A SAFETY MANUAL FOR
EXPERIMENTAL & AMATEUR
ROCKET SCIENTISTS
A Brief and Concise Introduction to
The Safe Handling of Fireworks, Explosives,
Rocket Propellants, and their Precursor Chemicals
Excerpted from the
HANDBOOK OF FIREWORKS AND EXPLOSIVES
Third Edition, Revised and Expanded
L. Edw. Jones, BS (Chem), MS (Chem Engr), PhD (Rocket Science)
Reference Resources Publishing Company
Zephyr Cove, Nevada
© 1953, 1969, 1999 by L. Edw. Jones
First Edition published 1953. Third Edition 1999
All rights reserved.
No part of this book may be reproduced in any form, by Photostat,
microfilm, xerography, or any other means, or incorporated into any
information retrieval system, electronic or mechanical, without the
written permission of the copyright owner.
All inquiries should be addressed to:
Reference Resources Publishing Company
Post Office Box 10455
Zephyr Cove, Nevada 89448
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Jones, L. Edw.
Handbook of fireworks and explosives
Bibliography: p.
Includes index.
1. Fireworks—Handbooks. 2. Explosives—Handbooks
3. Rockets—Handbooks
4. Pyrotechnics—Handbooks5. Chemistry—Formulations
I. Jones, L. Edw. II. Title.
Qacallnumber
1999
009’.07—hf30
99-7797
CIP
Printed in the United States of America
987654
Disclaimer: The manufacture, possession, and use of most fireworks, explosives, rocket propellants, and related
devices are illegal without certification and registration with the proper authorities. It is solely the reader’s
responsibility to research and comply with all local, state, and federal laws regarding the manufacture, possession, and
use of such products.
The procedures described in this manual and the resulting end products are extremely dangerous. Whenever dealing
with fireworks, explosives, rocket propellants, and related devices of any type, special precautions must be followed in
accordance with industry standards for experimentation and production. Failure to strictly follow may result in harm to
life and limb.
Therefore, the author, publisher, and distributors of this handbook disclaim any liability from any damages or injuries
of any type that a reader or user of information contained within this book may encounter from the use of said
information. Use the material presented in this manual and any end product or by-product at your own risk. This book
is for information and academic study purposes only.
To the many nameless amateur scientists who have
enriched our lives by their creative experimentation in
the realms of pyrotechnics, explosives, and rocketry.
"...if you light it you will get thunder and lightning, if you know the trick!"
– Fr. Roger Bacon, 1242
PREFACE
In an effort to support and foster the safe research, development, and testing efforts of amateur
rocket scientists worldwide, the author has published the material in this monograph.
What follows is by no means intended to be a complete treatise on the subject of safe handling of
explosives and hazardous chemicals, but is meant only as an introduction and primer on this broad,
complex, and arcane subject. While rocket propellants, fireworks, and explosives have been studied
and formulated for centuries, the subject of safe handling is always expanding. New incidents and
dangers are brought to light weekly, and it is probably impossible to compile a genuinely complete and
comprehensive text on this subject.
The safe handling of explosives and hazardous chemicals depends not only upon an intellectual
understanding of the innumerable factors involved, but also–even more importantly–upon considerable
training, coaching and practice. Extensive hands-on experience, while itself invaluable in this art and
craft, must never be considered adequate to every hazard that may arise. In the opinion and experience
of the author, an extremely high state of awareness–of consciousness, of attentiveness, of mindfulness,
of perception and sensitivity and attention to detail–is probably equally important to preserving life and
limb in this delicate and very dangerous science.
A fundamental keynote to remaining alive and well when working with rocket propellants is to
always remember the adage: “Familiarity breeds contempt.”
It is also the author’s considered opinion that all who read this monograph review it frequently, with
careful study, intending to commit the fundamentals to memory until they become “second nature.”
Only when the basics are a routine part of one’s practice can one be attentive, mindful, and aware
enough to prepare for the unexpected.
Finally, the information herein is based exclusively upon the training and practice of the writer, and
every opinion is his alone. All who read this document are encouraged to offer additional ideas,
suggestions, information, and criticisms, so those future editions may be more complete and accurate.
All who contribute to this effort will be credited and included in future distributions.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PREFACE
CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION
CHAPTER 1: HAZARDS AND SAFETY
Introduction
Prevention
Containment
Isolation
Safe Working Conditions
Fire Protection
Static Electricity
Storage Conditions
Storage Magazines
Air Contamination
Toxic Chemicals
Noise
Basic Tools
General Methods of Handling
Safety Incompatible Materials
About Chlorates
Other Incompatible Materials
Pyrophorics and Hypergolics
Weighing
Scooping
Mixing
Handling Black Powder
Handling Flash Powder
Industry Safety Standards and Procedures
Classification of Hazardous Materials
Shipping Hazardous Materials
CHAPTER 2: CHEMICALS
Introduction
Reactivity and Inertness
Fuels
Chlorates
Toxic and Hazardous Chemicals
Combustibility Properties
CHAPTER 3: CHEMICAL MILLING AND MIXING
Introduction
Granulation, Grinding, and Screening
Grinding Safety
Mortar and Pestle
Coffee Grinders
Ball Milling
Mixing and Blending
Manual Mixing
Diapering
Screening
Tumbler Sifting
Mechanical Mixing
V-Tube Mixing
CHAPTER 4: PYROTECHNIC COMPOSITIONS AND FORMULATIONS
Introduction
Solid-Fuel Rocket Propellants
Ignitability and Reactivity
Rate of Burn
General Chemistry of Pyrotechnic Formulations
Fuel-Oxidizer Relationships
Pyrotechnic Oxidizers
Pyrotechnic Fuels
Metallic Fuels
Metallic Fuel Treatments
Particle Size
Composition Sensitivity
Counteracting Acids in Formulations
Particularly Dangerous Formulations
APPENDICES
Appendix A:
Appendix B:
Appendix C:
Appendix D:
Appendix E:
EPILOGUE
Comprehensive List of Explosive Substances
Prohibited Chemicals Lists
NASA Safety Manual
The Legend of Santa Barbara
References for Further Studies about Safety
INTRODUCTION
First compiled from extensive industrial and military resources in 1953, the Handbook of Fireworks and
Explosives from which this monograph was extracted was originally written to serve the needs of
experimenters in developing new designs and formulations within the then nascent and rapidly-budding
American amateur rocket societies.
At that time associated with the Caltech Jet Propulsion Laboratory and involved with a broad research
program investigating newly-developing pyrotechnics and explosive technology, the author was active with
many groups of young engineers and chemists testing advanced rocket propellants. Detailed information
about formulation chemistry being then sadly lacking, the author took it on himself to prepare a
comprehensive laboratory handbook of pyrotechnic device and compositions, explosives synthesis and
testing, and rocket propellant specifications. Five hundred copies of the first edition were circulated among
fellow American chemists and engineers, and numerous handbooks were donated to various research
libraries.
At the time of the first edition, commercial display fireworks were also yet to evolve from the centuriesold formulations and constructions that had dominated the industry. The thousands of new pyrotechnic
compositions developed for use in World War II remained mostly obscure, or completely unknown. Private
fireworks developers still relied mainly upon Weingart's book (Pyrotechnics Civil and Military) for
fundamental information.
The science of explosives was little better off. While Tenney L. Davis' fine book (Chemistry of Powder
and Explosives, published in 1941 and 1943) was perhaps a bit more modern than Weingart's, most of the
rich chemistry of explosives development that occurred during the war and afterwards was unpublished–or
still classified.
Rocketry, when the first edition of this handbook was published in 1953, remained in its infancy. Red
fuming nitric acid and aniline were the liquid propellants of choice, and modern composite solid propellants
had yet to be invented. Amateurs experimented with tiny Jetex-50 rocket motors, which produced 0.6-oz
thrust, and more "advanced" solid rockets powered by zinc dust and sulfur.
The author continued to participate in the development and testing of pyrotechnics, explosives, and
rockets, associated with the Aeronautical and Physical Sciences Laboratory at New Mexico State University.
Twice he was assigned to live and work at nearby White Sands Proving Ground (now White Sands Missile
Range), attached to the Aerobee sounding rocket and U.S. Army HAWK guided missile projects. He
continued to collect unclassified formulations and safety information.
The second edition (1969) of the Handbook was published after the author had worked for many years at
the Aerojet-General plants near Sacramento, California. At Aerojet, he was a "hands-on" propulsion
systems development and test engineer, working at their extensive and advanced large-scale rocket test sites,
firing state-of-the-art rocket motors for Titan, Saturn, Minuteman, Polaris, and dozens of lesser-scale
rockets. From pyrotechnic igniters to top-secret atomic warheads, the author remained both a professional
engineer and an amateur scientist, continuing to develop fireworks displays, explosives for the mining
industry, and small experimental rockets.
The second edition of this book again was revised, edited, and expanded with the non-professional
experimenter and inventor in mind. The newer version for the first time included an introduction to the
chemistry of co-polymer rocket fuels. Expanded graphics provided modern formulations for advanced
pyrotechnic compositions, and the technology of synthesis of the most modern explosives was explained in
detail. Again, the handbook was distributed primarily among fireworks and small-scale rocket developers as
a convenient and accurate lab reference.
Much has happened in the broad and diverse industries of fireworks, explosives, and rocket propulsion
over the past thirty years. Devices and formulations alike have been thoroughly revolutionized by the
advent of commercial plastics. The government has declassified immense files of research and development
chemistry and technology. Dissolution of the Soviet bloc enabled freedom to thousands of yet-new
discoveries and inventions heretofore unknown in America.
This third handbook edition (from which this treatise was excerpted and compiled) has been completely
rewritten to better serve the needs of the early 21st Century. It now contains a comprehensive new database
of both traditional and modern formulations for fireworks, explosives, and rocket propellants, together with
detailed information about their safe design, development, production, and testing. Substantial new textual
material about organic chemistry provides readers with a useful context for their own research. And, again,
it has been written and published for the developmental and experimental amateur scientist who is
particularly interested in the chemistry and technology of producing fireworks, explosives, and small
rockets.
The text and data of the Handbook itself are divided among three main topics, with approximately equal
emphasis: pyrotechnics, explosives, and advanced amateur rocketry. Within each of these topics is provided
a historical perspective of that particular science, an introduction to its chemistry, a review of the technology
of devices and their production, and a broad collection of composition formulations.
The topic of solid-fuel rocketry has been greatly expanded in the new edition, thanks to a wealth of
recent military declassifications. The entire subject of polymer chemistry is reviewed in detail, with focus
on the evolution and development of advanced propellants. The overview of rocket propellant development,
from the perspective of an industry engineer, is intended to provide creative insights into this challenging
technology.
HAZARDS AND SAFETY
The science and study of fireworks, explosives, and rocket propellants is of course a science and study
of chemicals and their reactions. This arcane science is the chemistry and physics of researching,
developing, producing, testing, and using unstable compounds.
The term "pyrotechnics" has its root in the Greek. "Pyr" means fire, and "techne" means art. Thus
pyrotechnics is the art of making or the manufacture of fireworks and related devices. "Pyrotechnic" means
any of various similar devices, or combustible substances, used in a firework or similar device. (In modern
usage, pyrotechnics also includes all kinds of igniters, signal flares, fuses, and incendiary devices.)
By definition, "explosives" are those substances that undergo a rapid chemical (or nuclear) reaction with
the production of noise, heat, and violent expansion of gases. The word "explode" has its roots in Latin:
plaudere, which means "to clap;" ex-, the suffix meaning "away from." (Literally, explodere means to drive
off the stage by clapping.)
The chemistry and technology of fireworks, explosives, and rocket propellants have been intertwined
since their roots in the dark history of time. While each of these industries is within itself very specialized
and sophisticated, their research and development overlap in broad and varied ways. In many cases both
industries use the same chemicals, tools, and technologies. All three of these industries share similar safety
procedures.
It is clear that all rocket propellants relate to the “art of fire”–that is pyrotechnics–at least in a general
sense. Also since all rocket propellants “undergo a rapid chemical (or nuclear) reaction with the production
of noise, heat, and violent expansion of gases,” they can also be considered as explosives
Within this Manual, rocket propellant developers should read “rocket propellant” each time they
encounter the word “pyrotechnic” or “explosive.” Learning to identify rocket propellants as explosives is
essential to their safe handling.
