xiang’s 6 wins in 8 matches this year[N]. Nanchang Evening

Newspaper ， 2006 － 09 － 24.

[5] Mai Xueping.Why Liu can level the world record of 110m hurdle race [J]. Journal of

Jiangxi Educational College ， 2004 （ 6 ） :46-48.


Comparative Study of Body Physique, Physical Fitness between Korean and Egyptian Physical Education

Students.

Abouzeid Magdy (1), Lee, Jong-Young (2), Mohamed G (1)

(1)Faculty of Sport Education, Alexandria Univ, Egypt.

(2)The Univ. of Suwon, S. Korea.

Abstract

Physical Fitness (PF) is widely considered to be an important component of health.

The need to improve the (PF) of youth has prompted the development of new and creative approaches that provide an opportunity for all university students to participate in regular physical education (PE) and activity lessons. Universities need to reintroduce daily, quality (PF) as a key component of a comprehensive education. Educational

Institutions play an important role in improving the health and well-being of their students, especially through their (PE), sports programmes. Therefore, studding the (PF) of students has an important contribution for society. So far, there is not any study report or analysis of (PF) status in both Korean and Egyptian students.

The present study would be the first study that investigates the similarity and differences of (PF) between Korea and Egypt University students. Therefore, the aims of this study were A) to assess the (PF) of both nation students, and establish reference values for use in health and B) compare of Korean and Egyptian students, and C) identify the difference in (PF) between both students, and D) find the most (PF) variables appears in each group.

Key words : physical fitness, comparative study, Korea, Egyptian students.

Subjects

Male college freshman (PE) students (no=117 Korean students from Suwon Univ) and (no=117 Egyptian students from Alexandria Univ.). For body physique measuring: body weight and height, body mass index (BMI), body surface area m

2

, and resting heart rate, and physical fitness measuring: push-up, sit up, vertical jump and long jump, 20 m run speed and 40 m run speed.

All analysis was performed by SPSS, mean +SD, t. test between the two groups. The results showed that Egyptian students scored significantly higher in body weight and height, BMI, BSAm

2

, p<O.005. There were significant difference among groups for (PF)

Comparative Study of Body Physique, Physical Fitness

Between Korean and Egyptian Physical Education Students

103 related Korean students as compared with Egyptian students (p<O.005); in all (PF) parameters and resting heart rate. Results may reflect differences in nutritional status, eating habits, Military engages for Korean students during their college studies, and climate condition, life style. Military engage and the other factors play an important part to improve the (PF) for Korean Students. (PE) classes give students the skills they need to engage in a lifelong programmes of fitness. Therefore, to confirm the results obtained in this study, more researches are needed in various backgrounds of university students should be done.

University student needs to participate regularly in physical activities that enhance and maintain their cardiovascular and musculoskeletal health. Regulare physical activity duting youth stage is as sociated with numerous physiological and psychosocial benefits and has the potential to improve the quality of life for al ages (Abouzed Magdy 1983).

The need to improve the physical fitness of youth has prompted the development of new and creative approaches that provide an opportunity for all boys and girls to participate in regular, healthful physical activity (Abouzed Madgy ICSSPE. Bulletin No 549 2008).

Educational institutions play an important role in improving the health and well-being of their students, especially through their physical education programmes. Physical education (PE) is the academic discipline and profession which focuses on the art and science of human movement with an emphasis given to sports, fitness.

Since quality PE programs should help students develop health-related fitness and physical competence. Well-planned, well – implemented PE programs can:



Improve physical fitness (PF).



Facilitate development of student self-discipline and responsibility for health and fitness.



Develop motor skills that allow for safe, successful, and satisfying participation in physical activities (PA).



Reinforce knowledge learned in other subject's areas such as science, and social studies.



Influence moral development by providing students with opportunities to assume leadership, cooperate with other, and accept responsibility for their behavior.



Help students socialize with others more success fully.

Study of PE and sport of different nations provides a turnstone for understanding how people live, work, think, and at the same time provides related data to other facts of economic life, culture factors and political. There are many reasons why various researches are applicable in the study of comparative PE. Universities need to reintroduce daily, quality PA as a key component of a comprehensive education.

Physical Education Strategy in Faculty of Sport Education, Alexandria

University, Egypt.


Egypt is one of the most populous countries in Africa and the Middle East. The great majority of its estimated 82 million, Covering are area of about 1.010.000 square kilometers.

Ancient Egyptian people were very much involved in sport activity, according to the inscriptions, most of the ancient Egyptian played wrestling, weight lifting, swimming, rowing , athletics, shooting, boxing, handball, Javelin throw and a host of other sports activity. It is obvious from the scenes depicted pyramid and temple walls that the ancient

Egyptian knew how to keep fits, and sport was a part of the daily life and culture.

According to the

Orchoreologists, sports in ancient Egypt dates bacak several thousand years and it was part of every day life. The old murals of ancient Egypt not only attest to its splendid civilization but also to its first steps in sports still played today (Abouzeid Magdy 2007).

The faculty of sport education for men, university of Alexandria is one of the first academic institutions established in Egypt in the field of sport and PE. For nearly half a century of continuous academic activity. The faculty dates buck to 1955.

Faculty Mission



Compliance with a academic standards, values and customs universally accepted.



Creating the appropriate educational atmosphere that provides the student with

 the opportunity to be creative in the various sport fields.

Preparing graduate who is capable of competing and meeting the requirements

 of the labour market.

Excellence in scientific research according to international standards.

Degrees Granted



Bachelor of PE in one of three major specializations: a) School sport. b) Sport training. c) Sport administration.



The general diploma of PE.

 Muster’s degree is PE.



Doctor of philosophy degree in PE.

Scientific department

Aquatic sport training department.

Truck and field events training dept.

Exercise and gymnastics training dept.

Sport games training department.

Biological sciences and sports health dept.

PE foundations Dept.

College of physical education, Suwon University, Korea:

The university of Suwon was founded in 1982.

The college of PE includes four fields, namely general PE, applied PE, dance, and yang- sang PE. The college plans to cultivate competent sportsmen, dancers or educators needed in the society through recruiting and nurturing talented young men and women.

Recently, the college is revitalized as a top-notch program as it has improved its curricula and invited excellent faculty members.

The import ant of physical fitness (PF)

PF is a general state of good Physical health. Obtaining and maintaining PF is a result of PA, proper diet and nutrition and of course proper rest for recovery and is not only one of the most important keys to a healthy body; it is the basis of dynamic and creative activity.

Physical Education (PE) programs within the universities setting can set the stage for how students view PF activity levels, and future health. PE programs also include general health and safety information in addition to providing opportunities for students to learn how to cooperate with one another in a team setting.

University PE programme can be one of the most cost effective investments a nation can make to simultaneously improve education and health programmes as a strategic means to prevent important health risks among youth and to engage the education sector in efforts to change the educational, social, economic and political conditions that affect risk.

PE is part of most of the school and college curricula. Some of the important objectives of PE include, the development of one’s motor and social abilities, promoting the importance of PF and encouraging the budding talents. One of the important objectives of PE is to install in the students the values and skills of maintaining a healthy life style, and encourage the upcoming sport men and women of the crowd.

PF is a general state of good physical health. Obtaining and maintaining physical fitness is a result of physical activity, proper diet and nutrition and proper environment and culture factors (Abouzeid Magdy 2008). PF Keeps the heart and lungs working more efficiently and helps burn off excess calories.

Fitness activities in the colleges setting have important individual, societal, and economic implications. There is (Little doubt that youth can acquire beneficial lifestyle behaviors through quality PE programs. Thus, regular physical activity as a result of involvement in sound physical education programs can make an important contribution



105

106 Pan-Asian Journal of Sports & Physical Education to physical fitness (Abouzeid Magdy 2009).

For many years, physical educators focused their attention on “Physical fitness” More recently; their attention has changed to encouraging “physical activity”. Differentiating between physical activity (the “process”) and physical fitness (the “outcome”) is important. The relatively low relationship between fitness and physical activity is one good reason for physical education to focus on physical activity rather than on physical fitness. Simons et al, (1994) provide evidence that quality programs can results in increased PA in PE classes. Abouzeid Magdy (2007) showed that a high level of some components of (PF) associating with a high level of course performance. Shen Band xuc

(2008) showed that the cardio respiratory fitness level and self efficacy in exercise significantly contributed to both psychological and interpersonal motives .

Methods

After receiving approval from the institutional ethics committee, we retrospectively reviewed physical fitness (PF) parameters of the subjects. The subjects in this study were the PE students from Egypt (Alexandria) university, faculty of sport education for men), and Korea (Suwon university, college of physical education). Male freshmen (117

Egyptian, and 117 Korean) were the subjects. The data were collected in late may 2008

(end the semester) at the sport science labs in each country. For body physique measuring, the items recorded were body weight (kg), body height (cm), body surface area (BSAm 2 ) was determined from height and weight according to Du bois formula (6).

Body mass index (BM1) is the categorized number that tells a persom if they are overweight or obese based on his height and weight. It is calculated by dividing body weight (kg) by height in meter squared (m 2 ) (Abouzeid Magdy 2008).

Physical fitness measuring: vertical jump (cm), and long jump tests (cm) measure lower-body muscular power. Sit–ups and push –ups measures muscular endurance.

Measure speed elements 20m run speed, and 40m run speed. Physiological function measuring resting pulse rate. The functional physical fitness of the studied students examined using the senior fitness test (7).

Statistical methods

All the analyses were performed by SPSS for windows release 9.0 (Chicago, lL,

USA). Variable are presented as mean ± SD. T. test paired data estimated differences between the two groups.

Results



107

Table 1: Physical Characteristics of the Study Population

Variables

Group (A)

Koreans

Students

(n=117)

M ± SD

Group (B)

Egyptian

Students

(n=117)

M ± SD

Mean difference p-value

Age (year)

Height Ht (cm)

Weight Wt (kg)

Body surface Area (BSA)

(M 2 )

24.0595

±2.0565

175.3333 ±

7.5886

69.9573

± 12.3354

182.6410 ±

18.0843

20.6325

± 1.2905

177.4359

± 5.8374

73.2564

± 7.7839

189.1111

± 11.3698

3.4274

-2.1026

-3.2991

-6.4701

**15.269

*-2.375

*-2.447

**-3.276

Body Mass Index (BMI)

(kg/m2)

19.9221

± 2.8792

23.2692

± 2.2349

-3.3472 **-9.933

Heart Rate (b/min) 65.8889

± 2.8611

70.9402

± 7.0311

-5.0513 **-7.198

Age, Ht (height “cm”) wt (weight “kg”, BSA m 2

“ky/m 2 ” – mean ± SD, P 

0.01)

××

(body surface area “m 2

. mean ± SD, P



0.05)

×

”, BM1 (body mass index

Figure 1

200

180

160

140

120

100

80

60

40

20

0

Age (year) Height Ht (cm) Weight Wt (kg) Body surface Area

(BSA) (M2)

Body Mass Index

(BMI) (kg/m2)

Heart Rate (p/min)

Group (a)

Group (b)


Table 2: Comparsion of physical fitness between Korean and Egyptian students

Variables

Push-up (rec/30 sec)

Sit-up (rec/30 sec)

Long jump (cm)

Group (A)

Koreans

Students

(n=117)

M ± SD

36.7521

± 9.6006

31.4188

±7.2674

224.2735

± 2.9876

Group (A)

Egyptian

Students

(n=117)

M ± SD

34.4359

± 6.5946

29.8718

± 4.1906

220.4701

± 24.2610

Vertical jump (cm) 65.2222

± 0.1039

20 m Run Speed (sec) 3.4511

± .4157

57.1197

± 3.8889

3.5073

± .2225

40 m Run Speed (sec) 5.001

± .456

××

P < 0.01

×

P < 0.05

6.21

± .485

Mean difference

2.3162

1.5470

3.8034

8.1026 **

8.095

- 0.0561 -1.288

0.4013 p-value

*2.151

*1.995

1.005

6.51

Figure 2

250

200

150

100

50

0

Push-up (rec/30 sec) Sit-up (rec/30 sec) Long jump (cm) Vertical jump (cm) 20 m Run Speed

(sec)

40 m Run Speed

(sec)

Series1

Series2

Egyptian students scored significantly higher in body weight and height, and BMI

“kg/m 2 ”, P 

0.05).



109

There were significant difference among two groups for physical fitness in Korean students as compared with Egyptian students (P < 0.05); push –up, sit-up, long and vertical jump, 20 and 40 meter run speed and resisting pulse rate.

Discussion

Egyptian students scored significantly higher in body weight, body height and BSA m 2 , BMI kg/m 2 that results related due to heredity and nutritional status eating habits.

The BMI for Korean students was under weight versus normal for the Egyptian. The

BMI value is more accurate to assess body composition and good choice for the anthrop metric assessment of adult weight status and

The index of choice for epidemiological purpose (9). This finding indicates the need for further research on the effect of diet on body composition since it is associated with the student's physical fitness. In addition, it would be interesting to compare the nutritional status and physical activity during the season of PE classes to get and enable some adjustments to be made on current dietary intakes and activity level of the colleges of PE students.

Korean students scored significantly higher in physical fitness and physiological

(resting pulse rate) better than Egyptian students, this differences might be related to the following:

1The Korean rules for military engages for the students during their university studied, this rules improve the PF for the students, versus the Egyptian rules that the Military engages after the students finished their university studies.

2The nutritional status and eating habits for the Egyptian student which effect in increased body weight and will be decreased PF.

3The climate condition, life style play an important part to facilitate and encourage the adults to participate regular physical activates for Korean students versus the hot climate in Egypt.

4Proper environment and culture factors, economic and political conditions as results of involvement in sound PE programs can make an important contribution to physical fitness and healthy lifestyle.

Conclusions

Both Egypt and Korea represent advanced economies, but in spite of this, there remain a number of socio- political differences between the two countries for example, the different funding arrangements and different emphases on PE in the university system, and the most important value are the semi-mandatory military service for male in Korea.

Korean Students have demonstrated high physical fitness over Egyptian students; this could be due to the view of sport as an ascetic experience, a demonstration of

110 Pan-Asian Journal of Sports & Physical Education self-discipline in South Korean cloture. Thus, Korean peoples tend to participate in sports for fun rather than for the purpose of training.

Education institutions play an important role in improving the health and well –being of their student, especially through their PE programs, since quality PE programs should help students develop health –related fitness and physical competence. (Abouzeid

Magdy 2008).

Based on the findings of this study, some recommendations are made with the hope that a similar study can be carried out on other groups of students at various nations of higher education.



Support establishment of a network between Korea and Egypt for information exchange and technical support to member state through training, seminars meetings.



Promote researches in the field of PE and PE.



Physical education (PE) and physical fitness (PF) can be investment in the future.

In summary, regular participation in physical education lessons can make an important contribution to the health and well being of adolescents provided that student have opportunities to participate in a variety of meaningful activities that enable them to achieve health-related levels of physical fitness. Developing and maintaining health lifestyle habits courses of PE students,

Therefore have clinical implications that extend for beyond the education years. PE classes give students the skills they’ll need to engage in a lifelong programme of fitness.

Currently, there are no studies compiling PE in Korea and Egypt students. In thus sense, our research is groundbreaking.

References

[1] Abouzeid Madgy (1983) Effects of hypoxic training on card respiratory efficiency and record performance for completive swimmers. PhD, thesis faculty of physical

Education, Alexandria, Helwan University, Egypt.

[2] Abouzeid Magdy (2007). The science of aquatics sport training. Faculty of sport education, Alexandria University, Egypt PP 11-13.

[3] Abouzeid Magdy (2008). Elite child athletes are our future. Bulletin, international council of sport science and physical education. No 54, September 2008. www.icsspe.org.

[4] Abouzeid Magdy (2009) comparison of respiratory function adaptation to long-term swim training in physically challenged swimmers. The 17 th international symposium of

Adopted physical activity. ISAPA, Gavle, Sweden 23-27 June 2009.

[5] Abouzeid Magdy (2008 ICSEMIS) Mocardial responses to intensive swim training in



111 wheelchair athletes. The 2008 international concention on science, eduction and

Medicine in sport (2008 1 CSEMK, August 1-5, Guangzhou, china).

[6] Du Bois D, E.F DuBors (1916) A formula to estimate the approximate surface area if height and weight be known. Arch internal med, 17: 863-971.

[7] Rikli R.E., Jones C.T. et al. senior fitness test manual, Human Kintics publishers,

Champaign. IL 2001.

[8] Shen B, xuc (2008). Effects of self-efficacy, body mass and cardiorespiratory fitness on exercise motives in Chinese college student. J phys Act Health, 5 (5): 706-18.

[9] Qan Nudri WD, Ismuil MN et al – (1996). Anthropometric measurements and body composition of selected national athletes- Mal J Nutr 2: 138-147


The Investigation of Exercise/Smoking Behavior and

Health Conditions on College Students in

North Taiwan

Hsieh, Ming-Feng / Lin, Yi-Jia、Su, Wei-Hung, Cheng-Hsiu Lai

(Taipei Physical Education College)

Abstract

The purpose of the study was to investigate the relationship of exercise/smoking behavior and health conditions on college students. health condition’s items included ：

Systolic blood pressure(SBP), Diastolic blood pressure(DBP), Hemoglobin(Hgb), Uric

Acid(UA), Cholesterol(CHOL), fasting blood glucose(GLU.AC), Digestion puzzle, and

Mood puzzle. The sample was 1377 college students from north Taiwan. Descriptive statistics, independent sample T-test, χ

2

test were computed for data analysis. The results indicated that (a) there are 84.5 % college students have regular exercise behavior (b) there are 86.7 % college students do not have regular smoking behavior

(c)the significant differences were found on smoking behavior by hemoglobin, uric acid, digestion puzzle, (d) the significant differences were found on exercise behavior by cholesterol, mood puzzle.

Key words: exercise behavior, smoking behavior, health conditions

Introduction

Owing to the plentiful and progress of the society, people now do not only have a lot of choices on eating but also eat dainty. But life is still busy and speeding. Even on eating, so the fast food diets has been the choice for most people and keep sitting-style for work and life everyday. Therefore people are getting body weight higher and higher.

Later these years people realize how important is to be healthy. Most people also know that controlling weight is necessary for health.

The change of sickness in Taiwan, more than 50 percent is because of the abnormally living habits and action. The information from the Department of health, Executed Yuan,

R.O.C. (2007) shows that the ten reason of how people die, except accident, pneumonia, and suicide other seven all has to do with how people eat. Also most people sit for a long time, do not have enough body action and eat disproportionate can cost slow sickness, too heavy, insomnia, and easily tired. DR. David Satcher the early Director of

Health of America says that more than half of the Americans die because of the way

The Investigation of Exercise/Smoking Behavior and


113 they live (Hoeger and Hoeger, 2004). These living styles cause high blood pressure, diabetes, heart diseases did not just made the use of medical sources higher and higher, but also living quality lower. Health and living habits is all connected. To make our life healthier people have to exercise, control the amount of fat, quit smoking, control blood pressure, and loose of stress. If you can correctly control you habits, than you can live longer, healthier, and stay young longer.

Exercise is good for health but smoking is not. Good habits can promote health. The purpose of this research aimed to investigate the relationship of exercise/smoking behavior and health conditions on college students.

Methods

The random college will have a physical test for every student on the start of the semester. Not only let student know their health condition but also prevent and fix the problem. The physical test includes: basic testing, liver testing, urine testing, blood testing, B type hepatitis, kidney testing, cholesterol testing, and blood sugar testing.

Warburton, Nicol and Bredin (2006) also point out: exercise and health present a direct ratio relationship. How much you exercise than how healthy you are. Because of this, if you increase the amount you exercise than you will increase your health condition. From the information before shows that the ten reason people die from are malignant tumor, heart disease, brain blood vessel disease, pneumonia, high blood pressure all has to do with smoking (the Department of health, Executed Yuan, R.O.C.

2007). So this project contains Systolic blood pressure(SBP), Diastolic blood pressure(DBP), Hemoglobin(Hgb), Uric Acid (UA), Cholesterol(CHOL), fasting blood glucose (GLU.AC), Digestion puzzle,and Mood puzzle, these eight indicators are used in this study.

The way that we are going to study is to collect the entire student in a college in 2007 their physical form as the data. Using statistic and analyze to understand that the college students behavior of exercising and smoking to know their health condition. Statistic and analyze to show that how exercise and smoking effect health. Use the point-Biserial c and Biserial correlation to understand the college students’ connection between exercise and smoking with health. The T testing and the Chi-Square test can help us understand the college students smoking behavior and health condition.

Results

This project includes 1377 college students between ages 18 to 24. All collected data were analyzed using Spss10.0 for Windows. Distribution of exercise behavior and smoke behavior in this study from table 1 that students that has exercise behavior stand for 84.5 percent, students that don’t have exercise behavior stand for 15.5 percent; has

114 Pan-Asian Journal of Sports & Physical Education exercise behavior and don’t smoke stands for 73.9 percent, has exercise behavior but smoke stands for 10.5 percent. Students that have smoking behavior stand for 13.3 percent, students that don’t smoke stands for 86.7 percent; students that have smoking behavior and don’t exercise stands for 2.8 percent, students that don’t smoke and don’t exercise stands for 12.8 percent.

Table 1: istribution of exercise behavior and smoke behavior in this study (N=1377) frequencies percent

（％） exercise behavior

Have exercise behavior

Do not exercise

Have exercise behavior & do not smoking

Have exercise behavior & smoking behavior

Have smoking behavior

1,163

214

1018

145

84.5

15.5

73.9

10.5

183 13.3 smoking behavior

Do not smoking 1,194 86.7

Have smoking behavior & do not exercise

Do not smoke and do not exercise

38

176

2.8

12.8

Students’ physical testing in different health conditions score shows in table 2.

Students’ average SBP is 122.51 mmHg, students DBP average is 73.88 mmHg, students

Hgb average is 14.41 gm/dl, students UA average is 6.23 mg/dl, students CHOL average is 182.06 mg/dl, students GLu.AC average before eating is 83.96 mg/dl.

Table 2: Health conditions score distributions (N=1377)

Means ±SD Healthy normal range

SBP

DBP

Hgb

UA

122.51 ± 0.404

73.38 ± 0.255

14.41 ± 0.040

6.23 ± 0.040

130

～

139 mmHg

85

～

89 mmHg

11.5

～

18 gm/dl

≦

8 mg/dl

CHOL 182.06 ± 0.864 130~200 mg/dl



115

Glu.AC

83.96 ± 0.116 70~110 mg/dl

The Point-Biserial correlation analysis was employed to determine the level of relationship that existed between exercise/smoking behavior and health condition on college students. Health condition items included ： SBP, Hgb, UA, CHOL, and Glu.AC test scores. The results showed in table 3-1: for exercise behavior aspect of “CHOL” (p

= 0.07*) and for smoking behavior aspect of “Hgb ” (p = -0.14***) and “UA” (p =

-0.09***) all reached a significant level of difference, showing the relationship between

“exercise behavior and CHOL” and “smoking behavior and Hgb and UA” to be significantly difference.

Table 3-1: he Point-Biserial correlation analysis of exercise/smoking behavior and health condition(SBP, Hgb, UA, CHOL, Glu. And AC test scores, N =

1377) exercise behavior smoking behavior

SBP

DBP

Hgb

0.02

0.05

-0.03

-0.05

-0.04

-0.14***

UA 0.001

0.07*

-0.09***

0.01 CHOL

Glu.AC -0.04 -0.03

*p

≦

0.05 **p

≦

0.01 ***p

≦

0.001

The Biserial correlation analysis was employed to determine the level of relationship that existed between exercise/smoking behavior and health condition on college students.

Health condition items included ： digestion and mood puzzle.The results showed in table 3-2: for exercise behavior aspect of “mood puzzle” (p = 0.06*) and for smoking behavior aspect of “digestion puzzle ” (p = -0.07***) all reached a significant level of difference, showing the relationship between “exercise behavior and mood puzzle” and

“smoking behavior and digestion puzzle” to be significantly different.

Table 3-2: he Point-Biserial analysis of exercise/smoking behavior and health condition (digestion and mood puzzle, N=1377) exercise behavior smoking behavior

Digestion puzzle 0.002 0.06*


Mood puzzle -0.07** 0.003

*p

≦

0.05 **p

≦

0.01 ***p

≦

0.001

The t-test analysis was employed to determine the level of difference that existed between exercise behavior and health condition on college students. Health condition items included ： SBP, DBP, Hgb, UA, CHOL, and GLu AC test scores. The results showed in table 4: students that has exercise behavior their CHOL score reached a significant level of difference ( p

≦

0.05*).

The Chi-Square Test analysis was employed to determine the level of difference that existed between exercise behavior and health condition on college students. Health condition items included ： digestion and mood puzzle. The results showed in table 4: students that has exercise behavior their “mood puzzle” reached a significant level of difference ( p

≦

0.01**).

Table 4: he Descriptive difference analysis of exercise behavior and health conditions (N =1377 )

Have exercise behavior

Do not exercise T-test

Chi-Square

Test

SBP

122.41 ± 0.45 123.04 ± 0.95

-0.57

DBP

Hgb

UA

CHOL

73.19 ± 0.28

14.43 ± 0.04

74.41 ± 0.66

14.31 ± 0.10

6.23 ± 0.04 6.24 ± 0.10

181.17 ± 0.94 186.94 ± 2.23

84.03 ± 0.12 83.57 ± 0.31

-1.69

1.18

-0.03

-2.43*

Glu.AC

Digestion puzzle

Mood puzzle

1.42

0.004

7.159**

*p

≦

0.05 **p

≦

0.01 ***p

≦

0.001

The t-test analysis was employed to determine the level of difference that existed between smoking behavior and health condition on college students. Health condition items included ： SBP, DBP, Hgb, UA, CHOL, and GLu AC test scores. The results showed in table 5: students that has smoking behavior their their Hgb, and UA scores reached a significant level of difference ( p

≦

0.001***).

The Chi-Square Test analysis was employed to determine the level of difference that



117 existed between smoking behavior and health condition on college students. Health condition items included ： digestion and mood puzzle. The results showed in table 5: students that has smoking behavior their “digestion puzzle” reached a significant level of difference ( p

≦

0.05*).

Table 5: The Descriptive difference analysis of smoking behavior and health conditions ( N = 1377 )

Have smoking behavior

Do not smoking

T-test

Chi-Square

Test

SBP

124.41 ± 1.12 122.22 ± 0.43

1.84

DBP

Hgb

UA

CHOL

74.39 ± 0.74

14.92 ± 0.10

6.57 ± 0.10

73.23 ± 0.27

14.33 ± 0.04

6.18 ± 0.04

181.34 ± 2.34 182.17 ± 0.93

1.55

5.57***

3.24***

-0.33

Glu.AC

Digestion puzzle

Mood puzzle

84.32 ± 0.48

*p

≦

0.05 **p

≦

0.01 ***p

≦

0.001

Discussion

83.90 ± 0.11 0.85

5.44*

0.01

This study includes 1377 college students between ages 18 to 24. Students SBP average is 122.51 mmHg (standard value is 130 － 139 mmHg), Students DBP average is

73.38 mmHg (standard value is 85 － 89 mmHg), Students Hgb average is 14.41 gm/dl

(standard value is 11.5

－ 18 gm/dl), Students UA average is 6.23 mg/dl (standard value is smaller or equal to 8 mg/dl), Students Glu.AC average is 83.96 mg/dl (standard value is 70 － 110 mg/dl). This study found that only the number of the DBP is lower than the standard value, otherwise others are all in the standard range. It also shows that this colleges’ students’ health conditions are all in the standard range. The DBP is lower than the standard shows that the college is a physical education type of school that most students has a good exercise habit (has exercise behavior stand for 84.5 percent, doesn’t have exercise behavior stand for 15.5 percent ), so made the DBP number lower than the standard. Lee and Skerrett(2001) project about the body movement effect to disease and death rate: body movement and death rate shows a negative relationship. That means how often you move how long you stay a life. Warburton, Nicol and Bredin (2006) also point out: exercise and health present a direct ratio relationship. How much you exercise

118 Pan-Asian Journal of Sports & Physical Education than how healthy you are. Because of this, if you increase the amount you exercise than you will increase your health condition.

The American college of sports medicine, ACSM point out that exercise can slow down quiet heart beat, quiet heart systolic pressure and diastolic pressure (ACSM, 2002).

Exercise to loose weight also can improve mentality condition (Gordon, Health, Holmes and Christy, 2000). A regular pattern of exercise can reduce anxious and melancholy, promote health, amusement and the ability of exercise. It is alike to the results in this study. This study figure out that students exercise behavior has to do with CHOL, and mood puzzle and apparent difference. This study shows that the student that has exercise behavior has a good health condition on CHOL, and mood puzzle.

Form the study we find out those smoking behavior has to do with Hgb, UA, digestion puzzle and apparent difference. This figure also shows that smoking will affect the hemoglobin. Department of health, Executed Yuan, R.O.C. (1994) Tobacco Hazard

Control Act project points out that CO and hemoglobin connect more easily than

Oxygen and hemoglobin about 210 times. Normally people that do not smoke, their CO hemoglobin won’t be more than 1 percent, and people that smoke usually stays at 5 percent, even to 15 percent. This also means that when you exercise because of the CO you get when you are smoking so you won’t get that much Oxygen. Then low Oxygen in your blood so your ability of exercise will also decrease. Smoking will also affect the health of the UA and digestive tract. Also student that doesn’t smoke their health condition is better than the student that smokes.