Prevention is the absolute and singular key to the safe handling of fireworks, explosives, and rocket
propellants, and there is no substitute for adequate study, professional training, coaching, and supervised
practice to learn the multitude of safe procedures required for dealing with their incredible hazards. Every
process, from scooping and weighing to storage and testing, is fraught with formidable dangers.
Furthermore, intelligent and careful study is in itself inadequate preparation for making fireworks or
explosives. Still, conscientious study is a vital preparatory step. One of the central purposes of this text is to
support and assist such study.
WORKING AREAS AND TOOLS
Any fabrication of fireworks, or synthesis of explosives–even on a diminutive laboratory scale–
absolutely requires a specially prepared working area and particular tools. It is clearly both foolish and
irresponsible to attempt any experiments in the home. Nonetheless, it is possible and practical for any
serious person to setup a safe, suitable place for such work, provided federal, state, and local laws permit.
While the tools and equipment employed by professional makers of fireworks, explosives, and rocket
propellants, are sophisticated and often costly, it also remains possible for an individual citizen to acquire
safe and effective tools from local resources. Chapter 3 provides a comprehensive review of the tools most
commonly used in making, handling, and using fireworks, explosives, and rocket propellants. Chapter 1
gives information about the safe selection and use of tools. Appendix E gives suggestions for setting up
laboratories of different scales.
MATERIALS AND SUPPLIES
Fortunately, the materials and supplies necessary for the fabrication of fireworks, rocket propellants, and
most pyrotechnic devices are common and widely available. And in the United States, a variety of specialty
suppliers offer hundreds of kinds of useful mechanical components and chemicals.
While many of the chemicals required for fireworks, explosives, and rocket propellants formulations are
strictly controlled and regulated by the federal government, a creative person can still fabricate almost any
imaginable product from rather ordinary precursors. In fact, almost every type of fireworks device and
composition was developed centuries ago, using quite mundane components. And literally thousands of
lively, scintillating, provocative, and interesting fireworks (and rocket propellants) can be made from such
simple ingredients as paper, glue, clay, potassium nitrate, charcoal, sulfur, sugar, and asphalt.
GENERAL CHEMISTRY
A good understanding of both organic and inorganic chemistry is necessary for all but the most basic
pyrotechnics, explosives, or rocket propellants. First, such a background in chemistry is vital to the safe
mixing and handling of formulations: countless hazards endanger every step of the process, and preventing
"accidental" fires and explosions demands a sharp and keen awareness of the chemistries involved. Second,
advancing any design or formulation also requires a solid understanding of the chemistries involved.
Chapter 1
HAZARDS AND SAFETY
-------------------------------------------------------INTRODUCTION
The author is a survivor of nearly 50 years formulating, developing, fabricating, and testing fireworks,
explosives, and rockets. He is a living witness of careful attention to detail in safety, and has witnessed too
many "accidental" explosions and loss of life and limb within the industry. It is the perspective of this book
that each and every operation that involves chemicals or compositions requires careful advance planning,
and that every detail of the process demands unfailing awareness of all the hazards involved.
Fundamentally, the safe manufacture and use of fireworks, explosives, and rocket propellants is the
result of planning and doing everything right. The user must always remember that he or she is dealing with
a powerful force, and that various devices and methods have been prepared to enable him to safely direct
this force. He must always realize that this force, if misdirected, may kill or seriously and permanently
injure both him and his companions.
Even if you follow all safety and formulation instructions exactly, there is still some chance that an
unforeseen “accident” will occur and that you might be harmed. This is due to the very nature of the
unstable materials and mixtures of pyrotechnics and explosives.
The information in this chapter has been developed by serious professional chemists, pyrotechnicians,
and explosives manufacturers, but minor variations in the quality of chemicals, the cleanliness of your
equipment and work area, and unpredictable circumstances can lead to unforeseen circumstances.
Study the rules and principles of safety until they are second nature. Ultimately, you are responsible for
your own safety. Avoid an “accident” that could have been prevented if you had taken the time to read,
understand, and comply with the safety rules. It may take a few hours to read and memorize these
fundamentals of safety procedures; the loss of a hand lasts for the rest of your life.
PREVENTION
Every step involving the handling of fireworks or explosives requires the remembrance of Murphy's
Law: "Whatever can go wrong, will." A corollary is that "there are no small errors" in this work. This
means that it is essential to plan for the unexpected along every step of the way.
There are no such things as truly "safe" rocket propellants or explosive devices. While some propellants
and explosives are less dangerous than others are, all such compositions are, by their very nature, hazardous.
Start with very small quantities. Even small quantities of high-energy propellants and high explosives can be
very dangerous.
A typical highly explosive pyrotechnic composition will have a critical mass at which it will explode
from open burning (flash powders are frequently of this type). This weight or mass may vary with the
different formulations from as small as micrograms to more than several pounds.
Below the critical weight, the mixture will burn strongly but produce no detonation or blast effects.
Under weak or partial confinement, the critical weight will be reduced greatly, and under strong confinement
it will be very low. In a test made at Fort Sill, Oklahoma in 1963, 35 pounds of photoflash powder in a
strong casing had an estimated damage radius of more than 1,500 ft.
In chemical engineering, new chemistries are carefully put through a series of experiments where the
size of the operation is made repeatedly larger for the purpose of revealing unexpected behavior. Most of
the mixtures presented here have only been scaled to 10 grams, a few to 200 grams.
Also, allow (at least) for a 20% ‘margin of error.’ Never let your safety depend on the expected results.
Buy quality safety equipment, and use it at all times. Always wear a face shield. It's usually also a good
idea to wear gloves when handling corrosive chemicals, and a lab apron can help prevent life-threatening
burns.
In summary, before commencing with any fireworks, explosives, or rocket propellant project, commit
these basic rules to memory:
Take your time, and think ahead at all times.
Read all materials, labels, and instructions carefully.
If you don't understand what something is or how it works, ask before proceeding.
If you still don't understand, don't buy it or use it.
Never use fireworks or rocket motors that have signs of water damage.
Keep fireworks and chemicals well out of the reach of children.
Never look down the tube or mortar of any fireworks.
Never aim fireworks or rockets at people or property.
Keep people and property a safe distance away from fireworks and rocket tests.
CONTAINMENT
Safety containment refers to the concept of keeping an “accident” small. It has two components–active,
and passive.
If you can work some distance from other people, keep a portable phone, boat horn, or other signaling
device handy. Always keep it in the same place so you can find it quickly in an emergency with your eyes
closed. Professional laboratories often have a "panic button" near each workstation to signal for help.
ISOLATION
Containment also means preventing an “accident” from affecting other buildings, residences, roads, etc.
Ideally you should locate your work area several hundred feet from any occupied building or road.
Small buildings about 4 m (12 ft) square and not less than 15 m (50 ft) apart must be used to house those
engaged in mixing and ramming operations, as well as those making any sensitive devices. If possible, there
should be no more than one person to a building.
Some amateur pyrotechnicians work at a table sheltered by a partially open-sided tent. The tent
provides shade and shelter, but its low inertial mass means that should an “accident” occur it would not hold
as much of any blast within. Because ventilation is so important, such a tent should be open on at least two
sides.
Isolate your work from finished products or large amounts of flammable materials. If you are ramming
rockets and have a 2 kg (5 lb) drum of rocket composition, it only makes sense to have that drum at a safe
distance from the work area, and to have just a few ounces in a forward magazine which is refilled as
needed.
Once a device is finished, put it in a spark-resistant container and remove them to a safe distance as
time, work rhythm, and good sense dictates. A spark will cause a lot more grief if there are several open
containers of rocket composition, black powder, stars, and flash mixture, than if there was just a few grams
of rocket composition in the open.
SAFE WORKING CONDITIONS
Your working area should be chosen with safety in mind–both your own immediate safety to avoid an
accident, and the longer term safety of minimizing damage if an “accident” should occur. That means
remembering the combined factors of safe working conditions, containment, and isolation.
You need a sturdy bench or table. Ideally the bench and all of your tools should be of a non-sparking
material. That means that all nails, screws, and bolts of a wooden bench must be protected or covered. A
good bench would be a wooden bench that is well sealed with polyurethane or other impervious material.
The bench should be well lit.
You want to keep your area clean. It should be free from dust, old spills, and clutter. You may want to
use a fresh sheet of butcher paper to cover your bench between operations. Otherwise, clean the top of your
bench with soap and water between operations. This is just good laboratory practice.
If you use a stool, make sure there are no metal nails protruding from the bottom of the legs.
Rooms in which sensitive explosives and rocket propellants are handled must have floors of lead or
other non-sparking flooring material. Flooring must always be of conductive finish. Walls of the rooms
must be covered with waterproof material having a smooth hard gloss finish. Frequent washing of the
rooms with a neutralizing solution is necessary.
The following are basic rules for the working area:
1. Dispose of any chemicals spilled on the workbench or equipment between weighings.
2. Don't keep open containers of chemicals on your table. When finished with a container, close it, and
replace it on the storage shelf.
3. Use only clean equipment.
4. Be sure threads of screw top containers and caps are thoroughly cleaned. This applies also to
containers with rubber or cork stoppers, and to all other types of closures. Traces of mixture caught
between the container and closure may be ignited by the friction of opening or closing the container.
5. Throughout any procedure, WORK WITH CLEAN CONDITIONS.
6. Never smoke anywhere near where you are working.
7. Have a source of water READILY available.
8. Never, under any circumstances, use any type of metal to load chemicals or put chemicals in.
FIRE PROTECTION
Examine your working area to make sure there is not a "fire trail" to nearby buildings, trees, etc. Be
prepared so that if a fire occurs in your working area it cannot spread. In other words, don't work under a
canopy of pine trees, or in a shed abutting your house.
If you are working with flammable metals, keep buckets of sand handy for smothering the fire.
Where compatible with process materials, deluge systems should be used for the protection of mixing
and blending operations, screening, granulation, drying, and pressing of extrusion operations. The response
time of the deluge system must be selected to minimize the damage and facilities. Hazard analysis of the
operation may dictate other applications.
STATIC ELECTRICITY
Static electricity is one of the most formidable threats to safety when working with pyrotechnics and
explosives. Electrical charges are generated on the surface of a material by friction. These charges tend to
be greatest during the months when humidity is low, and when artificial heat is used. Maintaining a relative
humidity of from 40-50% in rooms where flammable or explosive chemicals are used will greatly reduce the
chance of static sparks.
Dangerous levels of static electricity can be generated within any object of a conductive nature,
including the human body, when it is insulated from the ground by a nonconductive material. Static
electricity may also build up on the surfaces of some insulating materials (for instance, coatings of paint, or
plastic containers or tools). Also footwear and gloves should be of a conductive material, and all electrically
powered grinders, blenders, and other machines must be fully grounded.
The basic countermeasure is to avoid such insulating materials as much as possible in the production of
sensitive formulations. In this way, static electricity will be continually discharged into the ground before
building up to a dangerous level. Under ideal circumstances, any conductive object involved in the
production, including people, should be connected to the ground with at least a thin copper wire.
Electrical grounding and static discharge devices are thus mandatory, and all containers, tanks, piping,
and equipment must be so interconnected and grounded that the chances for static sparks are minimized.
Drive belts must be eliminated from all power equipment, and direct or chain drives used.
Conductive safety shoes (with non-insulated soles) are mandatory when working with any pyrotechnic
or explosive chemicals, or with flammable solvents–especially ether. Such safety shoes, which continually
conduct static electrical charges to the ground, are commonly known as "grounders" in the industry.
If dust particles start to form in the air, stop what you are doing and leave until they settle.
STORAGE CONDITIONS
Explosive manufacturers as well as other organizations have issued numerous recommendations as to
safe and effective storage of fireworks, explosives, and rocket propellants. The Institute of Makers of
Explosives (IME) has published a pamphlet "Standard Storage Magazines Recommended by the Institute of
Makers of Explosives" and has also issued the "American Table of Distances, Specifying Distances to be
Maintained between Magazines for Explosives and Inhabited Buildings, Public Railways, and Public
Highways."
Extremes of heat or cold, of air dryness, of moisture in storage, the roughness or carefulness with which
handled, the length of time stored, the length of time our of their original container before used–these and
many other considerations have a vital influence on the behavior of a commercial explosive.
STORAGE MAGAZINES
Magazines should be situated far enough away from other buildings or vital structures so that in case of
an explosion in the magazine the least possible damage will be done to buildings or persons in the
surrounding area.