Smoking is always a big problem for people. Government initiates that how bad smoking is, and also carries out the no smoking policy is all because that they hope that they can reduce threaten of smoke to the least. From the study we know that students that have smoking behavior stand for 13.3 percent. Students that don’t have smoking behavior stand for 86.7 percent, shows that these college students have good habits and don’t smoke have well for your own health condition.

This project make us know that how important is to be healthy. The purpose of exercise is to stay healthy. Want to be healthy; an appropriate amount of exercise is necessary. Healthy and exercise is all connected. Want to have a healthiest body, you don’t only have to eat healthy and have good habits, having an appropriate amount of exercise is very important.

References

[1] Department of health, Executed Yuan, R.O.C. (1994) Tobacco Hazard Control Act

[2] project. Taipei

：

Department of health, Executed Yuan, R.O.C.

[3] American College of Sports Medicine (2002). ACSM’s guideline for exercise testing



119 and

[4] prescription (6 th ed.). Media, PA: Williams & Wilkins.

[5] Gordon, P. M., Heath, G. W., Holmes, A., & Christy, D. (2000). The quantity and quality of

[6] physical activity among those trying to lose weight. American Journal of Preventive

[7] Medicine, 18 (1), 83-86.

[8] Hoeger, W. W. K., & Hoeger, S. A. (2004). Principles and labs for fitness and wellness (7 th ed.).

[9] Belmont, CA: Thomson/Wadsworth.

[10] Lee, I.M., & Skerrett, P.J. (2001). Physical activity and all-cause mortality: What is the

[11] dose-response relation? Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 33 (6 Suppl.),

[12] S459-S471.

[13] Warburton, D. E. R., Nicol, C. W., & Bredin, S. S. D. (2006). Health benefits of physical

[14] activity : The evidence. Canadian Medical Association Journal, 174 (6), 801-809.


Nearly 13 Years’ Analysis on Physique Research

State in China

Song Zheng-Xue

（

K

yungpook National Univ., S. Korea）

Abstract

By means of literature reviews, the authors have studied paper on physique published in nearly 31 kinds of athletic professional periodicals from 1994 to 2006. The results are as follows : 1.The number of the paper on physique research in China appears the waved rising current, which is more marked in front and behind two years of large-scale

National Fitness Test. 2. The personnel on physique research are mostly man, aged from

31 to 40 with vice-high ranking, they become the main force of physique research, moreover, the paper’s cooperative degree is gradually increasing. 3. The subject of physique research is mainly undergraduate and few on other subject. 4. Most of the paper on physique research have studied on body shape, physical quality and body function, but few on psychology and societal adaptable ability are studied. In the future, we should integrate the body shape, physical quality, body function, psychology and societal adaptable ability.

Key words: China, Physique, Research

Introduction

Physique research at the earliest in China can be traced to pre-liberation when some scholars had studied on the body development of teenagers. From the founding of the

People’s Republic of China to 1978, physique research in China had entered a stage of gestation. But the physique test of China had not entered the formal track until the beginning of the first large-scale physique test in 1979. Thereafter every five years, our country is engaged in a large-scale physique test basically. During this period our country’s evaluation of indicators had a transition from the physical quality of activity to the health quality, which make our physical research achieve a new level [1] . With the continuous improvement of residents’ living standards in China, more and more attention to national physique has been paid. With the development of modern science and technology and physique test of the continuous improvement of equipment, physical research have entered a new phase. Therefore, it is necessary to make a more



121 systematic analysis on the national physical research in nearly 13 years. At present, some scholars have many studies of the situation, these studies include dance sport [2] , badminton [3] , rhythmic gymnastics [4] , gymnastics [5] , wushu [6] , football [7][8] , volleyball [9][10] , basketball [11] , fencing [12] etc sports and the topic of master thesis on sports medicine [13] and the number of articles published in the Journal [14][15] and sports for ethnic groups [16] etc, however, in the past 10 years, the research on the physical condition of our country has not been reported. In view of the situation, the thesis has a statistical analysis on the physical research papers which published in 31 kinds of

Chinese academic journals in nearly 13 years and probes into the characteristics on physical research, problem and insufficiency and offer a reference for the future physical research which can be carried out comprehensively.

Materials and methods

Materials

The 851 papers on physical research will be analyzed, the 851 papers which are published in 31 kinds of Chinese academic journals in nearly 13 years (from 1994 to

2006). There are 13 kinds of core journals that include China sport science, Chinese journal of sports medicine, Journal of Beijing sport university, Journal of Shanghai

University of Sport, Journal of Tianjin University of Sport, Journal of Sports and

Science, Journal of Wuhan institute of Physical Education, China sport science and technology, Journal of physical education, Journal of Guangzhou sport university,

Journal of Xi’an physical education university, Journal of Chengdu Sport University,

Journal of Shandong institute of Physical Education and Sports. And there are 18 kinds of general journals that include Journal of Shenyang sport University, Journal of Harbin of Physical Education, Journal of Nanjing Institute, Journal of Jilin Institute of Physical

Education, Shandong Sports Science & Technology, Zhejiang Sport Science, Sichuan

Sports Science, Liaoning Sport Science and Technology, Journal of Sports and

Technology, Journal of Hubei Sports Science, Sport Science Research, Journal of Sports

Adult Education, Journal of Capital Institute of Physical Education, Journal of PLA

Institute of Physical Education, Sports Science Research, Journal of Hebei Institute of

Physical Education, Fujian Sports Science and Technology, Journal of Anhui Sports

Science.

Methods

By means of literature reviews, www.cnki.net, Bulletin of sports Science &

Technology and National Chinese Sports Periodicals clear list, the writer gathers 851 papers which published in Chinese academic journals from 1994 to 2006 and has a more systematic analysis on the number of the papers which published in journals annually

122 Pan-Asian Journal of Sports & Physical Education and the status of physical researchers and the objects of research .

Results and Analysis

The number of published papers annually

The thesis has a statistical analysis on the papers which published in Chinese academic journals from 1994 to 2006. The results as follows: Table 1, Figure 1

Table 1 and Figure 1 shows: there are 851 papers which published in 31 kinds of

Chinese academic journals in nearly 13 years (from 1994 to 2006). During the period, the papers which published in the journals were increased wavy. The papers which published in 1995 were 8 pieces. The number of published papers in 1995 was least. The papers which published in 2004 were 139 pieces and in 2005 were 114 pieces and in

2006 were 107 pieces, the papers which published in the past three years were more than in previous years. Overall the number of physical research papers published is on the rise.

Table 1: The number of published papers annually from 1994 to 2006

Indica

-tors

Core

Journal

General

Journal

Total

94 year

95 year

96 year

97 year

98 year

99 year

00 year

01 year

02 year

03 year

04 year

05 year

06 year

Total

11 7 16 15 45 38 45 38 67 54 84 70 54 544

5 1 6 6 19 19 9 28 23 39 55 44 53 307

16 8 22 21 64 57 54 66 90 93 139 114 107 851

150

120

90

60

30

0 core journal general journal total

19

94

19

95

19

96

19

97

19

98

19

99

20

00

20

01

20

02

20

03

20

04

20

05

20

06 Year

Figure 1: Change in the number of published papers annually from 1994 to

2006

It is closely related for the above-mentioned phenomena to the attention, which our country had paid on physique test. With the beginning of the fourth large-scale national physique test, physical research in China has entered a new phase. It is the seventh national physique test year from 2004 to 2005, with the more and more emphasis on the physical research, the academic atmosphere of physical research gets warmer and

Nearly 13 Years’ Analysis on Physique Research State in China 123 warmer. Therefore, it is the most published papers in the journals in 2004, 2005 and

2006.

The state of physical research in China

Physique test is a work, which requires that more staff participate in. The number of the author who writes the physical research paper is more than those who writes other research papers. Therefore, the thesis is limited to the first author.

The comparison on gender of the first author

In the following table, we research the papers which have definite gender of the first author. The paper’s total is 465. The results as follows: table 2

Table 2 shows: In the 465 pieces of papers, there are 280 males and 185 females, respectively accounting for 60.2% and 39.8%. The proportion of males is more than females’. It shows that the proportion of men scientists is higher than women’s. It is related to the phenomenon that the proportion of male sports workers is higher than female’s, including physical researcher. As a result, in the papers that related to physical research, the proportion of male author is higher than female’s.

Table 2: The comparison on gender of the first author

Indicators Male Female Total

Numbers 280 185 465

Proportion 60.2 39.8 100.0

The state of the first author’s age

In the following table, we research the papers which have definite age of the first author. The paper’s total is 458. The results as follows: table 3

Table 3: The state of the first author’s age

Indicators Age 20 ～ 30 Age 31 ～ 40 Age 41 ～ 50 Age 51or more Total

Numbers 59 210 160 29 458

Proportion 12.9 45.9 34.9 6.3 100.0

Table 3 shows: The age of the first author on physical research paper is focused on the age of 31 to 40 years old and accounts for 45.9% of the total number. The second is focused on the middle-age of 41 to 50 years old and accounts for 34.9%. The least is focused on the age of over 51 years old and accounts for 6.3%.

Most of the over 51 years old may have success in their career. The title of profession

124 Pan-Asian Journal of Sports & Physical Education has already achieved their desired goals. Many people have embarked on administrative posts. Lacking of the time and energy, they are not enthusiastic about publishing research paper. So that, the number of over 51 years old researchers is the least of the first author. However, scholars in this age group have more experience in the physical research. They should manage to find time to study . Physical research is a professional work. It is a necessary for the new force to direct and assist. It can make the physical research become a more scientific research work.

The state of the first author’s professional title

The mentioned professional title in the thesis includes: senior title (professor or researcher), vice-senior title (vice-professor or vice-researcher), middle-rank title

(lecturer or assistant researcher), junior title (assistant lecturer or internship researcher).

In the following table, we research the papers which have definite professional title of the first author. The number of the first author is total is 408. The results as follows: table 4

Table 4 shows: The number of vice-senior title scholars is the most in the first author of the physical research and accounts for 45.9% of the total number, closed to half of the total number. The second is middle-rank title and accounts for 41.4%. The senior title and the junior title are the less, respectively accounting for 9.3% and 3.4%.

Table 4: The comparison of the first author’s professional title

Indicators Senior title Vice-senior title Middle-rank title Junior title Total

Numbers 38 187 169 14 408

Proportion 9.3 45.9 41.4 3.4 100.0

With regard to the above-mentioned phenomenon, the reasons as follows: the first, the total number of senior title is relatively less and the age of senior title is older than others. Many of senior title have been off the front line or lack of the sense of crisis, they are not very willing to engage in the front line of research. The second, most of the age of the vice-senior title and the middle-rank title is younger than the senior title’s.

And they are in the prime of life, they need to continue to enrich themselves to raise their social status. Therefore, they are backbone of physical research and even the backbone of sports research. In order to continuously add fresh blood into physical research, we should encourage that more different level scholars participate in physical research. Senior title should participate in physical research frequently and give full play their professional knowledge. They may use their abundant experience which

Nearly 13 Years’ Analysis on Physique Research State in China 125 accumulated in physical research. and direct the new force. So that the new force can avoid detours.

The analysis on Cooperation Degree and Cooperation Index

“Cooperation Degree (DC): the proportion of co-author in the total sample.

Cooperation Index (CI): the number of the author in the total sample (the average number of authors). If the CI higher, thesis of scientific collaboration features of division of labor is more abundant, this is decided by the problem of depth, breath and difficulty.” [18] The thesis researches the number of the author in the papers from 1994 to

2006. The results as follows: table 6

Table 6: The number of author in one paper

Indicators

1 2

The number of author in one people

3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 － Total

Papers 290 242 153 69 38 15 10 6 3 3 829

Total number

290 484 459 276 190 90 70 48 27 34 1968

Table 6 shows:

DC=the number of paper/the total sample×100%=(829 － 290)/829×100%=65%;

CI=the number of author/the total sample×100%=1968/829×100%=2.4%

From the results we know that DC is 65% and CI is 2.4% from 1994 to 2006. This shows that our physical researchers had been known the advantages of the co-workers. It is helpful for resource sharing and integration. At the same time, it can avoid duplication and waste. To a large extent it can promote the communication among scholars. It can lay a solid foundation for the future work which can be carried out better. But a considerable portion of papers are completed by one author, which accounting for 35%

(290/829×100%). We think that the factors which affect cooperation as follows: the first, research method and statistical methods are too simple that one person can complete the paper easily. The second, scientific research institutions have such less money that much cooperation can not carry out. The third, the affect of the current research policy, for example, after the third author has no effect on the title evaluation, even their research can not been counted as their work. Most of the researcher will not co-author and want to become the first author. The fourth, many researchers lack of the sense of cooperation.

The number of the published paper in the first author

In the following table, we research the number of the published paper in the first

126 Pan-Asian Journal of Sports & Physical Education author. The results as follows: table 7

Table 7: The comparison of the number of the published paper in the first author

Indicators 1piece 2pieces 3pieces 4pieces 5pieces 6pieces 9pieces Total

Number of people

530

Proportion 82.6

69

10.7

29

4.5

6

0.9

5

0.8

1

0.2

2

0.3

642

100.0

Table 7 shows: there are 642 authors who published the physical research papers in the journals in nearly 13 years from 1994 to 2006, the author who published one piece of paper accounts for 82.6% and still accounts for a large proportion. The author who published two pieces of paper accounts for 10.7% and over three pieces accounts for less of 7%. Therefore, physical researchers still need to increase the intensity of physical research and carry out the physical research continuously.

The object of study in the paper

In the following table, we research the papers which have definite the object of study.

The results as follows: table 8

Table 8: The comparison of different research objects

Indicators

University student

Middle-school student

Primary student

Children Adolescent Adults

Old people

Total

Pieces 289 99 54 33 13 218 51 757

Proportion 38.2 13.1 7.1 4.4 1.7 28.8 6.7 100.0

Table 8 shows: there are 757 pieces of paper whose topic have definite research objects, university students are the most objects and account for 38.2%. Adults account for 28.8%. The proportion of middle-school student, primary student, children, adolescent and old people is less.

University students are the mainly objects of physical research. The reason that most of the physical researchers are engaged in the universities, it is easier to select university student as object than others object. On the other hand, university research environment is better than the basic education system. At the same time what university has paid attention to and research conditions are better than the basic education system.

The content of study in the paper

Nearly 13 Years’ Analysis on Physique Research State in China 127

The content of study in the physical research paper in nearly 13 years from 1994 to

2006 focuses on the following three aspects: body shape, physical attribute, physical function. In recent years, body mass index and body composition become a popular, furthermore, they become the contents of the physical research. At present our country’s physical research mainly focuses on three aspects of body shape, physical attribute, physical function. Though some papers focuses on physical fitness, little of physique is integrated with, it is not comprehensive enough for physical research. we can find the answer in the concept of physical fitness. Physical fitness, the quality of the human body, it is an integrated and relatively stable characteristics, which is shown by morphological structure of the human body, physiological function and psychological quality on basis of hereditary and acquired [17] . The new concept of physical research should have five aspects: the all-round development of body shape, physical attribute, physical function, psychology and social adaptability. Facing today with ever-changing of the world, not only people ensure the health of the body, but also take advantages in the psychological and social adaptation ability, in order not to fail in the competition.