Magazines should be well ventilated. Floors should be made of wood or other non-sparking material
and have no metal exposed. Magazines should also be grounded if constructed of steel or covered with sheet
iron. Explosives must also be protected against theft by storing them in magazines constructed and locked
as required by regulations.
The magazine should be kept clean; wastepaper, sawdust, used empty boxes and containers, and other
combustible material should not be left to accumulate in or around any magazine. Smoking, open lights, or
other flame, or carrying of matches or smokers' articles into or around any magazine must be prohibited.
Store high explosives separately from low explosives, and sensitive devices, such as blasting caps, must
be stored well away from all flammable or explosive material. Black powder and high explosives should be
stored in separate magazines. No detonators, igniters, tools, or other materials should ever be stored in a
magazine containing explosives. No high–or low–explosives or blasting device heaters should ever be
stored in a detonator magazine.
Lighting in the magazine should be natural or by permissible lights. Any electric lamps must be of the
vapor-proof type, the switch should be outside the building, and the wiring should be in conduit. Only tools
made of wood or other non-metallic material should be used in opening cases of explosives.
AIR CONTAMINATION
Your work area should be well ventilated to safely remove solvent vapors and chemical dusts from the air. If
you are working with solvents you must always be aware of sources of ignition, such as sparks from light
switches, fan motors, clocks, etc. It is safer to blow solvent vapors away with a fan than pull them through a
fan, unless the fan contains a sealed non-sparking motor.
TOXIC CHEMICALS
A very large percentage of the common chemicals used in producing fireworks, explosives, and rocket
propellants are highly toxic. These are some rules for handling all chemicals:
1. ALWAYS WEAR A FACE SHIELD AND SHATTERPROOF SAFETY GLASSES when handling
dangerous materials. Be sure lenses and frames are not flammable.
2. Always wear a dust respirator when handling chemicals in dust form. A good respirator is a must
when working with pyrotechnic, rocket propellant, and explosives chemicals, especially metal
powders and toxic materials. The wise avoid cheap, disposable dust masks. It is prudent to invest in
a good quality device, such as Bink’s respirator with replaceable filtration canisters. Professionals
always use full-face protection that integrates a respirator with a shock-resistant face shield.
3. Always wear suitably protective gloves when working with chemicals.
4. Always, as a minimum, wear a waterproof lab apron.
5. Always be thoroughly familiar with the chemicals you are using. Materials that were once thought to
be safe can later be found out to be dangerously toxic.
6. Wash your hands and face thoroughly after using chemicals. Don't forget to wash your EARS AND
YOUR NOSE.
7. Keep some isotonic saline convenient for a final eye rinse after using non-isotonic water.
The following are some of the especially hazardous substances that should not be touched, breathed, or
tasted:
“Heavy metals” (including arsenic, selenium, beryllium, tellurium, mercury, tantalum, lead, bismuth,
polonium, uranium, radium, etc.)
Cyanides
Nearly all organic nitrates have very potent vasodilator (heart and circulatory system) effects. Doses for
heart patients are typically in the small milligram range. Many can be absorbed through the skin.
Acid fumes of any kind
NOISE
The author can personally attest to the permanent, irrevocable nerve damage that will occur when people
are exposed to high levels of sound over a period of time. Such nerve damage and the resultant loss of
hearing was little understood as recently as the mid-1950s, and countless individuals now suffer deafness or
near deafness from repeated exposure to firearms fire, rocket tests, explosions, and nearby fireworks
detonations—not to mention loud rock music.
A broad variety of ear protection devices are now available, including very effective foam earplugs that
can be purchased for less than one dollar at most pharmacies. It is strongly recommended that all who are
potentially exposed to the types of loud sounds just mentioned purchase and use some effective form of ear
protection. Be aware that simple cotton plugs stuffed into the ear canal are not adequate for this type of
work.
BASIC TOOLS
A fundamental consideration is that tools must be always commensurate with safety. That means that
tools should promote cleanliness, and be non-sparking.
The majority of all “accidents” with pyrotechnic formulations are caused by friction. Eliminating this
source of “accidental” ignition will greatly increase safety. One traditional method was to employ only
wooden tools for mixing and loading. In every case, it is essential to strictly avoid scraping the formulations
between two metallic surfaces.
Non-sparking tools cannot be made of steel or iron. Aluminum, copper, brass, hardwood, paper,
cardboard, and many plastics are generally suitable. Glass should never be used, as it can amplify the effects
of an accident. Many plastic tools, however, tend to build up charges of static electricity and must be kept
away from the lab. A more complete discussion of tool selection and safety will be found in Chapter 3.
Tools for loading and ramming must also be non-sparking, when possible. Hammers should be wood,
plastic, or plastic coated. Obviously the hydraulic press will be made of steel, but it might not be a bad idea
to protect the surfaces so as to prevent the likelihood of metal striking metal and striking a spark.
CAR BATTERY SAFETY
If you use a car battery for ignition work, keep sparks and other ignition sources away from the battery.
Car batteries release hydrogen and oxygen gas, which is an explosive combination. A typical 12-volt auto
battery can deliver several hundred amps to a dead short. This is enough current to instantly heat 1.02 mm
diameter (18 AWG) wire white hot if shorted. Use caution around a car battery.
GENERAL METHODS OF HANDLING
The following are some general rules for safe methods of handling of chemicals, pyrotechnic, and
explosive compounds:
1. When chemicals must ground, grind them separately, NEVER TOGETHER. Thoroughly wash and
clean equipment before grinding another ingredient.
2. Never ram or tamp mixes into paper or cardboard tubes. Pour the material in and gently tap or shake
the tube to settle the contents down.
3. Store ingredients and finished mixes where they will not be a fire hazard, away from heat and flame.
Finished preparations may be stored in plastic bottles, which will not shatter in case of an accident.
4. NEVER handle roughly, strike, or drop any mixture containing chlorates, nitrates, perchlorates,
permanganates, bichromates, or powdered metals.
SAFETY INCOMPATIBLE MATERIALS
Certain combinations of chemicals are remarkably explosive, poisonous, or hazardous in some other
way, and these are generally avoided as a matter of course. Stop and think carefully before starting any
work, especially if one or more hazardous chemical is involved.
For instance, compositions containing copper-ammonium complex salts in combination with nitrates or
chlorates are extremely sensitive and should never be used. Compositions containing aluminum or
magnesium in combination with nitrates and chlorates are another that should never be used.
Following is a partial list of dangerously incompatible chemicals:
Acetic acid with chromic acid, nitric acid, hydroxyl-containing compounds, ethylene glycol,
perchloric acid, peroxides, or permanganates.
Acetone with concentrated sulfuric and nitric acid mixtures.
Alkali metals, such as calcium, potassium and sodium with water, carbon dioxide, carbon
tetrachloride, or other chlorinated hydrocarbons.
Ammonia with mercury, halogens, calcium hypochlorite, or hydrogen fluoride.
Ammonium nitrate with acids, metal powders, flammable fluids, chlorates, nitrates, sulfur, finelydivided organics, or other combustibles.
Ammonium nitrate with metals (especially copper).
Aniline with nitric acid, hydrogen peroxide, or other strong oxidizing agents.
Bromine with ammonia, acetylene, butadiene, butane, hydrogen, sodium azide, turpentine, or finelydivided metals.
Chlorates with ammonium salts, acids, metal powders, sulfur, carbon, finely-divided organics, or
other combustibles.
Chlorine with ammonia, acetylene, butadiene, benzene or other petroleum fractions, hydrogen,
sodium carbides, turpentine, or finely-divided powdered metals.
Chromic acid with acetic acid, naphthalene, camphor, alcohol, glycerin, turpentine, or other
flammable liquids.
Hydrocarbons, generally, with fluorine, chlorine, bromine, chromic acid, or sodium peroxide.
Hydrogen peroxide with copper, chromium, iron, most metals or their respective salts, flammable
fluids and other combustible materials, aniline, or nitromethane.
Hydrogen sulfide with nitric acid or oxidizing gases.
Iodine with acetylene or ammonia.
Mercury with acetylene, fulminic acid, or hydrogen.
Nitrates with aluminum, unless boric acid is also used.
Nitric acid with acetic, chromic or hydrocyanic acids, aniline, carbon, hydrogen sulfide, flammable
fluids or gases, or substances which are readily nitrated.
Oxalic acid with silver or mercury.
Oxygen with oils, grease, hydrogen, flammable liquids, solids, or gases.
Perchloric acid with acetic anhydride, bismuth or its alloys, alcohol, paper, wood, or other organic
materials.
Phosphorous pentoxide with water.
Picric acid with lead, lead compounds, or almost any other metal.
Sodium peroxide with any oxidizable substances (for instance: methanol, glacial acetic acid, acetic
anhydride, benzaldehyde, carbon disulfide, glycerin, ethylene glycol, ethyl acetate, furfural, etc.).
Sulfur or sulfuric acid with chlorates, perchlorates, or permanganates.
Also, since pyrotechnic compositions may contain powdered metals, they may become hazardous in the
presence of moisture. Compositions in process, and pyrotechnics in storage, must be well-protected from
moisture, and items showing evidence of moisture should be promptly destroyed.
ABOUT CHLORATES. Potassium chlorate and barium chlorate are among the most valuable AND
THE MOST DANGEROUS oxidizers used in pyrotechnic and a few explosive formulations.
Unlike the perchlorates, which are much safer, chlorates form chloric acid in the presence of moisture
(like humidity) and any kind of acid material, and this can cause mixtures to spontaneously ignite or
explode.
Chloric acid is an unstable acid, and is easily decomposed. Consequently, a slight rise in temperature is
sometimes sufficient to bring about a detonation. As little as 2% copper contaminating potassium chlorate
can convert a semi-stable mixture into one that reliably explodes without provocation in less than 30 minutes
(MacLain, Pyrotechnics).
The tendency of potassium chlorate to explode is very strong in the presence of sulfur, sulfides, and
sulfates, which sometimes release minute amounts of sulfuric acid. Potassium chlorate mixed with sulfur
will explode from slight shock or friction, and frequently will detonate spontaneously (when they absorb
sufficient moisture from the atmosphere to form chloric and/or sulfuric acids). Such mixtures are quite
unpredictable. Such a formula may behave properly the first 99 times it is used, and then produce death and
destruction the next. For this reason, formulations containing both chlorates and sulfates must be strictly
avoided. All chlorates react in a similar way.
For these reasons, modern pyrotechnists normally avoid all chlorates. (While they should ordinarily
NEVER be used, chlorates are sometimes used in stars that get fired from a Roman candle or aerial bomb,
because if formulated from perchlorate oxidizers, the speed with which they get ejected can actually ‘blow
them out.’ Chlorate based mixtures rarely ‘blow out.’)
If you must experiment with chlorates, always use very small amounts, and never store those
formulations for long periods of time. Also, keep them away from all other fireworks.
Always add a carbonate before using such mixtures in any fireworks, and absolutely avoid any of the
‘ancient’ formulas that use chlorates and sulfur in firecrackers. Chlorates mixed with anything in a
firecracker are a bad idea.
As little as 2% copper contaminating potassium chlorate can convert a semi-stable mixture into one that
reliably explodes without provocation in less than 30 minutes.
NEVER mix a chlorate with:
Acidic ingredients
Ammonium salts
Fine metal powders
Gallic acid
Gum arabic
Phosphorus
Picric acid or picrates
Pitch or asphalt
Sulfur or sulfides
OTHER INCOMPATIBLE MATERIALS.
It must be recognized that, because of the
experimental nature of these arts and sciences, unforeseen chemical and material incompatibilities are
always a serious risk. Each month scientists and technicians around the globe discover—often the hard
way—that various mixtures do not work.
It is not the intention of this handbook to list each and every such incompatibility, as such a task is
perhaps impossible, and new incompatibilities are discovered periodically. Rather each individual working
this new and unproven mixtures and compounds must be constantly vigilant that new hazards are likely in
this rapidly-evolving, advanced science.
The best solution to these risks is the work with tested, proven chemicals, formulations, and materials
whenever possible. When not possible, recognize in advance, clearly, the risks involved and take suitable
precautions.
PYROPHORICS AND HYPERGOLICS. Pyrophorics are those chemicals which can ignite
spontaneously in air. Among the most notable are white phosphorus, uranium powder, and plutonium.
Other potentially pyrophoric metals include finely-divided titanium, zirconium, and under certain
conditions, beryllium.
Hypergolics are those chemicals which can be made to ignite spontaneously when brought into contact
with another chemical or chemicals, without an external aid (i.e., an igniter or spark plug). Among the most
commonly encountered hypergolics are the duets of fuming nitric acid and aniline or furfural alcohol, many
of the hydrazines with fuming nitric acid or nitric oxides, and so forth. All of the hypergolic chemicals are
exceptionally hazardous, and require handling by highly trained personnel. For this reason, specific
information about the safety aspects of working with hypergolics is not included in this brief treatise.
WEIGHING
It is essential to keep the scales or balance clean. Never weigh anything on the balance itself, but always
weigh it in a container that rests on the balance. For amounts up to a few grams, use a small square of paper.
Always use a clean piece of paper on the scale pan for each item. Then discard the used paper into a bucket
of water before weighing the next ingredient. By cutting these sheets all to the same size (perhaps 3-in
square), then you will always know about how much it weighs. This is convenient when finding its tare
weight.
For amounts ranging from a gram up to a few dozen grams (depending on how fluffy the material is),
commercial cup-cake papers from a supermarket are handy. Use them once and then throw them away to
promote cleanliness. For larger amounts, use plastic freezer containers, yogurt or cottage cheese tubs, or
similar containers.
SCOOPING
Never put a contaminated scoop into a container of pure chemicals. Either use disposable scoops, or
clean them between every use.
Fortunately, disposable scoops are readily available. Plastic spoons are very satisfactory. Provide each
supply jar of chemical with its own scoop, clearly labeled and separated from other scoops. Never use that
spoon to touch anything other than the chemical it is dedicated to.
MIXING
Mixing pyrotechnic and explosive compounds is clearly one of the most dangerous procedures in this
industry. Mixing processes create a variety of special hazards that are not easily eliminated.
Large sheets of newspapers can be employed to "diaper mix," or to catch the siftings from screen
mixing. Ingredients can also be put in a ziplock plastic baggie and mixed by shaking.
Do not use wooden spoons, unless you dedicate each spoon to a specific task (for example, stirring black
powder mixes). Wood is porous, and potentially dangerous contamination from one batch to the next is
assured.
The following is a summary of fundamental rules for mixing pyrotechnic and explosive compounds:
1. Mix only small batches at one time. The power of an explosive cubes with every ounce.
2. Mixing must be done in non-metallic containers to avoid sparks. Glass should never be used.
3. In all cases, point the open end of the container away from yourself. Never hold your body or face
over the container.
Any stirring should be done with a wooden paddle or stick to avoid sparks or static.
RAMMING
Ramming is a term used loosely to describe either hand ramming with a mallet or with a hydraulic or
other type of press. Ramming can be dangerous when applied to sensitive materials such as whistle mix, or
mixes containing metal shavings, so you should always be cautious about what you ram.
When pressing rockets, don't place your hand over the rammer, in case the composition ignites.
Pressing rockets with hydraulic rams might confine combustion products during accidental ignition,
resulting in an explosion rather than just a fire. Unless you can handle the consequences, don't make flash
powder by accident, such as by combining perchlorate with sodium benzoate before mixing with a silicone.
For more information on safety with fireworks, please see the United States Naval Ordnance Laboratory,
publication NOL TR 61-138 or its successor.
Ramming should always be done consistently. When using a hammer you should use a consistent swing,
and a consistent number of strokes. Hydraulic ramming should be done to a pressure gauge, or until the
handle presses back with an even force.
HANDLING BLACK POWDER
Next to flash powder, loose black powder is generally regarded as the most treacherous explosive
material commonly used today. It is highly sensitive to flame, sparks, and friction, and most black powder
fires and explosions start from unexpected sparks. Ignition results in an explosion so quickly that no attempt
can be made to fight the fire. Although it normally burns very rapidly in the open, it will explode if ignited
under even the slightest confinement.
Every effort should be made to prevent fires from reaching stores of black powder, but if this fails, firefighting forces should be withdrawn at least 250 m (800 ft) from the fire and should protect themselves
against any explosion by seeking any cover available, or by lying flat on the ground.
As most explosions from black powder originate from sparks, the following safety rules should be
strictly enforced:
1) Never leave any container of black powder uncovered.
2) Limit any active storage quantities to no more than 500-g (1-lb).
3)
Only non-sparking safety tools should be used in opening or closing containers, or in other
operations involving black powder.
4) The wearing of non-conductive shoes (such as those with rubber soles) is prohibited; only noninsulating safety shoes should be worn in all rooms where black powder is handled, and by all
persons involved in handling black powder.
5) If handling black powder is carried on over a concrete floor, the floor should be covered with a
tarpaulin or other suitable material.
6) If black powder is spilled on benches or floors, all work should be stopped until it has been removed
and the explosive hazard of any remaining dust or particles has been neutralized with water.
7) Absolute cleanliness should be maintained at all times in and around each operation. Rooms or
buildings where black powder is handled should be inspected frequently for dust, and all such dust
should be immediately removed with water.
8)
Black powder operations of any kind should conducted in special buildings that are not used for
other purposes at the same time.
9) All equipment should be electrically grounded, and this should be confirmed by sensitive and
accurate tests. Processes should be planned and laid out as to bring about frequent grounding of all
operators handling this material.
HANDLING FLASH POWDER
Of all of the available effects to the pyrotechnist, flash powder is probably the most fascinating and
certainly the deadliest effect we have. Perhaps this is due to the awesome energy potentials, the blinding
flashes, and the heart-stopping blasts it can produce. At the same time, all flash powders are extremely
hazardous. They will ignite–or more commonly, explode violently–from friction, impact, or heat.
"Accidents" involving flash powder are often severe and catastrophic, and the events leading to a flash
disaster are all too common: complacency, forgetfulness, and carelessness. These, accompanied by
familiarity and blind trust ("I've never had a problem before") are a recipe for disaster. An airplane crashing
into your explosives magazine is perhaps an unavoidable accident, but most fireworks, explosives, and
rocket propellant disasters are created by simple negligence.
A typical flash powder formulation has a critical detonable mass of between 30 and 50 g (1 and 2 oz).
This means that such a quantity will detonate with concussion and a shock wave when ignited in open air
(unconfined, just loose in the open). A cup or a shell casing confines the flash powder enough to accelerate
the reaction. (Less flash than the critical mass will just burn extremely rapidly and violently.) Compare this
with black powder, which has a critical mass of over 200 kg (500 lbs).
The average 3-in salute containing about 100 g (4 oz) of flash powder will dismember a person, not just
blow off a hand. As the size of the charge doubles, the force of the explosion increases eight times. When a
pound of loose flash goes off in a wooden structure the flash, fireball, and chest-pounding report is an
awesome experience. Generally, nothing larger than fist-size is left of the shed.
Here are a few of the known "dos and don'ts" regarding flash powder:
1. Mix only in humid weather (relative humidity of 50% or greater) to reduce the hazards associated
with static electricity ignition.
2. Wear only cotton or leather clothing when mixing (to minimize burn and static potentials).
3. Remove all jewelry and metal from your person.
4. Spray yourself, your work area, and your tools with static-guard laundry spray before mixing.
5. Screen all of your ingredients separately. Never screen compounded flash powder (or other highenergy materials). Particularly, you should also never screen anything with a sparking material such
as titanium in it.
6. Mix flash powder on a large sheet of paper by alternately lifting the corners and rolling the
ingredients to the center. This method, known as the "diapering" or "blanket-rolling" method is
common throughout the fireworks and the explosives trades, and is always used for high-energy and
sensitive compounds.
7. Add titanium last, after the other materials are well blended (some pyrotechnicians also add some
rice hulls to flash powder for 3-in and larger salutes to prevent caking).
8. Mix outdoors, away from other people, buildings, etc.
9. Limit your batch sizes to 1 ounce or less.
10. Limit one batch at a time, and one worker in a work room when charging casings.
11. Carry charged casings to a storage magazine before introducing a new batch to the work room.
12. Clean up all spills promptly, and be very careful cleaning spills containing titanium.
13. Wear a dust respirator when mixing: metal dusts are toxic.
14. Don't mix or store flash powder in anything plastic, or use any plastic tools or utensils (static spark
hazard).
15. Don't store loose flash powder, particularly in bulk.
16. Don't mix, store, handle, or use any flash powder containing potassium chlorate or magnesium,
particularly if sulfur is also present in the mix. Note that ordinary paper usually has a significant
amount of free sulfur present in it.
17. Don't smoke or be around any other source of ignition if you are wearing clothes that have been
possibly contaminated by flash powder.
18. Don't expose any unnecessary people to flash powder operations. Limit such operations to the
people absolutely necessary to get the job done.
From a point of view of safety, one cannot be too cautious with flash powder. It can be fatal to have a
"it won't happen to me" attitude. If 45 kg (100 lbs) of flash powder is ignited in the open air, it is instantly
lethal within an 8 m (25 ft) radius, and can be lethal up to several hundred feet if hit by things propelled
from the blast. Windows will break for a 400 m (1/4-mi) radius, and buildings will sustain structural
damage up to 180 m (600 ft) away. Buildings within 60 m (200 ft) will sustain severe structural damage to
framing timbers.
When using flash powders, observe the following rules:
1. Always use electrical ignition (either a commercial squib or nichrome hot wire). The use of a squib
is preferred because it provides a more positive ignition.
2. Always use an approved flash pot, made from transite or a similar material.
3. Always use the minimum amount of powder required to achieve the desired effect. In general, onequarter of a teaspoon will be sufficient.
4. Always have only one person who is responsible for dispensing and storing the flash powders.
5. Never pour the powder directly from the bottle into the flash pot. Measure the correct amount using
a non-sparking metal–NOT plastic–spoon.
6. Never confine or compact the powder in any way; to do so may lead to a violent explosion.
7. Never return unused powder to the original bottle.
8.
Never mix two different colors of flash powder.
formulations are incompatible with each other.
In many cases, the chemicals in the two
9. Never pour flash powder from its bottle onto plastic film or into another plastic container (due to the
risk of creating static electricity). The material is packed in plastic to reduce the danger of serious
injury in case the powder should ignite in the bottle.
10. Be especially careful on dry or low-humidity days, when the chance of ignition by static
electricity is high.
INDUSTRIAL SAFETY STANDARDS AND PROCEDURES
The following information has been excerpted from the standard safety operating procedures adopted
and practiced at several major manufacturing plants and test facilities. Such procedures are employed at
virtually all pyrotechnics, explosives, and rocket propellant factories, and this information should be studied
carefully to learn new and more progressive ways to adapt their experience and precautions to amateur
science.
STORAGE AND HANDLING OF INITIATING EXPLOSIVES. Initiating explosives
include lead azide, mercury fulminate, lead styphnate and tetracene. They are very sensitive
to friction, heat, and impact. When involved in a fire, they can be expected to detonate
without burning. Quantities in storage and in process must be limited to the smallest
practicable amounts. Bulk initiating explosives should be stored in conductive containers
and if more than 10 grams are stored for more than 4 hours, they must be kept wet with
water or with water-alcohol mixtures.
Every effort must be made to prevent the liquid from freezing, and if frozen, explosives
material itself must be handled. Whenever processing requires the scooping or pouring of
dry initiating explosives, the operation should be done by remote control.
Dust from initiating explosives operations must be collected with a wet-type aspirator
system. The aspirator bottle or container must be located as close to the dust intake point as
practicable. The aspirator bottle should contain an approved desensitizing agent or be
housed in a protective shield. No valves, where explosives may lodge, must be in the
vacuum line. The vacuum should be controlled to preclude excessive bubbling. Because
explosives may be present, extreme caution should be used when disassembling the system
to clean it. Contaminated sections of vacuum systems must be cleaned daily by circulating
an approved desensitizing solution through the tube or pipe. Dry-type collection systems
should not be used.
Emphasis must be placed upon cleanliness and general housekeeping since contamination of
these explosives with foreign or gritty material markedly increases their sensitivity. Rooms
in which initiating explosives are handled must have floors of lead or other nonsparking
flooring material. Flooring must always be of conductive finish. Walls of the rooms should
be covered with waterproof material having a smooth hard gloss finish. Frequent washing
of the rooms with a neutralizing solution is necessary.