For physical researchers, the new century, new tests and the new situation present new challenges. Whether it can effective combination of five physical research aspects is a problem demanding prompt solution. Thence, physical researchers should pay attention to the international advanced research, in order to be able to quickly make our research work and international integration of physical research and put forward new view, new ideas and new methods for the physical improvement of the entire Chinese nation.

Conclusion and Suggestion

Conclusion

4.1.1 Through the analysis on the number of physical research papers in nearly 13 years from 1994 to 2006, it can be seen that the number of the papers is on the rise wavy.

It is obvious especially before and after the large-scale national physique test. This shows that to a certain extent national physique test provides the research space and opportunity for physical researchers.

4.1.2 Physical researchers are mainly male-dominated, and aged mostly from 31 to 40 years old, most of physical researchers are vice-senior title, they are main force of the physical research. In addition, the cooperation degree is increasing continuously, it is helpful for physical research to develop.

4.1.3 The object of the physical research are mainly university students, the number of others objects is relatively less, the reason is that most of the researchers are the teachers of the university.

4.1.4 The content of the study is mainly body shape, physical attribute and physical function, innovation points are few. The needs of today’s society are not put into the

128 Pan-Asian Journal of Sports & Physical Education physical research, it is required for physical researchers to study further and integrate psychology and social adaptability.

Suggestion

4.2.1 The object of the physical research are mainly university students, the number of others objects are relatively small. In order to study the fitness of more groups, physical researchers should study among region, nation, city and between south and north. then draw up the standards which suit for Chinese residents. And lay the foundation for the study of others.

4.2.2 The government and other related departments should give financial support to the physical research and encourage researchers in more cooperation projects, not only the cooperation projects launch among the units and cities but also among the countries.

4.2.3 The scope of the physical research should combine body shape, physical attribute, physical function with psychological and social adaptation ability, in order to form a complete research system..

References

[1] Yu Ke-hong ， Mu Shun-bi. The comparison of the physical research among China, the

United State and Japan[J]. China sport science ， 2004 （ 24 ） 7 ： 51-54.

[2] Li Quan ， Lai Shan-ye. The research analysis of sports dance from 1994 to 2004[J].

Journal of Capital Institute of Physical Education, 2006 （ 18 ） 1 ： 120-128.

[3] Ling Wen-jie ， Zhou Zhen-ping. The status quo of china’s badminton research analysis and research from 1994 to 2004[J]. Journal of Capital Institute of Physical Education

2006 （ 18 ） 1 ： 122-125.

[4] Li Zhong-tang. The situation of Chinese artistic gymnastics research status and prospects in recent years [J]. Journal of Capital Institute of Physical Education..

2006

（ 18 ） 1 ： 117-119.

[5] Li Chun-guang ， Song Juan. The status quo of Chinese gymnastics topics of research papers

[6] research[J]. Fujian Sports Science and Technology, 2004 （ 23 ） 4 ： 26-30.

[7] Hou Xiu-hua ， Zou Yu-ling ， Zhang Wen-jing. Analysis of China’s martial arts teaching and research―the statistical analysis of domestic 19 kinds of sports periodicals published from 1994 to 2003[J]. Journal of Guangzhou sport university, 2004 （ 24 ） 4 ：

126-128.

[8] Ma Zhang-sheng ， Zhu Guo-hua. The statistical analysis of football sports in part of

Chinese journal from 1994 to 2000[J]. China sport science and technology, 2002 （ 38 ）

1 ： 30-33.

[9] Li Jing. The analysis of Chinese football research from 1994 to 2000[J]. Sichuan

Nearly 13 Years’ Analysis on Physique Research State in China 129

Sports

[10] Science, 2002 ： 12-13.

[11] Yao Qiao-quan. The statistics and analysis of volleyball in part of Chinese journal from

1994 to 2001[J]. Journal of Suzhou College of Education. 2002 （ 19 ） 4 ： 91-94.

[12] Zhang Jin ， Xia Xiu-rong. Teaching and research analysis of China’s volleyball from1994 to2003[J]. Journal of Capital Institute of Physical Education.

2006 （ 18 ） 1 ：

126-128.

[13] Quan Tao ， Hao Bin. Chinese basketball present situation and countermeasures research from1994 to 2003 [J]. Sport Science Research.

2004 （ 25 ） 4 ： 37-39.

[14] Wang Yan ， Wang Hai-bin. Fencing research analysis from 1994 to 2004 [J]. Journal of

Nanjing institute. 2005 （ 4 ） 4 ： 11-14.

[15] Mao Shan-shan, Zhang Rui-hua. Master of sports medicine postgraduate thesis topics pf review[J]. Journal of Wuhan Institute of Physical Education. 2006 （ 40 ） 1 ： 57-65.

[16] Shao Wei-de, Chen Zui-xin, Wu Ye-mei. The status of physical research in the university from importance journals from 1994 to 1999[J]. Sport Science Research.

2001 （ 22 ） 3 ： 26-27.

[17] Wei Ning. The research on the papers published in Sport Science Research from1994 to

[18] 2003 [J]. Sport Science Research.

2004 （ 8 ） 4 ： 29-32.

[19] Ye Mu-dan. Minority sports research papers statistics and analysis in the core journals from 1994 to 2003[J]. Journal of Xinjiang University. 2005 （ 22 ） 3 ： 373-376.

[20] Chen Ming-da ， Beijing Medical

University Press and Chinese Peking Union Medical College Pres s.1993

， 1-10.


A Qualitative Study on Eastern Martial Arts

Cho, Ki-Jung & Lee, Young-Chul

(The Univ. of Suwon, South Korea)

Abstract

In the process of their development, eastern martial arts have also lost their original cultural significance in both European and Asian countries. Korean Taekwondo has been acculturated into some European cultural grammar of sports & physical fitness. In the perspective of some traditional sense, the oriental martial arts have had a sort of unique aura that the public felt difficulty in accessing easily. The argument concerning the tradition and unavoidable change has become a repetitive theme in all of oriental martial arts. As signified in the term "art" of martial arts, the artists in the area of physical activities, would imagine constructing more attractive or compelling paradigm.

Key words : Martial arts, Sports, Taekwondo, Asia

Introduction

In the outward appearance, the eastern martial arts have enjoyed great popularity and international growth in recent decades. They have spread to nearly all countries in the world, including Europe. Among them, the oriental martial arts, called Judo and Tae

Kwon Do became Olympic sports. But what is oriental martial arts ? What does the oriental martial arts lose and gain when they changed into sports ? Is martial arts a sport ? Is martial arts just fighting skill ? Is martial art like dancing sports like capoeira ? Thus, defining a clear concept on oriental martial arts is not easy matter to state, considering a new version as colonial sports products, having the aura of mysterious orientalism in the western people's viewpoint.

Strictly speaking, the European concept on orientalism has to be re-defined. The orient as a geographic reality may be a product of the western imperialism. The

Western, commonly named Europe, needed to establish the opposite part in order to confirm its own identity. Its own identity is legitimized by constructing the opposite object. Accordingly, the word of orient may imply its fabrication in colonizing process in the modern conquest period. In the meantime, the Europe has produced a biased knowledge, or image on Asia, while trying its legitimacy in the process of conquering the oriental region. The image includes the ones of mysterious and barbarious,

A Qualitative Study on Eastern Martial Arts 131 humiliating Asian people.

The Asian image, firmly established in the European people's consciousness, has adversely, influenced Asian people's self-image in spite of themselves. An example is

Asian people's inferiority complex toward themselves, compared to the superiority feeling of the West. Some of European trainees recognize the oriental martial arts as the dominant culture Asian people have (Kim & Back, 2003).

As this qualitative study focuses on how Western culture has accepted the body culture of oriental tradition, it concentrates on the European concept on Asian martial arts. This study is being complemented by concerned literature review, including the interview with Taekwondo and Judo masters, who have practiced as martial art teachers in the Europe.

Eastern perspective on martial arts

Eastern martial arts are not like sport, which can be easily included in the context of

European bodily exercise. Oriental martial arts seem to mean more than sport. What values and significance can the oriental martial arts have ?

According to the book "The Way to Go" written by Kim & Back, the contemporary

Asian martial arts have developed from a variety of different practices. In nearly all the cases, the original source was a form of fighting for self-defense purpose. But, in the course of development, religious rituals and spiritual purposes of Buddhism, Taoism, and Shintoism have been strongly added to its bodily fighting.

In the late nineteenth and twentieth century, the more spiritual purposes came to carry more weight. This change was especially evident in Japan, when the samurai class had already had several centuries of peace. In the 19th century, with the Westernized modernization of Japan, the military significance of the martial arts declined, and came to be more emphasis on martial arts as a spiritual way of life.

Even in the other oriental nations where the military class was not disbanded, the traditional martial arts lost much of their original practical significance. Rather modernized artillery was more effective than traditional martial arts. This shift in the applicability of the martial arts might be said to have cleared the way for a purer manifestation of their less fighting aspects (Cox, 1993). There seems to have been a conscious acceptance of the need to stress the spiritual, artistic side of the martial arts at the expense of the practical and combative. Thus profound shift in the essential aspects seems to be marked in the Eastern martial arts from practical skill to spirituality.

But this trend cannot be defined with a decisiveness because it is in the intermingled situation. Chinese Tao was used to describe the practical aspects and has strong connection to the Taoism and Buddhism. In modern days, the practical element has not

132 Pan-Asian Journal of Sports & Physical Education been overlooked in the Asian nations of Korea, Japan, China, considering the combat skill teaching and physical fitness improvement cases of Taekwondo, Karatedo, Judo, and Wushu.

Revised eastern martial arts

Eastern martial arts constitute an important part of modern sport or physical culture. From training halls in remote temple area they came to sport halls, schools, and to the film, influencing the shape of global culture. There are about 150 millions of people practicing, but layout of popularity of particular martial arts is different in each

European country. Judo is popular in France, and karate of different varieties is popular in Poland. Taijiquan, a sort of Chinese gymnastics, is becoming more popular in

European countries (Kim, 2000).

On the other hand, their native martial arts in China and other asian nations are being modified by influence of the Western model of sport. The Olympic sports of Judo and

Taekwondo are based on the ground of European sports in pursuit of practical result, thereby downgrading the philosophical framing and pedagogical values of oriental martial arts. Chinese wushu, Thailand Muay-Thai, Japanese Jujutstu & Karate, Okinawa

Karate, and Filipino style of martial arts are also trying to step on the Olympic road. These oriental martial ats are closely related with the European culture of commercialization, democratization, and media coverage. These are not asking rigid religious dogma to the concerned people (Donahue, 1997).

Flexible and modified oriental martial arts under globalization processing are becoming export commodity, being accepted and adapted in general European cultural format. Additionally, not only in the Asian nations do national traditions of martial arts become the basis of physical education, as Judo and Kendo in Japan, Wushu in China,

Taekwondo in Korea. There are some attempts of adaptation of national martial arts of those Asian countries to the system of physical education of European countries. This fact means the holistic pedagogical role of martial arts are for general development of the students. Theory of martial arts with strong emphasis on educational dimension have already been applied at several European universities, including Germany and

Poland (Cynarski, 2003).

Thus, new hybrid versions of physical exercise are being created, intermingling the rules of ethics, discipline, physical, & rehabilitative exercises with technical skills in the field of Western science and Oriental wisdom. Oriental martial arts look like a new model for combative sports being institutionalized in certain European ways.

Western perspective on eastern martial arts

A Qualitative Study on Eastern Martial Arts 133

According to an interview with a 35 year-old Romanian called Mr.D who had started his aikido career since his primary school days and has field experience concerning oriental martial arts in Spain, an unexpected remark was noticed by the research author.

"Current European martial arts were imported from mainly the oriental regions.

To me, utilizing reversely the opposite person's power is amazing point in the oriental martial arts. As far as I know, the European motives in deciding to learn oriental martial arts are by the impact of the western movies showing versatile bodily skills by the asian actors, the desire to show masculine appearance by making strenuous body exercise of any kind, and commercial concept of give and take between the trainer and the trainee. They just want to learn the practical skills of body usage from their masters, not caring too much on ceremonial or pedagogical routines."

On the other hand, there was a different comment from 26 year-old Korean

Taekwondo master called Mr. Kim who had started his Taekwondo career since his primary school days and various teaching experience for the western people.

"European participants wanted to taste unique or curious smell from their asian master teachers. To me the different tastes meant very polite body gesture towards them or wearing special attire in color, attire logo and design in order to reproduce mysterious asiatic atmosphere, disregarding my daily habits in my country. Some Taekwondo masters insist on their original teaching method in

Korea. But most of them are not. I think, from the starting stage of teaching, consistently familiarizing the western people to their teaching or treating style is important."

Mr.Y. who was a Taekwondo master in Spain, remembered his experience.

European trainees did not care on the original contents of Korean taekwondo. Any kind of punching forms, which are being used in the other fighting sports, was allowed in their teaching classes.

"Spanish people are crazy in bull-fighting, professional soccer matches, and ,if I add, Korean martial arts takwondo. In the previous days, there was about 1,500 taekwondo dojo (gym) in this nation, currently increasing at double, in the number of about 3,000 all over the nation. The Spanish trainees respected taekwondo master's decent etiquette and were expecting, implicitely, oriental mysterious image in leading style and physical performance. Above all, the trainees do no care the original bodily movement forms or rigid spiritual lession that the taekwondo training in Korea have strongly emphasized. Thus the taekwondo master teachers had to change their teaching contents at their customer convenience. Mixed teaching style was allowed at many cases, borrowing various forms of boxing, karate, judo. Additional exercise therapy methods such as sport massage, spinal posture correction or oriental acupuncture can be included as side subjects in their taekwondo teaching."


A Korean martial art master Min Kim has expressed a similar opinion, retrospecting his 10 year teaching experience in France. He has faced various cultural difficulties, owing to misunderstanding on the character or traits of French people. He has found

Korean teaching style does not fit the French people.

"In France, oriental martial arts is noted for both mystery or effectiveness in fighting. Oriental martial arts in France are rooted on a mixed foundation of both classical standards of the orient and the western exercises. Thus, sportization and westernization of the oriental martial arts took over the genuine or subjective spirit that the oriental martial arts imply. French trainees are more interested in acquiring physical techniques than moral, ethical, philosophical pursuits in the oriental martial arts. They just stick to French method of thinking in the relationship between the masters and the students. French trainees do not regard their master teachers as lifetime advisor or guide. Their personal relationship is mainly based on the master's technical superiority, mutual friendship, and financial counterparts."

He also had pointed out the conflicting points with Korean habits toward master teachers he has internalized since his young age. But he had also to compromise with himself as a foreign asian person who cannot overcome easily the social reality in

France.