Drying of the explosives is usually accomplished in muslin squares on a drying table or by a
special air blowing device with temperatures limited to between 122 degrees Fahrenheit and
140 degrees Fahrenheit (50 degrees Celsius and 60 degrees Celsius). Bulk initiating
explosives must be packaged and transported in accordance with current DOT regulations
pertaining to the specific initiating explosive.
Handling Low Energy Initiators. Whenever manufacturing, processing, using, or testing
low energy initiators (can be initiated by 0.1 joules [1 million ergs] of energy or less), the
following regulations in addition to those precautions (barricades, safety glasses, etc.)
normally used when handling explosive items must be followed wherever applicable:
a. All metal parts of equipment must be bonded together electrically and grounded.
b. Personnel must wear proper clothing. This means powder uniforms, cotton undergarments and conductive shoes with cotton socks or stockings. Just prior to an
operator entering the room or area where low energy initiators are being processed,
his conductive shoes must be tested with a resistance meter.
c. An approved wrist strap must directly ground personnel positioned at operating
locations where low energy initiators are handled. This grounding strap must be
checked daily while on these operators, and the resistance reading must be less than
250,000 ohms when measured from opposite hand to ground. Special contact
creams may be used to decrease the resistance to the required value.
d. When glass, acrylic or polycarbonate materials are required for transparency in
barricades, they must be coated with an anti-static wax to prevent build-up of static
electricity. This coating should be renewed every two months.
e.
In areas that are monitored by static electricity alarm devices, work must be
discontinued when the device warns of a static electric charge until cause has been
determined and corrective action taken to eliminate the condition. In each area at
the time of installation, a survey should be made to determine the maximum setting
of the alarm that will give ample warning but will not cause cessation of operations
needlessly.
f. In air-conditioned areas, work must not be started until the relative humidity and
temperature are at their proper levels as called for in approved SOPs for the job.
g. All metal surfaces exposed to a rubbing or friction action must not be painted. If
lubrication of such unpainted surfaces is necessary, it should be of such a
composition as not to increase surface resistance of the metal materials above 25
ohms.
h. All work on or with initiators must be performed in areas equipped with conductive
floors and conductive table tops. Exceptions may be made when approved in
writing by the local safety office when the initiators are properly packed, or are part
of a completed metallic end-item affording a complete shield for the initiators.
i. Work must not be done in the vicinity of electromagnetic or electrostatic fields or
where they may be produced. Examples of electrostatic or electromagnetic sources
are (a) radio transmission, (b) electrical storms, (c) transformer stations, (d) high
voltage transmission lines, (e) improperly grounded electric circuitry, and (f)
rotating equipment, belts, etc. Adequate lightning protection and ground for electric
storms and adequate resistances for fixed sources of energy must be established for
areas where low energy initiator operations must be shielded to afford protection
against mobile radio transmission in the vicinity.
j. All electrical equipment must be so located that it cannot be reached or touched by an
operator working with a low-energy initiator. Soldering must never be performed
with a connected electric soldering iron. An iron with a permanently grounded tip
may be remotely heated, disconnected, and then used.
k. Initiators, not part of an end-item or end-item subassembly must be transported from
one area to another only when properly packed according to the latest packing
specifications for low energy initiators. Components must be placed inside of a
suitable metal box.
Black Powder Operations. In black powder manufacture and operations, it is essential that
special attention be given to dust prevention and control, and to the prevention of
contamination. Permanent magnet type separators have been found effective in controlling
contamination. Deluge systems are of value in preventing the spread of fire in black powder
operations.
Solid Propellants. Solid propellants used by the military include single base, double base,
triple base, and composite types.
Solid propellants are a severe fire hazard. They burn rapidly and under suitable conditions
of initiation some may detonate. Solid propellants that are sufficiently sensitive to initiation
to detonation by fire or explosion are included in hazard class 1.1, while those of lesser
sensitivity to such stimuli are included in class 1.3. Propellant dust and powder normally
are sensitive to friction, flame, and sparks. The stability of propellants can be adversely
affected if they are stored for long periods in a damp atmosphere and/or subjected to high
temperatures; the eventual effect of such conditions may be the spontaneous ignition of the
propellant.
MANUFACTURING AND PROCESSING PYROTECHNICS AND ROCKET
PROPELLANTS
General. The safety precautions for manufacturing and processing pyrotechnics and rocket
propellants parallel those of many types of explosives and other energetic materials.
Pyrotechnics and rocket propellants, as a group, display many different characteristics
because they are formulated for different purposes. Pyrotechnics can be divided into several
general categories including: Initiators (igniters), illuminants, smokes, gas generators,
sound generators, heat producers, and timing compositions. Each of these categories has its
own characteristics and attendant processing requirements.
Knowledge of these
characteristics is necessary to assure safety in processing.
The range of characteristics associated with pyrotechnics and rocket propellants includes
compositions that are easily initiated, including compositions that burn in seconds at
temperatures exceeding 2760 degrees Celsius. (5000 degrees Fahrenheit) through
compositions that require substantial energy for initiation and have relatively low output
temperatures. As examples, the auto-ignition temperature for smoke compositions is
typically about 180 degrees Celsius while for illuminants it is about 500 degrees Celsius;
illuminants burn approximately 2.7 times faster than smokes and the heat of reaction is 1.5
times as great; infrared (IR) flare compositions are both hotter and faster burning than
illuminants.
Many of the compositions in the igniter or initiator class are as sensitive to static electricity,
friction, or impact as are initiating explosives such as lead azide and lead styphnate.
Initiation thresholds to such stimuli as impact, friction, and electrostatic discharge must be
known for safety in specific processes. The response of the material in terms of energy
release must be considered in assuring personnel safety. In addition to the safety
precautions generally required for the handling of explosives and other energetic materials,
the following paragraphs provide specific guidance pertinent to pyrotechnic operations.
As the majority of pyrotechnic compositions are sensitive to initiation by static electricity,
bonding and grounding together with other means of static elimination and control is
considered to be of paramount importance.
Weighing of Raw Materials. Separate weight or measurement rooms, cubicles or areas,
(dependent upon the quantity and sensitivity of the materials handled), should be provided–
one for oxidizers and one for combustible materials and metallic powders. It is important to
assure that containers, equipment, hand tools, scale pans, etc., used for weighing processes
are not intermixed between the weighing or measurement of oxidizers and fuels, particularly
where distance rather than physical barriers are used to separate these areas. Positive
measures should be adopted to assure the complete separation of equipment and tools for
these purposes. Personnel weighing or handling exposed oxidizers or fuels must wear flame
retardant uniforms, cotton undergarments, cotton socks, and conductive shoes as a
minimum.
Drying of Materials. The minimum temperature necessary to meet processing requirements
should be used to dry components and pyrotechnic materials.
Mixing and Blending. Mixing and blending of pyrotechnic compositions is an area of
serious concern as the majority of injuries producing accidents have occurred during the
mixing or blending process or the clean up operations that follow.
Due to the variety of different compositions classified as pyrotechnics, there are a large
variety of mixer types, each suitable to one or more groupings of pyrotechnic compositions.
Each of these mixer designs has its own unique characteristics that include greater or lesser
opportunities for initiation due to friction or impact, greater or lesser degrees of
confinement, and greater or lesser degrees of personal exposure during the operations in
which the ingredients are added to or removed from the mixer. Due to the variety of
composition types and characteristics, no single mixer or blender type can be established as
the exclusively approved equipment for pyrotechnic mixing and blending operations. In
order to preclude undue impact on research and development operations small quantities of
pyrotechnic compositions in the range of 10-21 grams may be exempted from these
requirements where full operator protection can be provided and the operation is approved
by the installation commander.
In general, every effort must be made to use devices that use a tumbling action as opposed
to those that use rotating blades, in order to minimize points where frictional heat may
develop or where accidentally introduced foreign material can create hot spots through
friction or crushing of composition.
Mixers and blenders must be provided with an adequate means of assuring pressure relief to
preclude the transition from burning to detonation. Every effort must be made to minimize
the personal exposures during charging and emptying of mixers. Where the energetic
characteristics and quantities of composition involved so dictate, mixers and blenders must
be remotely charged, operated, and emptied. In the instance where personal safety has been
demonstrated by hazard analysis or tests, mixers or blenders may be manually charged or
emptied with personnel exposed to contents of the mixer or blender. Appropriate interlocks,
clutch brakes, and similar devices must be used to preclude personnel exposure during
mixer or blender operation, and to preclude the movement of mixer or blender parts during
periods when operators are present at the mixer or blender.
Mixing and blending operations must be conducted in buildings or cubicles designed for
such purposes. Multiple mixing or blending operations may be conducted in the same
building provided that each blender or mixer is located in a separate room, bay, or cell and
separated from other operations by substantial dividing walls. Two or more mixers or
blenders may be located in the same cubicle provided that the hazard to personnel or
production capability is not increased by such installation. Normally this would require that
the materials in process be of significantly low energy content or slow energy release and
the mixers be charged and emptied simultaneously. At least one wall or equivalent panel
area in each bay must be frangible so as to provide pressure relief in the event of an
incident. Cell arrangement and pressure relief areas must be so located that personnel are
not required to, and are prohibited to pass in front of these areas while mixers or blenders
are in operation.
Exhaust ventilation equipment must be installed on mixers or in bays where flammable
solvents are used and interlocked with the mixers. The interlock must be designed to
preclude mixer operation without ventilation although operation of the ventilation system
without the mixer is permitted. Vapor sensors must be used to give automatic warning of a
build-up of flammable vapors to a level approaching that of the lower explosive limit or in
such configuration that an ignition of the flammable vapors could occur. Such sensors must
be interlocked to personnel access control devices. Ventilation system designs must not
permit translation of an incident in one bay to others served by the same system.
The operation of mixers or blenders may be observed by remote means such as closed
circuit television, mirrors, or transparent shields providing operator protection. Direct
viewing of blender or mixer operation without intervening barriers is prohibited.
Manual scraping in the mixing or blending process is prohibited.
blending of fuels and oxidizers into a mixture is prohibited.
Manual mixing or
Pressing, Extruding, and Pelleting. Pressing operations must be conducted with personnel
protected by either substantial dividing walls, barricades, or operational shields or be located
at intraline distance from the operator and other operations. When it is necessary to repair,
adjust, or otherwise clear a jam on a press or extruder, the pyrotechnic material must be
removed from the hopper and the bay or press room before such repairs or adjustments are
made. Only those adjustments of ram speed or conveyor speed normally intended to be
under the control of the operator may be conducted with material in the bay. Under no
circumstances must repair or adjustment requiring the use of tools be permitted with
pyrotechnic material in the bay.
The quantity of composition at the pressing location (behind the barricade) must not exceed
that required for the components undergoing the pressing operation. The quantity of
composition in the remainder of the building at any one time must not exceed the minimum
required for a safe, efficient operation.
Each individual press, extruder, or loading device must be located in a separate building,
room, or cubicle, and be designed to limit an incident to that area and protect operators.
Multiple installations may be permitted within a bay or cubicle provided that tests or hazard
analysis demonstrate that production and personnel safety are not thereby jeopardized.
Adequate means of pressure relief must be designed into each bay or cubicle.
Assembly Operations. Individual assembly operations must be adequately separated from
each other and must be located in a separate cubicle or building from mixing, blending, and
consolidation operations. Pyrotechnic composition must be kept in closed or covered
containers at all times when not actually being processed. Surge, storage, and in-process
transit between operations must also be accomplished with closed containers whenever not
absolutely prohibited by the operational configuration. The quantity of components in any
assembly room, bay, or building must be limited to the least quantity necessary for safe and
efficient operations.
Granulation, Grinding, and Screening. Material to be reduced in particle size must be
processed over a mechanical or magnetic separator to remove foreign materials prior to
grinding. Following grinding, the material must again be screened and/or passed over a
magnetic separator.
In the operation of ball mills, hammer mills, granulators, or screeners, the operator must be
protected from the effects of a potential incident by substantial dividing walls or operational
shields. Every effort must be made to remotely fill and discharge grinding, granulating, and
screening equipment. Cleaning of such devices must also be performed so as to provide the
maximum degree of operator protection.
Working surfaces, containers, and hand tools must be appropriately bonded and grounded.
Transportation. Transportation of pyrotechnic composition must be accomplished in closed
containers only. Individual containers and the transport vehicle (handcart, hand truck, etc.)
must be fabricated of the lightest materials compatible with the composition and having the
requisite strength. The intent is to minimize fragment generation in the event of an incident
by virtue of light construction and/or pressure relief. Transport vehicles must be equipped
with "deadman" brakes when if the terrain requires it. On- and off-loading of transport
vehicles must be conducted only in weather protected areas designed for this purpose. As
necessitated by the size or shape of the composition containers, racks, or other support must
be provided to secure containers against the possibility of falling.
Rebowling. Rebowling operations consist of the transfer of materials from one container to
another, typically small quantities of sensitive materials. It may be done to recover the
remains of small quantities of materials, or to subdivide large masses of materials into
smaller masses for processing. An operational shield must be provided to shield operators
from the potential effects of rebowling of pyrotechnic mixes.
Machining of Pyrotechnic Material. Machining of pyrotechnic materials must be
accomplished remotely, except where specifically permitted.
General Requirements.
(1) Where machining with coolant is required, the coolant must be compatible with the
pyrotechnic composition, and positive automatic interlocking devices must be
provided to ensure that the machine cannot be started until the coolant is flowing.
These controls must also be capable of stopping the machine if the flow of coolant
is interrupted. When it is essential to cut off the flow of coolant in order to adjust
machine tools, positive means must be used to assure that once adjusted, the flow of
coolant is restored and all automatic control devices are in operation, before
resumption of machining.
(2) If a cutting edge inadvertently attains an excessive temperature during machining, it
poses the maximum hazard when the machine is stopped and continuous contact
with the pyrotechnic material is maintained. It is, therefore, essential that coolant
flow be continued to the cutter until the cutter is removed from contact with the
pyrotechnic material.
(3) Sensors are recommended to detect tooling malfunctions or other potentially
hazardous conditions. Machine tool power consumption monitors, tool force gages,
sound or noise detectors, and temperature indicating devices or IR can be used in
this regard.
(4) Cutting tools must be chemically compatible with the pyrotechnic material to be
machined and be capable of maintaining a sharp cutting edge throughout the
machine cycle.
(5) Only positive control limits on tool adjustment must be used to ensure proper depth,
diameter, and/or contour of the cut. Such control measures include guides,
bushings, stops, and other physical alignment aids. The lineal and rotational speed
of tools for the machining of pyrotechnic material must be maintained at the
minimum necessary for safe and efficient operation. There must be no latitude for
unintended operator adjustment of these features.
(6) Drilling operations must not impede the flow of chips and coolant in the bore. The
drilling of small holes (one-quarter inch or less) and any size of multiple drilling
operation must be performed by remote control, with operator protection provided,
unless documented hazard analysis or tests demonstrate that operators must not be
subjected to hazard by such operations.
(7) Contoured cutting tools must be completely free of contact with the pyrotechnic
material being machined before personnel are permitted to enter the machining area.
Machine tools must be cleaned as often as necessary during operating hours to
prevent an accumulation of material residues and must be thoroughly cleaned from
the machine operation by vacuum accumulator systems or by immersion in a stream
of liquid coolant or similar automatic means. When using compressed air as a
coolant, only low pressure (10 psig) may be used, and then only when a vacuum
collection system is used to reduce the scattering of pyrotechnic particles. The
coolant delivery tube must have a metallic tip or nozzle that is grounded to the
machine to assist in the elimination of static charges.
Specific Guidance for Machining.
(1) Drilling and facing operations for colored smoke compositions containing organic
dyes, potassium chlorates, and sugars must be conducted at nor more than 2475
lineal inches per minute, with the feed rate adjusted to enhance the machinability of
the composition. For red phosphorous compositions, drilling and facing operations
must be conducted at not more than 1100 lineal inches per minute with the feed
adjusted to minimize friction and heat build-up. For extruded candles composed of
magnesium, tetrafluoroethylene polymers, and fluoroelastomer binders, drilling and
machining operations must be conducted at not more than 530 lineal inches per
minute.
(2) Hand trimming and cutting of pyrotechnic candles may be permitted when
supported by results of a hazard analysis specific to the particular composition and
candle configuration.
(3) Particular attention must be given to the sawing operations to prevent the work from
plunging into the saw blade and to ensure that chips are removed from saw teeth
prior to their next cutting pass. Plunging can occur when thin sections are force fed
into coarse-pitch saw blades. To prevent this, either a minimum of two saw teeth
must remain in contact with the work while sawing, or the work-feed must be
positively controlled. Chip accumulation on saw teeth is a function of the material
being sawed, rate of feed, blade speed, tooth design, and flushing arrangement.
Additional chip removal equipment such as blade wiping brushes may be required.
Spill Control. Spills of pyrotechnic compositions and energetic ingredients are potentially
hazardous. In the event of an accidental spill, the responsible supervisor must be notified
prior to taking any action to clean or contain the spill. SOP for pyrotechnic operations must
include specific provisions for spill clean-up. Such provisions may be incorporated into the
various operations covered by the SOP or may be addressed as a separate procedure. The
procedures must detail what actions are to be taken by whom and in what order. The
recovery of the spilled material and decontamination of the area must also be addressed in
the procedures. Spills having potential environmental impact must also be reported to the
environmental coordinator. Spill clean-up procedures must also consider environmental
impacts.
Collection of Pyrotechnic Wastes. Waste material and scraps must be removed at regular
intervals from all operating areas. All waste material must be segregated by type and
compatibility, and kept separate from common wastes. Containers for these materials must
be distinguished by color and labeled. Filled containers must be placed at designated
collection points.
Care must be exercised to preclude the mixing of small quantities of water with powdered or
fine granulations of metals. Pyrotechnic waste may be maintained dry or submerged in
water or oil, whichever is appropriate, for disposal. Plastic liners are recommended for
waste containers to facilitate cleaning. Liners must be conductive when the material
contained is subject to initiation by static electrical discharge.
Cleaning of Pyrotechnic Processing Equipment. As pyrotechnic materials are typically
sensitive to friction, impact, and/or static discharge, cleaning of equipment offers the same
hazard potentials as processing. Due to the necessity of personnel proximity to the
equipment being cleaned, the hazards of cleaning may exceed those of processing.
Therefore, cleaning operations must be afforded the same preplanning and SOP coverage as
the production steps.
Solvent solution flushing and cleaning by remote control is required for slurry-type mixing
operations. For other application, the process equipment must be flushed with a compatible
solvent, drained, and process repeated as often as necessary to remove the maximum
quantity of pyrotechnic composition. High pressure water wash may be used where
compatible with the pyrotechnic composition. Where the solvents used represent either a
fire or toxicological threat, appropriate precautions must be taken to control the hazard.
Run-off from cleaning operations must be controlled to preclude the creation of a secondary
hazard from the spread of contamination.
Where remote cleaning cannot be used, personnel protective equipment must be designed
and proven by test to afford operator protection from the maximum quantity of material that
could be present, and its use must be required.
Personal Protective Equipment. Personal protective equipment must not be relied upon as
the primary means of operator protection. The primary means must be placed upon the
reduction of quantities to the minimum and the use of operational shields. Supplemental
operator protection may be afforded by high speed deluge systems designed and installed
for such purposes. The personal protective apparel prescribed in a SOP must be specifically
designated based upon the hazards associated with the operation.
The minimum personal protective apparel for personnel exposed to open containers of
pyrotechnic or energetic raw materials must consist of the following:
(1) Cotton undergarments and socks. (100% cotton is not required; however, high
cotton content is desired).
(2) Conductive-soled safety shoes.
(3) Flame retardant coveralls. (Only those flame retardant, or flame retardant-treated
fabrics which have high moisture regain, and that carbonize with minimal shrinkage
when exposed to fire must be used. Flame retardant-treated cotton meets this
requirement, and its high moisture regain assists in reducing the potential for static
electrical charge retention.)
(4) Hair coverings are recommended.
In addition to the items listed above, all employees exposed to hazardous quantities (as
determined by hazard analysis or tests) of pyrotechnic compositions must wear the
additional items describe below. The definition of hazardous quantities must be dependent
upon the energy output and sensitivity of the composition and the nature of the operation.
The intent is to assure that personnel are afforded realistic protection from the hazards of the
operations. Required levels of protective apparel must be specified in appropriate SOP
steps.
(1) Thermally protective suit with hood and face plate.
(2) Thermally protective trousers.
(3) Thermally protective gloves or equivalent.
(4) Respiratory protection as necessary to protect against toxic threats. Such protection
must be compatible with other protective apparel.
Many materials used in the production of pyrotechnics are either toxic or represent fire
hazards or both. Operations must be designed to provide protection from these threats.
Vapor and dust removal and collection systems must be provided where toxic or flammable
dusts or gases are generated. Design and installation of such equipment must meet relevant
environmental standards as well as safety requirements.
Blankets may be provided in closed but easily opened containers within 25 feet of
operations where they may be required for wrapping employees who have been burned.
Where blankets are not provided, alternate means of achieving the same effect must be
provided.
When required, conductive shoes must be checked for conductivity daily prior to the
beginning of work and a permanent log must be maintained of the testing.
Reworking Pyrotechnic Components. All repair, reassembly, or similar operations on
loaded pyrotechnic compositions must be accomplished in a separate bay used only for that
purpose.
Normally, consolidated or extruded pyrotechnic compositions must not be pulverized for
reblending operations. Such items must be destroyed. Some compositions, such as HC
smoke, may be incinerated. Other, more sensitive materials such as IR flare compositions
may not.
Fire Protection. Where compatible with process materials, deluge systems may be used for
the protection of mixing and blending operations, screening, granulation, drying, and
pressing of extrusion operations. The response time of the deluge system must be selected
to minimize the damage and facilities. Hazard analysis of the operation may dictate other
applications.
CLASSIFICATION OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS
EXPLOSIVES CLASSIFICATIONS FOR PURPOSES OF INTERSTATE COMMERCE
The U.S. Department of Transportation has classified modern commercial explosives into the following
four classes:
CLASS A EXPLOSIVES. Also called "high" explosive or detonating explosives, this class includes
dynamite, nitroglycerin, picric acid, lead azide, mercury fulminate, black powder, blasting caps, and
detonating primers.
CLASS B EXPLOSIVES. These materials are flammable and include such products as propellant
explosives, photographic flash powders, and some special fireworks.
CLASS C EXPLOSIVES. These include manufactured combinations of Class A and Class B
explosives in restricted concentrations and quantities.
FORBIDDEN EXPLOSIVES. Forbidden explosives are those not acceptable for transportation by
regulations of the Department of Transportation (DOT), including but not limited to:
Liquid nitroglycerin.
Dynamite (except gelatin dynamite) containing more than 60¼ of liquid explosive ingredient.
Dynamite having an unsatisfactory absorbent or one that permits leakage of a liquid explosive
ingredient under any conditions liable to exist during storage.
Nitrocellulose in a dry and uncompressed condition in quantity greater than 10 lb (4.5 kg) net weight
in one package.
NOTE: Nitrocellulose decomposes very slowly on storage if it isn't stabilized. The decomposition is
auto- catalyzing, and can result in spontaneous explosion if the material is kept confined over time.
The process is much faster if the material is not washed well enough. Nitrocellulose powders
contain stabilizers such as diphenyl amine or ethyl centralite. DO NOT ALLOW THESE TO COME
INTO CONTACT WITH NITRIC ACID! A small amount of either substance will capture the small
amounts of nitrogen oxides that result from decomposition. They therefore inhibit the autocatalysis.
NC eventually will decompose in any case.
Mercury fulminate in a dry condition and fulminate of all other metals in any condition except as a
component of manufactured articles not hereinafter forbidden.
Explosive compositions that ignite spontaneously or undergo marked decomposition rendering the
products or their use more hazardous when subjected for 48 consecutive hours or less to a
temperature of 167°F (75°C).
Explosives containing an ammonium salt and a chlorate.
New explosives until approved by DOT, except that a permit may be granted for transportation and
possession for laboratory examination of such explosive when under development by responsible
research organizations.
Explosives not packed or marked in accordance with the requirements of DOT.
Explosives condemned by DOT.