"Some oriental masters insist on a principle that French trainees must follow the master's teaching method because they want to learn their martial arts from asian teachers. Many oriental masters think that teaching oriental martial arts to the trainee should be carried out in a closed and very conservative viewpoint, not following economic exchange theory. The wisdom and bodily expertise of genuine martial arts are the results from hard training over the long period. It is difficult to share these wisdom with the people with no credibility. Passing over their precious expertise is to be limited to the cases of close relationship between parents and children. French trainees do not have this kind of intimacy with their master teachers. They simply want to learn only body techniques from their masters. Some asian masters was disappointed at their behavior. Notwithstanding, the oriental masters are destined to be adapted into French style, or the relationship between customer and seller in relation with a commodity called oriental martial arts."

European countries have had a remarkable growth in number of martial arts schools and in the concerned population. Fueled by the martial arts movies of Bruce Lee, oriental martial arts rose in their appeal to participants. Some masters who brought martial arts to the West did not intend to spread the martial arts into professional field. Along with the rapid growth of the martial arts in the west, more people had chance to approach its training, and the oriental martial arts have became as a career or a business.

In some aspects, professionalization appears to be a motive, as it leads to great

A Qualitative Study on Eastern Martial Arts 135 expertise of higher levels of physical proficiency. But, some people exploit martial arts for their own monetary profit without caring much implicit negative effects. Financial leverage may force the masters to make the training more appealing, and rank advancement easier.

The spiritual side of the martial arts and concern for building a positive character takes a backseat to physical prowess. The black belt trainees are leaving the dojo gym too early. After that they are opening their own dojo gym and they teach what they know. Certain things of oriental traditional value system are being disregarded, while knowing the feasibility of producing better fighters or criminals. The masters are now searching for their students through solicitation. The masters who adhere to oriental martial arts tradition would select only a few trainees under their constant guidance. At the populism situation of oriental martial arts, the most of European trainees are not seriously concerned with whether their masters are qualified or not. It leads to strictly a matter of how much self-defense techniques can I learn for the dojo registration fee. The master's attitude toward the trainees has dramatically changed, while the intrinsic culture of the oriental martial arts is being inter-mixed with the modern sports-minded ideology in Europe (Kim & Back, 2003).

In this context, Mr. K, a 27 year-old taekwondo master introduces 2 year teaching experience in Europe. His remarks sound similar at some points concerning oriental master teachers with the previous cases.

"First of all, I've felt the big difference between teaching in Europe and teaching in my country. Language barrier in communication with them have given me a big stress I could not tolerate. But foreign trainees were more eager to learn

Taekwondo than the Korean trainees in my country. They admired my versatile foot-techniques in Taekwondo performance. At this situation, I would feel proud of myself on the dimension of Korean people's patriotic emotion. But, I could not find an ideal teaching method for the foreigners. In particular, I could not find a proper alternative to pack up the cultural gap in general. To us Korean masters who fell in love with Korean kimchi, the culture of hamburger bread may be a tangled riddle. The foreigners highly respected on their master's practical bodily expertise, not for the authoritarian, solemn, and moral image of the master teachers which is an important part in my country. Personal character in choosing their teacher in my country is very important dependent variable. If possible, the trainees in my country would screen the personal factor of the master teacher through various opinion channels. But, some western people are impolitely approaching their asian master teachers. We Asians must prepare for this kind of awkwardness because bodily self-defcense and physical fitness through oriental martial arts are their primary purposes in the most cases."

A Taekwondo master, Kim Young Jong(2008) gave a comment on a spanish harmonized case in oriental martial arts. Spain is one of the big three in European

136 Pan-Asian Journal of Sports & Physical Education taekwondo, including Germany and France. It hosts national championships of sub-Junior, Junior and senior level. On a strict standard, their high-leveled taekwondo athletes are selected for International competitions. Spain has showed the second place after Korean taekwondo team

.

"The trainees in my taekwondo came across the name of taekwondo through mass-media, mouth-talk or local rumor. My taekowndo shop includes the persons of various social levels such as lawyer, medical doctor, policeman, military army, housewives, etc. Mr. Enrique Mancherdo is a lawyer. Mrs. Madolores Espinosa is a housewife. Mr. Jorie Lopez is a construction worker. Mr. Jose Lopez is a banker. Mr. Antonyo Montes Ropez has served in a metal refinery factory and has become a world champion in his weight. He'd started his taekwondo career since the early age with a sort of ambiguous curiosity and mysterious feeling for the oriental martial arts & their culture. He came to visit Korea many times, whenever he has a chance of vacation period. He is very polite toward Korean master teachers & people around him. He is also a well-disciplined spanish trainee, showing very positive response at every thing around him. In Spain, opening a taekwondo shop is not so difficult. A high degree certificate is not required as mandatory. The relationship between the teacher and the students is so flexible, compared to Korean situation. If Asian masters do continuous effort in upgrading the personal credibility and the teaching ability, dependable job as a taekwondo coach is quaranteed."

The Master teacher in France the above-mentioned Min Kim, had commented that

French people think the oriental martial arts as equal status with the oriental people. Thus their martial arts signify only physical training which can upgrade French style martial arts into the higher level.

"In France, the term of martial arts is defined as a combative sport in the region of the far eastern nations. French trainees has three general concepts in relation with the oriental martial arts. The first type is not to distinguish from the combat sports of the west. They are only interested in the technical aspects of the oriental martial arts. In the other words, they do not care about the other perspectives the oriental martial arts imply. This trend strengthens the attitude of pragmatism and commercialism toward martial arts, while requiring quick and superficial imminent results from their training. The second type is to adhere to the tradition of all of the martial arts. emphasizing its behavioral, moral, and philosophical value. These values are regarded as old-fashioned and meaningless to some trainees. The third type is to understand the holistic aspects of martial arts, both trying not to disregard its philosophical value and denying dogmatic approach. French trainees in general are trying to pursue individual well-being and therapeutic effects which can be felt in their real life through training of martial arts. They do not want to over-cross such positive line as calmness or peaceful mind as the result of martial arts training."

Concluding remarks

A Qualitative Study on Eastern Martial Arts 137

Considering aforementioned comments, the growth of the oriental martial arts in the

Europe has been accompanied with great emphasis on the martial as sport and physical fitness. The original source of the oriental martial arts had originated from the various types of fighting for self-defense purpose. But, in the Asian process of development, religious rituals and spiritual purposes of Buddhism, Taoism, and Shintoism have been strongly added to its bodily fighting.

The oriental martial arts have spread widely in Europe, while they have lost their original cultural significance in both European and Asian countries. Modern oriental martial arts are included in the category of general sports. The oriental martial arts such as Taekwondo has been acculturated into physical education and sports by the influence of the European tradition of sports. Traditional combative elements of oriental martial arts have diminished. In the age of mass culture, Chinese wushu has also become a theatrical performance for the general spectators. Their widespread popularity of taichiquan was by mental or physical well-being or health reasons rather than fighting technique.

In the perspective of some traditional sense, the oriental martial arts had an unique aura that the public felt difficulty in accessing. The arguments concerning the tradition and unavoidable change have become very common theme to all of oriental martial arts. All of them can be part of sports in the competitive format or not just in the physical fitness & well-being pursuit as a public life activity.

It is a reality that the main income of the oriental master teachers in Europe depends on the registration fee from the trainees. This condition means binding or coercing the master teachers into some European cultural grammar of physical activities. The martial arts, like most of human things, have never been static. Unchangeable model of the oriental martial arts did not exist in the real meaning. All of the original or traditional things seem culturally-formatted versions at the people's convenience in certain historic period or location.

As signified in the term "art" of martial arts, our artists in the area of physical activities, would probably imagine more attractive or compelling things.

References

[1] Cox. J.C.(1993) Traditional Asian Martial Arts Training : A Review. Quest, Vol.45

No.3.

[2] Cynarski W.J.(2003) Globalization of Sports Culture. Rzeszow, Poland.

[3] Cynarski E.J. and Obodynski K.(2003) Far-Eastern Martial Arts in the Process of

Globalization. Institute of Physical and Health Education. Rzeszow, Poland.

[4] Donahue. J.(1997) Ideological Elasticity. Journal of Asian Martial Arts,


[5] Vol.7 No 2.

[6] Kim, Daeshik and Back Allan.(2003) The Way to Go : Philosophy in Martial Arts

Practice. Nanam Publishing House. Seoul, Korea.

[7] Kim, Min Ho (2000) Westernization of the Oriental Martial Arts : A Case of France. The Forum of the Korean Cultural Anthropological Society

The Analysis of the Emergency’s Influence on Olympic Games

139

The Analysis of the Emergency’s Influence on Olympic Games

Zhou Meifang，Gao Sheng，Zhang Yanfeng，＆ Li Weiyan

(P.E College of Jiangxi Normal University Nanchang Jiangxi, China)

Abstract

Document-material and logical analysis methods were used to study the definition, classification and characteristics of the emergency. And the categories and trend of development of emergencies in modern Olympic Games were systematically analyzed, and the countermeasures for dealing with the emergency in Olympic Games were discussed.

Key words : Olympic games, emergency, countermeasures

Objects and methods of study

Objects of study

Emergencies in 28 summer Olympic games from 1896 to 2004.

Methods of study

Documents

The documents are from the books and papers on crisis and emergencies of the previous Summer Olympic Games .

Mathematical statistics

We classify, process and analyze the data by SPSS statistical software item by item.

Logical analysis

The methods of analog and integration are employed to explore and demonstrate a variety of information .

Effects and Analysis

Characteristics and categories of emergencies

Characteristics of emergencies

Emergencies are mainly the events or states which suddenly happen and may cause heavy casualties and serious losses to social stability, public safety and state power.

[1]

Seen from the outside, the emergency is quickly occurring and hard predicting. In fact, it

140 Pan-Asian Journal of Sports & Physical Education also experiences certain incubation and outbreak period that does not draw the attention of decision maker for different reasons. It has the characteristics of explosive force, public character, diversity, polytrope and harmfulness.

Explosive force: Refers to sudden unexpected events, once happens, its destructive energy will be released and spread rapidly, moreover most of the events evolve quickly and will cause more damage and loss if they can’t take countermeasures in time.

Public character: Refers to the main body of emergencies, including individuals, organizations and society, etc. have public nature, public loss and social disorder will be resulted as emergencies’ spread rapidly to arouse public concern.

Diversity: Refers to emergencies have different occurrence and development scenes, showing significant diversity, even the same thing, according to its time, location, reason, environment and the trend of changes, also have different variety.

Polytrope: Refers to emergencies’ reasons, the direction of changes, factors, consequences, etc. all have non-rules, it is difficult to forecast and grasp accurately.

Harmfulness: Refers to emergencies will arouse damage, confusion and panic to a different extent and cause great loss and harm for the society, and which will lead to the accident and result in greater losses and crises.

Categories of emergencies

The emergency can be roughly divided into two categories, one of which is raised by non- personal element like natural disaster, while the other one is caused by artificial factor including mishap, public health incident, social security event and terrorist attack.

[2] In the emergencies of previous Olympics, there are wars(A), political disputes(B), terrorist movements(C), race issues(D), environment problems(E), grievance adjudications(F), natural disasters(G), public health incidents(H), demonstrations(I), computer hacker and virus(J), stimulant(K) and some other emergencies(L).

Categories of emergencies in previous Olympics

Table 1: Table of emergencies in previous summer Olympics

Number Time Place Reasons of events

1 1896 Athens, Greece F

、

L

2 1900 Paris ,France

F

、

L

3 1904 St. Louis, US

4 1908 London, UK

A

、

F

、

D

B

、

F

5 1912 Stockholm, Sweden

6 1916 WORLD WAR I

F

A

7 1920 Antwerp, Belgium

D

8 1924 Paris ,France


141

20 1972 Munich, Germany

21 1976 Montreal, Canada

F

、

I

22 1980 Moscow, Soviet Union

23 1984 Los Angeles, US

25 1992 Barcelona, Spain K

28 2004 Athens, Greece

、

L

J

、

L

、

E

G

、

L

From table one; we can see that the emergencies from 1896 to the end of the World

War I were mainly caused by grievance adjudications, which account for 100% in all these Olympic Games. Emergencies from World War I to World War

Ⅱ

were influenced by the wars which leaded to three stops of Olympics. The harm brought by wars is deathful to Olympics. The period from the 14 th Olympic in London to the 22nd Olympic in Moscow was the cold war between west and east, so the emergencies were influenced by political disputes mainly, then appeared demonstrations and stimulant. Emergencies due to political changes account for 100% in all these Olympic Games; With the development of technology, stimulant and computer hacker and virus became the main reasons of the emergencies from the 23 rd Olympic in Los Angeles to the present.

Especially after the 9.11 event, we should paid more attention to the emergencies leaded by terrorist movements in modern times.

[3]

Analysis on emergencies in previous Olympics

Table 2: Table of the numbers of emergencies in previous Olympics

Reason A B C D E F G H I K K L


Times 5 12 2 4 1 14 3 1 2 2 3 7

Percentage 17.90 42.90 7.14 14.30 3.57 50.00 10.70 3.57 7.14 3.57 10.70 25.00

According to table two, we can conclude that the main emergencies in every

Olympics were political disputes, grievance adjudications and wars, the percentages of which were 42.9

％ , 50.0

％ and 17.9

％ . The percentages of environment problems, computer hacker and virus and public health incidents were much lower with every occupation of 3.57%. However, the percentages in near two Olympics were higher, which should be specially noticed .

Wars

The war’s influence on Olympics was catastrophic and it was one of ventures hard to control by organizers in all the emergencies. From table one we can see that wars are main emergencies in six Olympic Games together, which from World War I to World

War

Ⅱ

were influenced by the wars leaded to three stops of Olympics. The harm brought by wars is deathful to Olympics, as well as to humankind. So humankind needs peace, Olympics, too.

Table 3: Table of the influence on Olympics by wars

Time number Reason Result

1904 3rd Russo-Japanese War political disputes

1916 6th WORLD WAR I close down

1940 12th WORLD WAR Ⅱ close down

1944 13th WORLD WAR Ⅱ close down

1992 25th Yugoslavia civil war participant in a private capacity

Political disputes

Besides wars, political dispute was the other emergency relating to political problems.

In 1980, as the chef of United States, 62 countries including China boycotted the 22 nd

Olympic Game in order to protest Soviets dispatching troops to Afghanistan. It resulted that the participants were only 81 countries and regions which merely occupied three fifths of all countries and regions admitted by the International Olympic Committee.

Before 1984, 16 countries and regions headed by Soviets boycotted the Olympic Game in Los Angeles, which directly impact the scale of competitions.

Terrorist movements

Terrorist movements performed more and more extrusive from the end of 1960s.

Some terrorists made use of the scale of Olympics to increase the influence power of their movements. Although the holders of Olympics took many safe measures to prevent


143 terrorist movements, sometimes it was impossible to defend effectively.