SHIPPING HAZARDOUS MATERIALS
The shipping of many chemicals and pyrotechnic devices by UPS requires "DOT Exemption
Packaging." Special hazardous materials ("hazmat") packing is not always required for shipments by motor
freight common carriers. The most common hazmat shipping classifications are:
AG
FL
FS
SC
DW
OX
PM
CM
Aerosol gas (Class 2.2)
Flammable liquid (Class 3)
Flammable solid (Class 4)
Spontaneously combustible (Class 4.2)
Dangerous when wet (Class 4.3)
Oxidizer (Class 5.1)
Poisonous material (Class 6.1)
Corrosive material (Class 8)
Chapter 2
CHEMICALS
INTRODUCTION
While explosives chemistry is highly focused on process and technology, fireworks and rocket
propellants are much more demanding that the pyrotechnician and amateur rocket scientist also be both and
artist and craftsman with chemicals. So a comprehensive understanding of the chemical repertoire of the
fireworks and rocket propellant laboratory is absolutely essential to any development of the art. The author
admonishes each and every fireworks and rocket propellant chemist, seasoned or novice: "Know thy
chemicals."
Knowing "your chemicals," of course, requires a full understanding of their reactivity and safe handling.
REACTIVITY AND INERTIA
Materials that readily enter into rapid chemical reactions are referred to as reactive, while those that do
not readily enter into chemical reactions, or do so at generally negligible rates, are called inert.
Looking at a periodic chart of the elements, reactivity increases for elements from the center to both the
left and the right. Thus, Group IV elements are generally less reactive than those of Group III, which in turn
are generally less reactive than those of Group II, and so on. In the other direction, Group IV elements are
generally less reactive than those in Group VI, and so on. Group VIII is an exception in that it consist of
completely inert elements.
In addition, within any period, the higher (lighter) elements tend to be more reactive than the lower
(heavier) ones. Thus fluorine is more reactive than chlorine, which in turn is more reactive than bromine.
The effect of temperature on reaction rate is very pronounced. As a broad rule, the reaction rate for any
given reaction will double for each rise of 10°C in the reaction temperature. It is for this reason that many
reactions can rapidly become violent and explosive.
A catalyst is a material that accelerates a chemical reaction but does not alter the reactants or products,
nor is it itself consumed by the reaction. By whatever route they function, catalysts tend to reduce the
activation energy required to initiate a reaction. Inhibitors are substances that slow down or moderate a
reaction and function in a manner directly opposite to that of a catalyst.
FUELS
Literally thousands of compounds are effective as fuels in various kinds of combustion and detonation
processes. While nitrogen is generally considered the fundamental element in pyrotechnic and explosives
chemistry, oxygen appears in many common fuels, particularly as components of groups:
OXIDIZERS
The main oxidizers include metallic oxides and peroxides, oxygenated salts, and some halides. Note
that some few substances, for instance nitrocellulose, are combined oxidizer-fuel systems in themselves.
CHLORATES. Chlorates are a combination of a metal or hydrogen and -ClO3 monovalent radical.
They are powerful oxidizing agents. They are crystalline and somewhat deliquescent.
Chlorates are dangerous when in contact with flammable matter. When contaminated with oxidizable
materials, they are particularly sensitive to friction, heat, and shock. Chlorates are particularly dangerous
when contaminated with sugar, charcoal, shellac, sulfur, starch, sawdust, sulfuric acid, ammonium
compounds, cyanides, phosphorus or antimony sulfide, aluminum, As2S3, CaH2, MnO2, metal sulfides,
organic acids, powdered metals, Hg3P4, PHI4, SCN, selenium, NaH2PO2, SrH, SO2.
When mixed with combustible materials, chlorates may form explosive mixtures. Pure chlorates that
have been spilled on the floor, or mixed with small amounts of impurities, become very sensitive to friction
and shock.
Water is considered the best agent for fighting fires involving chlorates.
In the explosive industry, chlorates are used as oxidizing agents in the primer caps in combination with
mercury fulminates, phosphorus, antimony sulfide, and other combustible substances. They are widely used
in pyrotechnic mixtures, as a component of airplane flares, and aerial bombs. They are also used as a
component of permissible explosives.
Chlorates are used extensively in the manufacture of chlorate explosives. The chief constituent of such
an explosive is from 60 to 80% chlorate. This can be the chlorate of ammonium, sodium, or potassium. The
other ingredients in such a mixture are combustible materials, such as metallic powders, powdered sulfur,
powdered charcoal, or possibly mixtures of organic matter. Nitro derivatives of benzene, toluene, and other
aromatic compounds are also added. Paraffin may be added as a desensitizer. Recently, similar mixtures
were used in Europe but with the addition of small amounts of nitroglycerin or collodion cotton.
Chlorate explosives are more sensitive than modern permissible explosives, and therefore not as safe as
for instance the perchlorate explosives, or the permissibles. Plastic mixtures of chlorate explosives
(containing nitroglycerin) are somewhat less sensitive to shock and friction, in spite of the nitroglycerin
present, than the dryer explosives with no nitroglycerin. In this case the nitroglycerin or "explosive oil", as
it is known, serves to wet the rest of the mixture.
TOXIC AND HAZARDOUS CHEMICALS
The following is a partial list of a few of the most common toxic or hazardous chemicals that have been
or are currently used to make fireworks, rocket propellants, and explosives. Please note that some of these
chemicals are no longer viable to handle or use in commercial applications, too expensive to use, or have
been replaced with other chemicals that provide better performance. Some may still be used for military or
signal pyrotechnics, and experimentally to develop improved colors or effects.
Note also that some of these chemicals must not used in U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission
(CPSC) Consumer Fireworks (see Appendix ##), or in display fireworks that are commercially available in
the United States.
ALUMINUM [Al] In the usual pyrotechnic form (dust and powder), aluminum is flammable. Also, it
can seriously damage your lungs if you inhale it. Be careful not to stir up any clouds of dust, and it
goes without saying that you shouldn't use it near an open flame. In coarser forms, like powder, it is
less dangerous.
ALUMINUM CHLORIDE
[ALUMINUM TRICHLORIDE; ALCL3] Sublimes 178°C.
This chemical must not come in contact with the skin as severe burns can result.
AMMONIUM BICHROMATE [AMMONIUM DICHROMATE; (NH4)2Cr2O7] A mild
poison.
AMMONIUM OXALATE [(NH4)2O4] This compound takes the form of colorless, poisonous,
crystals. The technical grade is suitable for the manufacture of safety explosives.
AMMONIUM NITRATE [NH4NO3] Oxidizer. MP 169.6°C, decomposes at 210°C. Commonly
used as fertilizer, this oxidizer is somewhat dangerous in large quantities, particularly if it gets very
hot. Entire shiploads of this material have been known to explode all at once. When heated gently,
it decomposes into water and nitrous oxide (‘laughing gas’).
This is used very infrequently in pyrotechnics and rocket propellants due to its hygroscopic nature,
plus the fact that it decomposes even at relatively low temperatures and is sensitive with other
chemicals (even when dry, it reacts with Al, Zn, Pb, Sb, Bi, Ni, Cu, Ag and Cd. In the presence of
moisture it reacts with Fe. It reacts with Cu to form a brisant and sensitive compound.). It is best
not to use any bronze or brass tools when working with ammonium nitrate.
Ammonium nitrate is a high explosive material that is used as a commercial "safety explosive". It is
very stable, and is difficult to ignite with a match, and even then will not explode under normal
circumstances. It is also difficult to detonate as it requires a powerful shockwave to cause it act as a
high explosive.
Commercially, ammonium nitrate is sometimes mixed with a small amount of nitroglycerine to
increase its sensitivity. It is hygroscopic, (it tends to absorb water from the air) and will eventually
be neutralized if it is allowed to react with water, or used in compounds containing water.
Ammonium nitrate may also be found in many fertilizers.
AMMONIUM PERCHLORATE
[NH4ClO4] Oxidizer. This is the most commonly used
composite rocket solid-fuel oxidizer, most notably in the solid booster rockets (SRBs) for the Space
Shuttle. Using it in a pyrotechnics composition improves the production of rich blues and reds in
the flames when used with copper salts and strontium salts. As with any ammonium salt, it should
not be mixed with chlorates due to the possible formation of ammonium chlorate, a powerful and
unstable explosive.
AMMONIUM PICRATE
[AMMONIUM PICRONITRATE; NH4C6H2N3O7] These
bright orange crystals are used in armor piercing shells and fireworks. If heated to 300 degrees it
will explode or it can be set off by shock. If you do any work with this chemical, it is advisable to
keep it wet.
ANTIMONY POTASSIUM TARTRATE [TARTAR EMETIC; (SbO)KC4O6.1/2H2O]
These poisonous, transparent, odorless crystals (or white powder) are used to make Antimony
Fulminate. The moisture that is present can be driven off by heating to 100 degrees. Do not exceed
this temperature or the chemical will decompose.
ANTIMONY TRISULFIDE [STIBNITE, ANTIMONY (III) SULPHIDE; Sb4S6] Fuel.
MP 550°C. Sold as a dark gray, sparkly powder, antimony sulfide is also known as "Black"
Antimony Sulfide. (There is also a "Red" form, which is useless in pyrotechnics.) This is used to
increase sensitivity of flash powder, sharpening the report of firecrackers, salutes, etc. It adds color
to a fire, and is a fuel used in glitter compositions, and commonly in white comets and stars. The
technical dark-gray or black powder is suitable. Avoid contact with the skin It is toxic and quite
messy.
ARSENIOUS OXIDE [(As2O)3] Sublimes below 315°C. A white, highly poisonous powder used
in fireworks. It is also known as Arsenious Trioxide, Arsenic Oxide, Arsenolite, Claudetite, and
Arsenious Acid. Its uses are similar to Paris Green.
BARIUM CHLORATE [Ba(ClO3)2.H2O] Coloring Agent, oxidizer. MP 414°C. Used when
rich, deep green colors are needed. It is as powerful as potassium chlorate and should be handled
with the same care. It is one of the more sensitive chemicals that are still used, best to avoid if
possible, but if used it should be in combination with chemicals which will reduce its sensitivity to
shock and friction. Available as a white powder, it is poisonous, as are all barium salts. It is used
both as an oxidizer and color imparter.
BARIUM NITRATE
[BARIUM DINITRATE, NITROBARITE; Ba(NO3)2] Coloring
agent/enhancer, oxidizer. MP 592°C. Very useful and stable, the white powder is the most
commonly used oxidizer in producing green colors (although not a very strong green effect). It is
also used with aluminum powder to produce silver effects. Sometimes it is employed as an oxidizer
in flash powders.
It is poisonous, and uses and precautions are similar to potassium nitrate. Treat barium nitrate and
pyro-aluminum with great respect. Boric acid should always be used in compositions containing
barium nitrate and aluminum.
CALCIUM PHOSPHIDE [Ca3P2] MP >1600°C. Compound, which comes as gray lumps, must
be kept dry. Upon contact with water it will form the flammable gas, phosphine. It is used in signal
fires.
COPPER ACETOARSENATE [PARIS GREEN, KING'S GREEN, VIENNA GREEN,
COPPER ACETOARSENITE, COPPER (II) ACETATE METAARSENATE,
COPPER ARSENATE; (Cu)3As2O3Cu(C2H3O2)2] Coloring Agent. A poisonous green
to blue-green powder, this chemical is toxic but used to produce some of the best blue colors in
combination with potassium perchlorate. Don't confuse with copper arsenate or copper arsenite.
Is available as a technical grade, poisonous, emerald green powder. Be careful with this chemical,
as it contains arsenic. Rarely used because of toxicity .
COPPER ARSENATE [CuHAsO3] A fine, light green, poisonous powder. It is used in the
technical grade for fireworks.
COPPER CHLORATE [CUPRIC CHLORATE; Cu(ClO3)2.6H2O] Used in fireworks as an
oxidizer and to add color; poisonous.
CUPROUS CHLORIDE [COPPER (I) CHLORIDE, COPPER MONOCHLORIDE,
CUPROUS CHLORIDE; CuCl2] Coloring Agent. MP 498°C. Greenish-blue powdered
cuprous chloride is probably the best copper compound for creating blue and turquoise flames, and
it can be used with a variety of oxidizers. It is non-hygroscopic and insoluble in water, but it is
oxidized slowly in air. As with all copper salts, this is poisonous.
COPPER OXYCHLORIDE [COPPER (II) OXYCHLORIDE; 3CuOCuCl2.3.5H2O]
Coloring Agent. Decomposes. Occasionally used in cheap blue compositions, especially to blue
star formulas. The bluish-green powder is a poison and the dust should not be inhaled. Requires
(also toxic) mercury chloride to bring out the color.