Table 4: Table of terrorist attacks in summer Olympics

Time Place Sports movement

Object of attacks

Ways of attacks

Death toll

1972 Munich,

Germany

Olympics Israel delegation explosion 11

1996 Atlanta, US Olympics civilian explosion 2

Environment problems

Environment problems which would more or less affect the construction of the

Olympic Sports Ground and Gym and the hold of Olympics now were noticed by more and more countries. In 2000, Sydney Olympic Game changed the place of tennis court in order to protect the valuable frogs. The competition area of beach volleyball which lied in Bondi Beach was dismantled after the game because of the protesting and opposing before the game.

Race issues

Olympics now is the united pageant of the countries and races all over the world, so any unfair behavior would probably lead to violent conflicts. [4] In the Olympic Game of

St. Louis 1904, the first time black man took part in the Olympic Game, which was the truly embody of Olympic spirit in sports. The emergencies caused by race issues were the famous Black Power in the Mexico Olympic Game 1968, 20 African countries quit and 7 African countries out for the break of negotiation between African Sport Military and International Olympic Committee in 1976.

Stimulant

Stimulant is a problem could not be neglected for Olympics, for its persistent increasing intension in international sports. Some famous stimulant events are Ben

Jonson issue, Reynolds case and Jones steroid event in Olympics of 2000. These issues are involved in law, virtues and ethic, influencing the justice and development of international sports and Olympics. Especially for athletes by themselves, only with the short passion, stimulant is harmful not only to their body and mind, but will affect their lives forever.

Computer hacker and virus

As the speedy development of science and technology, an increasing number systems of information management, E-ticketing, signal propagation, security management and information technology (Internet) are used in the competitions of Olympics. It is more

144 Pan-Asian Journal of Sports & Physical Education difficult to insure the safety of website for the complicate system, easily causing hacker and virus. The website system was on the edge of break-down after five days of the game in the Olympic Game of 1996. The number of hacker and virus in the Olympics of

2000 in Sydney and 2004 in Athens was higher.

Demonstrations

Olympics could not get supports from commons at any time and place. Before the

Mexico Olympic Game in 1968, college students had a demonstration on the street against government spending a huge amount of money on Olympics, asking for special attention on social problems. In Olympic Game of 1984, the same thing happened again.

This kind of event conflicted with the mission and ideal of Olympic sports, taking negative impact on Olympics.

Other emergencies

Some other emergencies would probably emerge in Olympics. In the water polo of

Olympic Game of 1956, Soviet and Hungary had a bloody conflict in the competition.

The Olympic Game of 1976 refused to provide visas to Taiwan athletes without foreign relations. In 1980, 16 countries and regions entered opening ceremony with no flags, and 10 delegations only sent one flag man to the ceremony. What’s worse, Swaziland,

Denmark and France took part in the ceremonies without raising flags and playing national anthem. In the boxing match of Olympic Game of Seoul 1988, as the referee failed to award the gold medal to Korea athlete, angry spectators rushed to fight the referee.

[4]

We can not ignore these issues although the proportion of which is small relatively, all kinds of unexpected events possible may be prevented during the Olympic Games.

The developmental tendency of emergencies in Olympics

Seen from the emergencies of Olympics, most of them were man-made. With the development of modern Olympic sports, wars, political disputes and race discrimination that took a great effort on Olympics have gradually faded out. But environment problems, terrorist movements and stimulant became the new challenges faced by the International Olympic Committee. With the development of science and technology faster and faster, more and more new questions will be appearing and increasing, now the physical situations of athletes have no obvious difference, which means their achievements depend on the positive feedback between technical situation and competitive action. So we must pay more attention to any possible unexpected events come from improper means and terrorists who have bad ideas. This tendency also expresses that the development of Olympics are based on the improvement of man.


145

Conclusions and suggestions

From all above research, we find the categories of emergencies mainly in previous

Olympic Games are wars, political disputes, terrorist movements, race issues, environment problems, grievance adjudications, natural disasters, public health incidents, demonstrations, computer hacker and virus, stimulant and some other emergencies.

Moreover, different emergencies were in different periods and related to the special history background, with the development of modern Olympic sports, wars; political disputes and race discrimination that took a great effort on Olympics have gradually faded out. But environment problems, terrorist movements and stimulant became the new challenges faced by the International Olympic Committee. After dealing with one emergency followed by another and defending one crisis followed by another, the

Olympic Sports centering on Olympic Games gradually become flourishing. We should reflect on the whole process and profit by the experience of coping with them to heighten the consciousness of avoiding emergencies.

Establishing the management system for emergencies

It is a good way to establish a wholesome management system which has clear functions, evident responsibilities, strengthened organization, smooth workings and harmonious corporation to insure the security and efficiency of holding Olympics, which should take related preventive or remedial measures according to emergencies’ occurrence and development cycle. Once the event happens during the Olympic Games, the highest decision-makers of management systems should rush to the scene in the first instance, meet the needs of the provisional response, and solve the problem to the masses as the specific situation faithfully .

Setting up the early warning system for emergencies

The guideline of prevention first should be insisted to nip the emergencies in the bud, because of the crisis at any time from the preparation to the end. Establishing a sound early warning network, deploying the special forces to establish early warning agencies, with the necessary testing equipment, specialized personnel are in charge of the early-warning information collection, collation, and submit work to form a early warning information network which all types of emergencies covered.

Professionalizing volunteer teams

Volunteer service which is a project of social progress with a history of nearly 100 years, in many large scale sports events lots of volunteers participate in services except for organizers and staff, as well as Olympic Games, who plays a helping role in dealing with emergencies. They serve in the field, the resident of the delegation, health and

146 Pan-Asian Journal of Sports & Physical Education epidemic prevention, security and other departments in order to ensure the Olympic

Games, but who can not be the main people to deal with emergencies because of the lack of professional quality and have no qualifications in law enforcement. Therefore, a team with Professional qualities and law enforcement abilities containing systems of firefighting, public security and medical care should be created.

Establishing systems of publicity and education training for emergencies

Emergencies are incidental and sudden, out of the mental capacity. The psychic declination leads to the judgment deviation and mistake. Therefore, current sources should be used to establish emergency systems of publicity and education training. First, through several of forms and activities to enhance public knowledge education of emergency, improve social contingency awareness such as emergency rescue, basic protection knowledge, the basic knowledge of self-help and help with each other, etc.

Second, enhancing emergency teams’ combat capability and professionalism completely, establishing training base of emergency rescue, educating and training emergency personnel at all levels, technical staff, monitoring staff and emergency team, such as basic training, professional training, tactical training, etc. The third is to strengthen the right propaganda to create a fair and harmonious external environment for Olympic

Games, to establish a good fan culture and improve the cultural level of the participants.

Fourth, in the handling of emergencies, organizational departments at all levels of

Olympic Games should inform the masses of events timely and properly, tell them what should notice, what should do and do a good job in the prevention of secondary injury.

Fifth, organize the necessary disaster relief exercise.

Conclusion

The modern Olympic movement has aroused attention all over the world whether from the developmental scale or the level, the Olympic spirit has been disseminated widely. Such a large scale of Olympic Game will be held in our country is the first time in the history, Moreover, with the ever-changing of international situation, security work was demand higher in the past several Olympic Games. Based on the reference of unexpected events of previous Olympics, preventing the occurrence of emergencies and early planning, early preparation for the security work have great significance for the realization of Olympic in China 2008 which will be the most outstanding one in the history.

References

[1] Robert Cisse ． Crisis Management [M] ． Translated by Wang cheng ， Song Binhui ， Jin


147 yin. Beijing, Zhongxin Publishing House ， 2001 ： 36.

[2] Wang Shouheng .

The Definition and Categories of Sports Competition [J] ． Journal of

Capital , Institute of Physical Education 2005(4) ： 26 － 28.

[3] Dong Jie. T he Influence of Olympics on City Economy [M] ． Beijing ： Economy and science Publishing House,2004 ： 63.

[4] Dong Jie, Liu Xinli, ＆ Song Luyi. The Emergency Venture Management of Beijing

Olympic Game in 2008 [J].Sports and Science, 2005 (1):30-35.

[5] Group of State Information Center ． China's Macro-economic Monitoring and the

Establishment of Early Warning and Forecast System [M] ． Beijing ： China Economic

Publishing House ， 1994.

[6] Public Health Emergency Ordinance [E] . http :/ / www.net1868. Net/ cp ma, 2003, 6,

2.

[7] Guo Mingfang ＆ Kong Ping. The Study on Venture and Management Game of

Beijing Olympic Game in 2008 [J]. Sports and Science ， 2003 （ 1 ）： 19-22.

[8] Zhu Jinguan. Encyclopedia of Olympics [M].Shanghai

： Eastern Press Center ， 1996 ：

28.

[9] Wang Dong ＆ Wang Aiping ． On the Fire Risk and Prevention of Large-scale

Stadiums and Gymnasiums from Their Architectural Features [J] ． Fire fighting technology and industry ， 2003 ， (11) ： 7-8 ．

[10] Jin Lei. Safety of the Olympic Games [M]Beijing ： Qinghua University Publishing

House ， 2004 ： 12-23.


The Influence of Heart Quantitative Load Experiment

in Middle-Aged Women from all Walks of Life

Zhou Ai-qing，Qian Guo-rong , ＆ Ma Lei

（JiangXi Normal University, China）

Abstract

Purposes ： and aged women before and after regular and quantitative exercises ， so as to provide theoretical basis for the further exploration of relationship between HRV and scientific exercise ． Methods ： 1,356 healthy middle-aged women were divided into two groups, the qigong groups and the control groups, by researchers and testing the changes in

HRV before and after exercise ,which guided by the staff, then testing and analyzing the character of HRV at each stage of the quantified loading test between two groups.Results: 1 HF first decline after rising slowly (P> 0.05), the value of SD1, SD2 increase rapidly (p <0.01) after exercise in the control group; the value of LF and

RMSSD Decline slowly (P> 0.05)in all stages of the exercises, LF(P <0.05) fall rapidly after exercise in qigong groups; compare with control group, RMSSD significant decline

(p <0.01),HF value rapid decline(p <0.05) but still higher after exercise; It is suggested that both the tension of Sympathetic Nerves system and Parasympathetic Neurons are decline after exercise in qigong group. Conclusions:1. The HRV values of the middle and aged women in Nanchang accord with the characteristic of middle and aged healthy people.2. The regulation function of Qigong group is better than the control group before and during the exercise.3. The values of SD1 、 RMSSD in Qigong group are different with the previous research.

Keywords: HRV; Heart quantitative load experiment; Fitness Qigong; Parasympathetic system

Introduction

Heart rate variability （ HRV ） refers to minor differences between cardiac from successive cardiac pacing, is an important regulating steady-state mechanism of normal cardiovascular system, and reflects tension and balance of cardiac sympathetic and

Vagus nerve. HRV analysis is an effective method with Quantitative evaluation to a human cardiac autonomic function, it has high sensitivity, noninvasive, etc[2 ，

4],however, In the scientific research and practical application ,it is still in the infancy. It is of great significance to understand and use it for serving for Sports [1,4,6].The test

The Influence of Heart Quantitative Load Experiment

In Middle-Aged Women from all Walks of Life

149 of Quantitative load on the heart is to detect changes about HRV indexes in the aspects of pre- and post-exercise to analyze heart function through quantitative sports under the guidance of PE research personnel’s. After a long-term research in the fields of the fitness Qigong, sports research and others related, fitness Qigong is made for a new type of fitness qigong exercises. As exercises sports, fitness Qigong has the main forms of physical activity, their own breathing to cater to the needs, the combination of psychological adjustment. Fitness qigong not only could be seen as national traditional sports, but also has a profound oriental culture connotation and a wide range of social impact. However, the new exercises’ scientific, effectiveness and safety has yet to be tested by practice. Therefore, on this basis of sub-topics of “the study of a comprehensive evaluation system of Fitness effects by fitness qigong”.This article focused on the impact on the middle and aged women' heart rate variability and its feasibility of practical application in Physical Evaluation by fitness qigong. Through the guidance of Fitness Qigong Scientific Research Management Center of State Sport

General Administration, After doing Careful planning, preparation, and research ， this group conducted a number of pre-experiments and formal experiments in the period from April 2007 to December 2007.In this paper, the research methods, experimental process and results are described

Subjects & Methods

Subjects

Qigong group: middle-aged and elderly females of Nanchang that between 46 and 75 years old who participate in the fitness qigong to exercise 6 months

Control group: in each community's 46-75 years old of middle and old aged female

Jiangxi Province Nanchang, we select stochastically two groups of total 1356 according to each age 30 people. (As shown in Table 1).Health state: Through the inquiry, if people being tested have a history of organic heart disease, the data will be marked and removed in the data analysis.

Table 1 shows that in the two groups, it has no significant differences in two indicators of age and height, and has significant differences in body weight by the

Qigong’s Lighter than Controls’.

Methods

Instruments and equipments

Polar heart Multifunction rate meter (model: RS800 Finland), intelligent type scales of standard height and weight (model hxhhsg100, Beijing Huaxia Technology Co., Ltd.

Department of the sea).


Experimental method

It carried out the process that the experiment tests the independent samples in the time of pre-experiment and post-experiment. In this process, all persons are to be tested of

Quantitative load on the heart. This way of The test of Quantitative load on the heart is

5-3-3 type, that is the testers has 5 minutes’ rest, the 3 minutes’ exercise and 3 minutes’ rest by order. Along with recording tips beats (15 times per minute), the testers repeatedly in situ sit. When they sit down, the trunk keeps straight, constituting about 90 degrees with the thigh, and when upright, they were standing at attention posture. The test last uninterruptly three minutes. The whole process of exercise is monitored by using the Polar multifunctional rate meter. Recording separately resting heart rate before the exercise, maximum rate of the heart on the exercise, immediate heart rate after the exercise, heart rate at the time point of post-exercise’s 3 minute. And the corresponding

HRV indexes (As shown in Table 2).

Mathematical statistics when the experiment is completed, apparatus of the related data transmitted directly to computer databases firstly, and then make the error and duplicate samples removed by Visual FoxPro 6.0, and deal with data by MATLAB 7.0 and SPSS 12.0 finally. All data is expressed by Mean



Standard deviation(X



S), using an independent samples t to achieve the inter-group comparison.

Table 1: basic situation of the objects

Groups

Qigong group

Control group t p

Numbers of testers

75

1190

Age (years) Height

59.0±6.4

60.3±8.3

-1.536

0.128

（

cm

155.4±5.3

155.4±8.4

-0.008

0.994

）

Weight

（

kg

56.2±6.0

65.6±8.6

-2.020

0.046*

）

Table 2: commonly used indicators of an analysis of HRV

Commonly used indicators

Units of measurement definition

Time-domain SD1

RMSSD

SD2 ms ms ms standard deviation of All normal RR interval (Y) average root of Phase difference between adjacent RR standard deviation of All normal

RR interval (X)



151

Frequency domain

LF

HF

LF/HF ms 2 ms 2

%

Low-frequency power

： 0.04 - 0.15Hz Band area

High-frequency power

： 0.15 - 0.4Hz Band area ratio of Low and high frequency power

Note: characteristics of Change of The normalized HF, LF’s is similar with HF, LF’s, and thus omitted.SD1 and SD2 represent standard deviation of RR interval, calculating through the scatter plot, SD1 reflects Ordinate, SD2 reflects the abscissa. If the change of heart rate is greater, SD1 is larger; if the fluctuations in the overall of heart rate are larger, SD2 is larger. SD1 reflects continuous the ups and downs of heart rate, SD2 reflect fluctuations in the total frequency.

Results

Maximal heart rate at different stages of exercises

Table 3: The average of maximum heart rate at different stages of exercises (beats / min)

Groups Quiet time Immediate time Exercise time post-exercise

Qigong group 71.3±12.37 109.7±12.32 109.3±18.56

Control group 76.7±10.63 115.3±13.94 117.3±41.2

73.9±12.45

81.1±12.38

Table 3 The average of maximum heart rate at different stages of exercises (beats / min)

Groups Quiet time Immediate time Exercise time post-exercise qigong 71.3±12.37 109.7±12.32 109.3±18.56

对照组

76.7±10.63 115.3±13.94 117.3±41.2

73.9±12.45

81.1±12.38

140

120

100

80

60

40

20

气功组

对照组

0

安静即刻运动中运动后

Figure 1: Change Chart of heart rate at the time of pre- and post-exercise Between Qigong group and Control group


Such as shown in table 3, through the quantitative load experiment of the heart, from the two groups, we can get separately resting heart rate before the exercise, maximum heart rate during exercise, immediately post-exercise heart rate. By the observation, the heart rate level of qigong group’s is lower than the control group’s at all stages of the experiment.

Frequency Domain Analysis on qigong group

Table 4: Qigong group’s frequency domain analysis results of the heart rate variability in the process of exercises （

  s

）

Domain indexs HF

Pre-exercise 286.09±285.76

On Exercise 242.61±281.54

Post-exercise 170.3972±138.60 t1/p t2/p t3/p

0.942/0.348

2.011*/0.047

3.166**/0.002

LF

336.59±506.89

415.20±965.88

180.19±291.65

-0.627/0.533

2.033*/0.045

2.327*/0.022

LF/HF

161.10±231.32

197.23±245.56

211.15±214.72

-0.931*/0.354

-4.178**/0.000

-4.883**/0.000

Note: pre-exercise refers to the pre-specification loading stage with meditation, on exercise is the norm loading stages of exercise, post-exercise refers to meditation stage with normal loads finished. t1 is on behalf of comparison with pre-exercises and on exercise;t2 represents the comparison between on exercise and post-exercise ； t3 represents the comparison between on the pre-exercise and post-exercise. p represents the corresponding p’s value .*express different significantly(P ＜ 0.05) ** express very different significantly （ P ＜ 0.01

）， the similar as followed.

450

400

350

300

250

200

150

100

50

HF__0_15

LF__0_04

LF_HF___

0

.运动前 .运动中 .运动后

Figure 2: Qigong group’s frequency domain analysis results of the heart rate variability in the process of exercises



153

Table 4 and Figure 2 shows that in the process of the experiment, LF’s value shows the trend from low to high and then down, HF’ a descending trend, the two values have no significance difference in the time of pre-exercise and on the exercise; shows a significant difference between pre-experiment and post-experiment; during the entire experimental/HF is in an upward trend and have a remarkable difference in the three stages of the entire experiment.

Time-domain analysis of qigong group

Table 5: Qigong group’s time-domain analysis results of the heart rate variability in the process of exercises （

  s

）

Time-domain indexs

RMSSD SD1


Exercise 23.58±13.79

Post-exercise 17.32±9.68 t1/p 0.682/0.496 t2/p t3/p

19.89±11.35

31.87±12.18

12.44±7.01

-0.258**/0.000

3.256**/0.001 12.097**/0.000

4.205**/0.000 4.862**/0.000

SD2

119.45±48.36

77.04±61.75

87.17±29.41

4.702**/0.000

-1.294/0.198

4.965**/0.000

140

120

100

80

60

40

20

RMSSD

SD1

SD2

0

运动前运动中运动后

Figure 3: Qigong group’s time-domain analysis results of the heart rate variability in the process of exercises

Table 5 and Figure 3 shows that in the three stages of the experiment RMSSD value shows a descending trends, and shows a significant difference not only between pre-exercise and post-exercise but also between the exercise and post-exercise, but it shows no significant difference between pre-exercise and exercise. SD1 value shows the trend of increasing at first and then declining, there are very significant among the three

154 Pan-Asian Journal of Sports & Physical Education stages of the experiment. SD2 value shows the trend of declining at first and then increasing, it shows a very significant difference not only between pre-exercise and exercise but also between the pre-exercise and post-exercise; but it shows no significant difference between exercise and post-exercise.

Frequency Domain Analysis on control group

Table 6: Control group’s frequency domain analysis results of the heart rate variability in the process of exercises （

  s

）

Domain indexs

HF


On Exercise 102.27±291.36

Post-exercise 159.61±246.22

T1/p

T2/p

T3/p

6.258**/0.000

-3.688**/0.000

3.093**/0.002

LF

308.81± 784.75

263.75± 868.11

219.80± 302.07

1.653/0.095

0.017/0.987

2.198*/0.028

LF/HF

（

%

）

239.82± 357.31

453.31± 637.61

240.58± 377.29

-10.432**/0.00

7.147**/0.000

-2.688**/0.007

500

450

400

350

300

250

HF

LF

LF_HF 200

150

100

50

0


Figure 4: Control group’s frequency domain analysis results of the heart rate variability in the process of exercises

In the process of the experiment, LF’s value shows that the trend from high to low but has no significant difference between pre-exercise and exercise as well as between exercise and post-exercise, only has significant difference between pre-exercise and post-exercise. HF value shows a trend of declining at first and then rising LF/HF value rising firstly and then declining. The two indexes in the pre-exercise and the exercise, exercise and post-exercise, the pre-exercise and post-exercise have very significant difference.



155

Time-domain analysis of control group

Table 7: Control group’s time-domain analysis results of the heart rate variability in the process of exercises （

  s

）

Time-domain indexs

RMSSD




T1/p

T2/p

T3/p

3.053**/0.002

-0.781/0.435

2.981**/0.003

SD1

29.86±23.66

13.94±13.66

14.14± 9.22

18.989**/0.000

0.713/0.476

22.072**/0.000

SD2

65.72± 45.15

99.65± 122.18

105.93± 52.61

？

-7.933**/0.000

-1.701/0.089

-16.070**/0.001

120

100

80

60

40

20

RMSSD

SD1

SD2

0


Figure 5: Control group’s time-domain analysis results of the heart rate variability in the process of exercises

Table 7 and Figure 5 shows that in the three stages of the experiment RMSSD value and SD1 both show a trend of declining firstly and then rising , and SD2 shows a rising trend, with a slow rising on exercise. The three index in the pre-exercise and the exercise, the pre-exercise and post-exercise have very significant difference, but there has no very significant difference between exercise and post-exercise.

The Comparison of HF value between the two groups

Table 8: The results of HF value in the two groups(ms 2 ，

  s

)

Domain indexs

Qigong group

Pre-exercise 286.0912±285.76

On Exercise 242.6067±281.54


Control group t/p

198.8659±319.16 2.522**/0.013

102.27±291.36 4.157*/0.0289

159.61±246.22 3.481/0.059


350

300

250

200

150

100

50

气功组

对照组

0


Figure 6: the analysis of the results of HF in qigong group and control group high-frequency power reflects vagal’s modulated intensity.

Table 8 and Figure 6 show that the high-frequency power values of qigong group in the pre-exercise, on the exercise and post-exercise all higher than the control group, and there has very significant difference in the two groups on pre-exercise and exercise(P

＜ 0.01

） ,but has no significant difference on pose-exercise.

The Comparison of LF value between the two groups

Table 9: The results of LF value in the two groups(ms 2 ，

  s

)

Domain indexs Qigong group

Pre-exercise

On Exercise

336.59±506.89

415.20±965.88


Control group

308.81±784.75

263.75± 868.10

219.80±302.07 t/p

0.435/0.664

1.321/0.190

-4.468/0.475

450

400

350

300

250

200

150

100

气功组

对照组

50

0


Figure 7: the analysis of the results of HF in qigong group and control group

Low-frequency power reflects sympathetic modulated intensity. Table 9 and Figure 7 show that the LF values of qigong group both higher than control group in the pre-exercise and on the exercise, but it is lower in the post-exercise. Throughout the experiment, LF values of the groups have no significant differences. On the exercise,



157 low-frequency power value of qigong group has significantly increased. High-frequency power reflects vagal’s modulated intensity. Table 8 and Figure 6 show that the high-frequency power values of qigong group all higher than the control group in the pre-exercise, on the exercise and post-exercise, and there has very significant difference in the two groups on pre-exercise and exercise(P ＜ 0.01

） ,but has no significant difference on post-exercise.

The Comparison of HF/LF value between the two groups

Table 10: The results of HF/HF value in the two groups(% ，

  s

)

Domain indexs

Qigong group Control group

Pre-exercise 161.10±231.32 239.82±357.31

Exercise 197.23±245.56 453.31±637.61

Post-exercise 211.15±214.72 240.58±377.29 t/p

-2.703**/0.001

-7.223**/0.000

3.803**/0.000

500

450

400

350

300

250

200

150

100

50

气功组

对照组

0


Figure 6: the analysis of the results of LF/HF in qigong group and control group

LF / HF is a sensitive indicator, which reflects sympathetic and vagal tone changes in the balance. Table 10 and Figure 8 show that the LF/HF values of qigong group are lower than control group in the pre-exercise, the exercise and post-exercise, two groups of LF / HF values has very significant differences during the entire experiment.

The Comparison of RMSSD value between the two groups

Table 11: The results of RMSSD value in the two groups(ms ，

  s

)

Time-domain indexs

Qigong group

Pre-exercise

Exercise

25.06±12.81

23.58±13.78


Control group

20.42± 14.72

17.87± 17.66

19.28± 11.68 t/p

2.986**/0.004

3.378**/0.001

-1.681/0.096


30

25

20

15

10

5

气功组

对照组

0


Figure 9: the analysis of the results of RMSSD in qigong group and control group

Time-domain RMSSD reflects the rapid changes of HRV, and describe cardiac cycle-by-stroke variation. Table 11 and Figure 9 show that RMSSD values of Qigong

Group’s is higher than control group at pre-exercise, exercise , but at the post-exercise, it is significantly declining trend, and it is lower than the control group at last. RMSSD values of two groups have very significantly difference at pre-exercise and on the exercise; there was no significant difference at the post-experiment.

The Comparison of SD1 value between the two groups

Table 12: The results of SD1 value in the two groups(ms ，

  s

)

Time-domain indexs

Qigong group Control group t/p



Time-domain indexs

12.44±7.01

29.86±23.66

13.94±13.66

14.14±9.22

-6.563**/0.000

12.189**/0.000

-1.991**/0.000

35

30

25

20

15

10

气功组

对照组

5

0


Figure 10: the analysis of the results of SD1 in qigong group and control group

From Table 12 and Figure 10,it can be seen that SD1 values of qigong group is higher significantly in the exercise, but significantly lower than control group on the pre-exercise and post-exercise, two groups’ SD1 values have very significant



159 differences in the whole process(P ＜ 0.01). The heart rate of Qigong group’s decreased significantly and lower than the control group on the post-exercise.

The Comparison of SD2 value between the two groups

Table 13: The results of SD2 value in the two groups(ms ，

  s

)

Time-domain indexs

Qigong group


Exercise

Time-domain indexs

77.04±61.75

87.17±29.41

Control group

65.72±45.15

99.65±122.18

105.93±52.61 t/p

9.307**/0.000

-2.759**/0.007

-4.946**/0.000

140

120

100

80

60

40

20

气功组

对照组

0


Figure 11: the analysis of the results of SD2 in qigong group and control group

From Table 13 and Figure 11,it can be seen that SD1 values of qigong group is higher significantly in the pre-exercise, but significantly lower than control group on exercise and post-exercise, two groups’ SD1 values have very significant differences in the whole process(P ＜ 0.01). This shows that the heart rate of control group decreased significantly and lowers than the control group on the post-exercise. This shows that the heart rate of the control group has a faster changes in the total frequency on the exercise and post-exercise than qigong group, but heart rate changes in frequency of Qigong group is faster than the control group at pre-exercise.

Discussions

Physiological Basic which Quantitative load test is affecting on HRV

Heart rate variability (HRV) which reflects the sinus heart rate fluctuations in the level of Change, it is currently used for quantitative analysis of clinical autonomic nerve function with a non-invasive methods. It is generally believed that The RR interval of


Normal cardiac arrest is not fully consistent. It is because of that, cardiac rhythm is being affected directly by dual regulation and binding to each other, the interaction from the cardiac sympathetic and vagal cardiac. Then it brings irregulation of the changes of

Heart Rate. According to anatomical physiology, Postganglionic fibers of sympathetic running in the subepicardial, distributing throughout the ventricle and atrium, and its transmitter is noradrenalin, acting on the relative receptor, resulting in positive conduction, inotropic, chronoscopic effect. There is different that, postganglionic fibers of vagus nerve running in the subepicardial, then running in subendocardial, dominate sinus node, atrial muscle, atrioventricular bundle and distribution, the less distribution of myocytes where nearer the ventricle, the excitement can produce the opposite effect with sympathetic, This process occur depends on the nerve endings release acetylcholine acting on M receptor through the implementation. Because of the vagus nerve excitatory response time is shorter than the sympathetic, it is showing that the vagus nerve can regulate HF fast. Therefore, with the heart effecting by the double innervations of the role of the nervous, tension Of the parasympathetic nervous usually dominant, this means that the vagus nerve is the main regulator of HRV one. Many studies have proved, the reduction of HRV is a valuable indicator as the risk of death after acute myocardial infarction [28] .Research has proven that, enhanced sympathetic activity and (or) weakened Vagus nerve activity both can cause the instability in cardiac electrophysiology, reduce the incidence of ventricular fibrillation ,however, vagus nerve activity to enhance and (or) the weakening of sympathetic tone, make ventricular fibrillation threshold increased, thus, the cardiac are protected [22,29] .Because of age,

Long-term anxiety, The occurrence of cardiovascular disease and so on, these would give rise to increase sympathetic activity, reduced activity of the vagus nerve, HRV is also reduced [8].

Therefore, HRV was seen as important indicators fro evaluating of autonomic nervous system function [7

、

27] .It can provide information with the vagus nerve and sympathetic tone as well as the risk of sudden cardiac death.

The topic mainly researches those characteristics of HRV’s Change At the heart of the process of quantitative stress test. The test of Quantitative load on the heart is widely used on medical clinical ECG exercise stress test (ET) the same principle as the normative load experimental method. It allows research objects to Observe the changes of the HRV at the process of static-dynamic (standardized load)-the static. At the time of the experiment, along with demands of individual myocardial blood and oxygen increasing, compensatory of coronary blood lead to Myocardial blood supply ischemia and hypoxia, changed the balance of cardiac autonomic nervous’ regulation ,leading to

Regulating role weakened to heart, and HRV decreased [21,23,25,26]..

Because of the vagus nerve running it easy distribution at coronary hypoperfusion and ventricular endocardial increased stress circumstances, such as ischemia, so that the vagus nerve on the control



161 of ventricular myocytes reduced the role of a relative increase in sympathetic and easy to lead to the formation of abnormal heart rate therefore widely used in a variety of exercise tests. Distribution of traveling vagus nerve make easily to Ischemic Under such

Situation of Coronary hypoperfusion and ventricular endocardial stress increased and so on that cause vagus nerve’s control on ventricular myocytes to reduce and The role of a relative increase in sympathetic, it is Easily lead to the formation of abnormal heart rate, so that it is Widely used in a variety of exercise tests.

Characteristics of HRV’s Change At the heart of the process of quantitative stress test about Nanchang elderly women.

The results of this study indicate that the control group represents the general middle-aged and old women in Nanchang. At the process of normative load exercise, the vaules of HF, SD1, RMSSD all show a trend of down first And then rise the indicators of post-exercise’s are lower than pre-exercise. Through the experimental we know that, at the Quantitative exercise stress test of the heart’s, vagal tone is declining, after the exercise, vagal tone is not fully restored.SD2’s value was in the trend of the rapid rise on exercise, and it slowly rise at post-exercise. It may indicate that the control group’s rise of the frequency of heart rate’s fluctuations accelerate the rise at exercise and continue to rise at post-exercise. Or, it may indicate that the nervous of Autonomic nervous system’s increased at exercise and Continue to rise after exercise but rose more slowly. At all stages of normative load exercise, LF value is in a linear downward trend.

That It shows that Sympathetic was inhibiting sustained throughout the exercise and the first 3 minutes at post-exercise. According to trial standard value, by the European

Society of Cardiology and the North American Pacing and Electrophysiology mission will be composed of common HRV Group identified a number of indicators in

1996.Accompanied by an increase in age, average adjustment function of vagus nerve’s of the middle-aged women’s in Nanchang decreased, however, in the whole process of

Standardized load exercise vagus nerve can play a fundamental role of modulation, this is in line with characteristics of Generally middle-aged and old heart rate variability.

[16

、

18] 。

The impact of Fitness Qigong exercise on the HRV

Taking part in long-term aerobic fitness exercise can improve the tension of the elderly vagus nerve, increased tension of vagal’s makes threshold of ventricular fibrillation that happened increasing, thus, that can Play a role in the protection of the heart [10

、

20,24] .Fitness Qigong exercise belong to aerobic fitness, and it with Taijiquan, treadmill exercise and other traditional sports all belong to Moderate-intensity exercise with fitness, the average heart rate in the course of the exercise, just to reach scope of the bull's-eye which Aerobic exercise in the elderly, therefore, it can get a good

162 Pan-Asian Journal of Sports & Physical Education training effect.

In this experiment, the heart rate of Qigong’s is lower than the control group’s in the whole process, the reason has two possibilities: firstly, it may be related to Vagal

Tension increased of testers and the sensitivity of impulse to vagus nerve. That is, changes of myocardial that Tipoton’s animal experiments has proved causes bradycardia, according to their results of the exercise, Rather than vagal’s hypertonia ， increasing the sensitivity to impulse of Vagus nerve causes bradycardia. This shows that

Higher sensitivity and the the strengthening of impact of the vagus may be complementary. Secondly, it may be associated with increase of cardiac output and

Reduce the impulses of heart nerve throughout feedback to decreased heart rate.This may be related to reduction of maximal heart rate by long-term exercise training In a certain extent [3

、

14] .That is, long-term exercise training will increase the numbers of

Myocardial acetylcholine of the heart’s, Choline acetyltransferase’s activity increased,

Adrenergic receptor decreased, content of catecholamine in the cycle increased or reduce, SV increased or capacity’s changes of Central nervous system integration. All these reflect the long-term exercise training may reduce Driving role of sympathetic to the heart, this is the reflection with the adaptability of cardiovascular system to the sport.

However, these materials combine indirectly with the role of the integration of sympathetic to evaluat Catecholamine levels of the heart directly; this is the key to solve the problem.

Qigong group compared with the control group, LF values is lower than at pre-exercise control group, and it not only increased but also higher than the control group at the process of Standardized load exercises. Declining rapidly and lower than the control group （ P<0.05

） on the post-exercise （ P<0.05

） LF value is caused by the sympathetic and vagus nerve-mediated, and has shown that it associated with factors of the baroreceptor, blood pressure fluctuations, temperature control, excitability of peripheral vascular vasomotor and so on [19] .Because that we have make strict control of unrelated factors .Therefore, it can explain that, sympathetic Tension of Qigong group’s is much suppressed by alternating suppression of Parasympathetic.SD1 value of qigong group is different with the previous study, it Show that increased on the exercise, decreased on the post-exercise (p<0.01).SD1, SD2 values were lower than the control group after exercise. HF, RMSSD values of Qigong group decreased significantly at the middle and late edge of Standardized load exercise （ p<0.01,and, RMSSD value is less than the control group after exercise. Although the HF values is higher than the control group, but has no significant difference （ P>0.05

） . Throughout the course of exercise, qigong group’s LF / HF value was significantly lower than the control group and has smaller ups and downs. This may illustrate Intensity of this exercise would not cause qigong group producing a strong Change of the autonomic nervous and may explain



163 the stability of the autonomic nervous and the vagus nerve regulation of qigong group, are higher than the control group. Time-domain indexes RMSSD reflects the rapid changes of the HRV that is Description of cycle-by-Bo variation with cardiac; RMSSD,

SDNN indexes are reflected in the instantaneous changes in the time of RR interval. IN that, SD1 reflects continuous with ups and downs of heart rate, SD2 reflects the overall frequency of the heart rate fluctuations, these indicators have strong correlation with each other. Because these indicators reflect high frequency components of changes of the heart rate, therefore, it has a strong correlation with high frequency components of frequency domain analysis. So that, the characteristics of RMSSD, SD2, HF values note commonly the tension of vagus nerve system of qigong group’s may continue to reduce or a was non-obvious increase. And there were no significant differences with the control group. This is similar with that, separation situation which HRV spectrum of

HF would reduce when the pneumogastric nerve of heart with stressed is activated

Reported by Goldberger, the discovery of change Of Spectral analysis by Zhang Li-fan, that is ,after aerobic exercise, removal with the rate of Cardiac vagus nerve is faster than on the pre-exercise .Significant difference among these results may be caused by means of the exercise with the qigong group and control group, Individual differences in age, and quantity and intensity of exercise. Its exact cause or mechanism need to be further studied

Conclusion

&

Suggestion

In the whole process of Standardized load exercise ， vagus nerve of the control group’s can play a fundamental role of modulation. The experimental results show that

General indicators are in line with characteristics of generally middle-aged and old heart rate variability.

Qigong group’s Heart rate indicators, indicators of heart rate variability in LF, HF, LF

/ HF value and the RMSSD value maintained a high level At a time of be quiet and on

Exercise.

This shows that Qigong group’s level of regulating role of Autonomic nerve function which the time of pre-exercise and on exercise is higher than the control group.

HF, SD1, SD2 values of Qigong group’s significantly decreased at he time of post-exercise,SD1, SD2, RMSSD value are less than the control group’s at the time of post-exercise, with the previous study different.

In our country, the values of Normal heart rate variability about middle-aged women’s have not been reported until now.

Because of geographic limitations and the limitations of sample size

In this study, it is difficult to Give a normal reference value about Change about HRV of Middle-aged women at the process of the exercise.


Body weight of the Qigong group’s significantly is lower than the control group’s, and there is no significant difference in height .It can not determine that such differences are caused by exercise or not ,this will affect the results of this experiment or not.

Although Experimental procedures have been strictly enforced by the group, however, due to the Amount of samples, instruments, and other uncontrollable factors. The experimental accuracy of the data needs more follow-up experiments to be corrected

References

[1] CHEN Ke-ping. clinical research of Heart rate variability [D]. Chinese Peking Union

Medical College, 1997

[2] LING Da-hong. Progress with clinical application Of analysis of Holter monitoring heart rate variability[J].Journal of utility electrical cardiac, 2008,24(03):235-236

[3] Peng Chang-hong, Gao Shui-xuan, Lin Fu-mei. Application of vertical-bit two-dimensional echocardiography Sports for evaluating cardiac structure and function of athletes’[J]. Chinese Journal of Sports Medicine, 1995,14 (2):92-99.

[4] Sun Rui-long.the recommendations of Clinical application with Detection of Heart

Rate Variability [J]. Chinese journal of cardiovascular, 1998 ， 26(4)35-38

[5] Sun Xu-sheng. analysis of heart rate variability of Older people practicing Taijiquan

[J]. Journal of Physical Education, 2000,(02) ： 37-38

[6] Xie Hong. The research of heart rate variability related with exercise. Sports World

Scholarly , 2006,(02):31-33.

[7] Tuo Yan. Research of progress of heart rate variability [J]. Foreign Medical -

Physiological, pathological science and clinical fascicle, 2001,(21)4:66-69

[8] Yang Song-tao, Long Yun-fang, Huang Yu-xia. Taijiquan exercise effect on psychological and autonomic nerve function of middle-aged and older women’s[J].

Chinese Journal of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, 2004, （ 26 ） 6:348-350.

[9] Yang Ti-rang. Physiology of Practical Exercise [M]. Beijing Sport University Press,

May 1998 2nd edition:94-124

[10] Yang Yi, Yin Cui-yun, Zhong Qiu-zhi. The impact and its significance which from exercise effect on heart rate variability of the older women with health.[J]. Chinese

Journal of Sports Medicine , 1999, （ 18 ） 3:265-266.

[11] Zhao Jing-guo. Study with heart rate variability in the course of incremental exercise

[J].Shandong Sports Science & Technology, 1997, (03):32-35

[12] Zhang Xin, Peng Ru-xin. The impact of Exercise training on heart rate variability[J].Journal of Dalan University, 2003, （ 6 ） : 80-82.

[13] Zhang Li-fan.The impact of Aerobic exercise on the regulation of cardiac autonomic



165 nervous’[J]. Chinese Journal of Applied Physiology, 1997 ， l3(4):289

[14] Zhang Li-juan, Liu Li-ming, Xie Yan .The characteristics of Indicators of heart rate variability changes when did Quantitative exercise[J]. Chinese Journal of Clinical

Rehabilitation , 2005,(08) ： 139-140

[15] Zhong Yun-jian. At the diagnosis of exercise-induced fatigue, experimental Study with application of heart rate variability(HRV) in the course of Diagnosis of exercise-induced fatigue[D]. Jiangxi Normal University, 2004 .

[16] Zheng Xia,Gao Hui. Time-domain analysis of Heart rate variability with normal physical exercise of older persons[J].Shandong Medical Journal, 2004,44(31) ： 37

[17] Luo Xiao-bing, Zhu Ji-tian. Analysis of heart rate variability and its application in sport[J]. Journal of Chengdu Physical Education Institute , 1997,(03) : 70-76

[18] Zhong Yun-jain. Research Overview of applicant of Heart rate variability In the healthy people and sport[J]. Sichuan Sports Science, 2004,(02):51-53

[19] Akselrod S, Gordon D, Madwed JB,et al. Hemodynamie regulation : Investigation by spect- ralanalysis. AmJPhysiol J ， 1985,249(18):H876

[20] David S,Ditor,et al. Effects of Body Weight-Supported Treadmill Training On Heart

Rate Variability And Blood Pressure Variability In Individuals With Spinal Cord

Injury.ApplPhysiol J,2005,98:1519–1525.

[21] Dougles P, Zipes DP. Influence of myocardial ischemia and infarction on autonomic infarction of heart.Circulation J.1990,82: 1095-1105.

[22] George E,Billman, Monica,Kukielka et al.Effects of Endurance Exercise Training On

Heart Rate Variability And Susceptibility To Sudden Cardiac Death: Protection Is Not

Due To Enhanced Cardiac Vagal Regulation.Appl Physiol J.2006,100:896–906.

[23] Jeffrey J, Goldberger, et al. Assessment of Parasympathetic Reactivation After Exercise.

Physiol Heart Circ Physical J. 2006, 290:2446 -2452,.

[24] Kirsten L,Rennie,et al. Effects of Moderate and Vigorous Physical Activity on Heart

Rate Variability in a British Study of Civil Servants, American Journal of

Epidemiology J.2003,158:135–143.

[25] Martin B,Cyrille G.. Cardiac Parasympathetic Regulation: Respective Associations

With Cardiorespiratory Fitness And Training Load. Physiol Heart Circ Physiol J.2006,

291:451-458,.

[26] Mei-Wun,Tsai,et al.Effects of Exercise Training on Heart Rate Variability After

Coronary Angioplasty. Physical Therapy J.86(5).2006,627-635.

[27] Mal M, Damm A ik. Heart Rate Variability. Clin Caidiol.1990,13:570-574

[28] TASK Force of the European Society of Cardiology and North American society of

Pacing and Electrophysiology. Heart rate variability. Circulation J, 1996, 93:

1043-1065.

[29] Woo MA, Stevenson WC, Moser DE ， et al. Complex heart rate variability and serum

166 Pan-Asian Journal of Sports & Physical Education norepinephrine levels in patients with advanced heart failure. AM Coll Cardiol J.1994,

23: 565-569.

Pan-Asian Journal of Sports & Physical Education (PAJSPE) www.isdy.net

Editorial Board :

Satoshi Shimizu (Tsukuba University, Japan)

Sundar Urs (Bangalore University, India)

Chen Ning (China West Normal University, China)

Tian Yu Pu (Nanjing Normal University, China)

Zheng Guo Hua (Jiangxi Normal University, China)

Jin Cheng Ji (Lioning Normal University, China)

Cheng Jie (Shanghai University, China)

Lei Qiang (Xian Sports University, China)

Tai Hsia Ling (Taipei Municipal University of Education)

Walter Ho (University of Macau, Chinese Macau)

Jong Lee (University of Suwon, South Korea)

John Saunders (Australian Catholic University, Australia)

Joel Garcia Tubera (Angeles University Foundation, Philippines)

Gilda Uy (University of Philippines, Philippines)

Selina Khoo(University of Malaya, Malaysia)

Wee Eng Ho (University of Technology, Malaysia)

Valery Krasilnikov (Ural State Pedagogical Univ., Russia)

Chuchchai Gomaratut (Chulalongkorn University, Thailand)

Vijit Kanungsukkasem (Chulalongkorn University, Thailand)

Mohammad Ehsani (Tarbiat Modares University, Iran)