COPPER SULFATE [CUPRIC SULFATE, COPPER (II) SULFATE, BLUE VITRIOL;
CuSO4.5H2O] MP 110°C. Poisonous compound, available as blue crystals or blue powder. Can
be purchased in some drugstores and some agricultural supply stores. Used as a colorizer, especially
for blue stars.
GALLIC ACID (3,4,5-TRIHYDROXYBENZOIC ACID) [C7H6O5.H2O] Fuel. White or
pale fawn-colored powder used in some formulas for whistling fireworks. Whistle mixes containing
gallic acid are generally the most sensitive of the whistling fireworks, with high sensitivity to both
friction and impact when used with chlorates, but cannot be used with perchlorates either. There are
safer alternatives for whistle compositions, and gallic acid is not commonly used today.
When mixed with some chlorates, permanganates or silver salts, it may explode.
IODINE [I] MP 113°C, BP 184°C; sublimes. Pure iodine, a natural element, is a steel gray solid,
which is poisonous and which produces poisonous vapors when heated.
LEAD CHLORIDE [PbCl2] MP 501°C, BP 954°C. Available as a white, crystalline, poisonous
powder, which melts at 501 degrees. As with all lead salts, it is not only poisonous, but the poison
accumulates in the body, so a lot of small, otherwise harmless doses can be as bad as one large dose.
LEAD DIOXIDE [BROWN LEAD OXIDE, PLATTNERITE; PbO2] Dark brown powder is
used as an oxidizer in matches and fireworks. Poisonous.
LEAD NITRATE [Pb(NO3)2] Decomposes 470°C. Available as white or colorless crystals in the
technical grade. The uses include matches and explosives. Poisonous.
Reacts violently with ammonium thiocyanate, carbon, lead hypophosphite. This contains poisonous
lead and is very water-soluble so your body will absorb it quickly, given the chance.
LEAD OXIDE [RED LEAD, LEAD TETROXIDE, MINIUM; Pb3O4] Decomposes 500°C.
Lead oxide is a poisonous red-orange colored powder commonly used to make matches, crackling
micro-stars ("Dragon Eggs"); also used for burning primes. A 95% purity is desired for matches.
MERCURIC CHLORIDE [CORROSIVE SUBLIMATE; HgCl2] MP 277°C, BP 304°C. A
white, poisonous powder. It can be made by subliming mercuric sulfate with ordinary table salt and
then purified by recrystallization. Th U.S.P. grade is used for s rework compositions.
MERCURIC OXIDE [HgO] Decomposes 100°C. Available in two forms; red and yellow. Both
forms give the same oxidizing effect in fireworks. The technical grade is suitable. All forms are
poisonous.
MERCURIC OXYCYANIDE [HgO.Hg(CN)2] In the pure state it is a violent poison which will
explode when touched by flame or friction.
MERCURIC THIOCYANATE [Hg(SCN)2] A poisonous, white odorless powder used in the
making of Pharaoh's Serpents. Use the technical grade.
MERCUROUS CHLORIDE [CALOMEL, MERCURIC MONOCHLORIDE; HgCl] MP
302°C, BP 384°C. This powder will brighten an otherwise dull colored mixture. Sometimes it is
replaced by hexachlorobenzene for the same purpose. This is non-poisonous ONLY if it is 100%
pure. Never confuse this chemical with mercuric chloride, which is poisonous in any purity.
NITRIC ACID [AQUA FORTIS; HNO3] MP -42°C, BP 86°C. A clear, colorless corrosive
liquid, which fumes in moist air. It can react violently with organic matter such as Charcoal, Alcohol
or Turpentine and consequently must be handled Very carefully. It is available in three forms: White
fuming, Red Fuming and Concentrated (70 to 71%). The latter, with a specific gravity of 1.42, is the
proper grade to buy. Whatever grade, avoid contact with the fumes or the liquid. Contact with the
skin will cause it to burn and turn yellow. It is used to manufacture many explosives.
PHOSPHORUS [P] MP 44.1°C, BP 280°C, ignites 34°C. Fuel. Phosphorus is rarely used in
pyrotechnics today, except for a few specialized applications. It was used commonly many years
ago, but as the hazards associated with its use became known it dropped out of use.
There are three allotropic forms of phosphorus–white, red and black; each of these is polymorphic
and there are at least eleven known modifications, some amorphous, others of some indefinite
identity, and all but three of unknown structure.
Red phosphorus, a violet-red amorphous powder, is made by heating the white form at 400°C for
several hours. White phosphorus is by far the most reactive form, and the black the least. White
phosphorus is stored under water to protect it from the air, while the red and black are stable in air.
Indeed, black phosphorus can only be ignited with difficulty.
White (sometimes called ‘yellow’) phosphorus inflames spontaneously in air, and is soluble in
organic solvents such as carbon disulfide and benzene. Red phosphorus (used in the strikers on the
side of matchboxes) is the more stable form. Both forms are toxic, although red phosphorus is much,
much less toxic.
When making a formula containing phosphorous, be sure to work with it in a WET STATE. This is a
most dangerous chemical to work with and should be handled only by the most experienced.
Oxidizers have been known to detonate violently without warning when mixed with red
phosphorous.
PHOSPHORUS TRISULFIDE [P2S3] This chemical can catch fire from the moisture that is
present in air, therefore the container should be kept tightly capped. The technical grade, purchased
as grayish-yellow masses, is used in making matches.
PICRIC ACID
[2,4,6-TRINITROPHENOL; C6H3N307] This is used to bring out and
improve the tone of colors in various fireworks. It is also used to make other chemicals that are used
in fireworks and explosives. Picric acid can explode from heat or shock. In other countries: Britain –
lyddite; France – melinite; Japan – shimose.
POTASSIUM CHLORATE [KClO3] Oxidizer. MP 368°C, decomposes 400°C. Originally very
commonly used in pyrotechnics, potassium chlorate has gradually been phased out due to its
sensitivity (in favor of potassium perchlorate).
Mixtures containing potassium chlorate and ammonium salts, phosphorus, or anything acidic are
particularly dangerous due to the extremely high shock and friction risk. For this reason mixtures
containing potassium chlorate and sulfur are to be avoided, as sulfur (especially the common
"flowers" of sulfur) may contain residual amounts of acid that can sensitize the mixture. In general,
potassium chlorate should be avoided unless absolutely necessary.
Never ram or strike a mixture containing potassium chlorate. Do not store mixtures containing this
chemical for any length of time, as they may explode spontaneously.
An important oxygen donor, potassium chlorate is (rarely) used as an oxidizer in colored flame
compositions and flash powders, and most commonly as the oxidizer in colored smokes. Some
fireworks makers also use it to improve the performance of their products, especially fuses and
quickmatch and some star formulas.
It is a poisonous, lumpy white powder; the chemical may contain 0.2% PCP anti-cake additive.
Chlorate can be screened or milled into fine white powder.
Chlorates have probably caused more accidents in the industry than all other classes of oxidizers
together. The reason lies in their sensitivity to acids and their low decomposition temperature.
When mixed with an easily ignitable fuel, such as sugar or sulfur, chlorates will ignite from a
fingernail striking a wire screen. Moreover, sulfur is often acidic, a fact that has lead to spontaneous
ignition of sulfur-chlorate compositions. Potassium chlorate has been banned in English fireworks
since 1875. If you intend to use chlorates, pay extra attention to safety.
It not only yields more oxygen than potassium nitrate, it does so more easily. Pyrotechnic mixtures
containing this chemical will require much less of it, and yet burn more fiercely. Even percussion
can readily set the mixtures off. Mixtures containing this chemical must be handled carefully.
Potassium chlorate is also poisonous.
POTASSIUM DICHROMATE
[POTASSIUM BICHROMATE; K2Cr2O7] Oxygen
donor. MP 398°C, decomposes. The bright orange granular commercial grade is used in fireworks,
smokes, and matches. The crystals are poisonous. Generally found with potassium perchlorate
compositions.
Also used as a surface treatment to suppress the corrosion and reactivity of magnesium; as an
oxidizer; and as a catalyst to aid in the decomposition of potassium perchlorate.
POTASSIUM NITRATE [SALTPETER; KNO3] Oxidizer. MP 297°C, decomposes 350°C. A
very common oxidizing agent in pyrotechnics, potassium nitrate is one of the chemicals you should
never be without. From its essential use in black powder to general applications in most fireworks,
you will find potassium nitrate used wherever a relatively mild oxidizer is required. It is especially
common in primes, and glitter and spark-producing formulations.
In fireworks, it should pass 120 mesh, but can be used at 60 mesh. The fine white powder should be
used as soon as possible after grinding or milling as it will soon cake and have to be re-ground. It is
sometimes sold with 0.05% TAG anti-cake additive.
Potassium nitrate decomposes at 400 degrees. Avoid using with sulfur or sulfides, phosphorus,
picric acid, picrates, fine metal powders.
POTASSIUM PERCHLORATE [KClO4] Oxidizer. Decomposes 400°C. A white or slightly
pink powder, this is the most commonly used oxidizer in colored flame compositions and flash
powder in the U.S. It is more expensive than potassium chlorate, but a better oxidizing agent and far
safer. In almost all mixtures that previously required the chlorate, safety factors have led to its
replacement with potassium perchlorate. It should be used in place of the chlorate wherever
possible.
It will not yield its oxygen as easily as chlorate, but to make up for this, it gives off more oxygen.
Charcoal aids ignition.
Potassium perchlorate produced in China or Italy is very commonly sold. Potassium perchlorate is
poisonous.
POTASSIUM PERMANGANATE [KMnO4] Decomposes <240°C. An oxidizing agent that's
somewhat less vigorous than others mentioned here. Not usually used in pyrotechnic mixtures
because it's more expensive and less effective than some of the alternatives. There are a few cases
when it's just the right thing.
Don't let this accidentally come in contact with glycerin. If such an “accident” happens, the resulting
mess should be immediately wiped up with wet paper towels and buried or flushed down a toilet. It
should NOT be thrown away in a dry waste receptacle!
POTASSIUM PICRATE [C6H2(NO2)3OK] Fuel, whistle-ingredient. This is a shock-sensitive
compound that is used in some whistle formulas. While safer than gallic acid formulas in this
respect, care should be taken to keep it away from other metals such as lead, because some other
metallic picrates are extremely sensitive. Very sensitive to shock and friction, potassium picrate is
used very rarely.
A salt of picric acid, this chemical comes in yellow, reddish or greenish crystals. It will explode
when struck or heated.
SILVER OXIDE [Ag2O] Dark brown, odorless powder. It is potentially explosive and becomes
increasingly more so with time. Keep away from Ammonia and combustible solvents. The technical
grade, which is about 92% pure, is suitable.
SODIUM OXALATE [Na2C2O4] Yellow color agent, delay agent, oxygen donor. The white
powder (325 mesh) is used as a fair to poor yellow color agent (with potassium perchlorate and
suitable fuels) and as an glitter effect enhancer (delay agent), with gunpowder, aluminum, and
antimony. The technical grade can be employed for making yellow fires.
Available as a fine dust, which you should avoid breathing. This is not a strong poison, but is
poisonous, and you should not come in contact with it or breathe the dust for any prolonged period.
SODIUM PEROXIDE [Na2O2] Decomposes. A very strange and dangerous oxidizer. Don't let it
get wet and don't let it touch your skin. A yellowish-white powder. It can explode or ignite in
contact with organic substances.
SODIUM PICRATE [SODIUM TRINITROPHENOLATE] Very similar to potassium picrate
and should be handled with the same precautions.
SULFUR [S] Fuel and sensitizer. MP 113-120°C, BP 445°C. Cyclo-octasulfur, S8, is the most
common form and has three main allotropes (crystal forms). Orthorhombic sulfur, S-alpha, is
thermodynamically the most stable for and occurs in large yellow crystals in volcanic areas.
Another basic fuel in pyrotechnics, yellow powdered sulfur is used in many pyrotechnic formulas
across the range of fireworks, most obviously in black powder (serving as both a binder and fuel).
Sulfur is usually employed in compositions with nitrate oxidizers. It is also used in low-impulse
rocket propellants as the oxidizer for zinc.
Purchase the yellow, finely powdered form only. Purchase good pyro grades (99.9% pure) low in
acid. Other forms are useless.
It is recommended to avoid the common "flowers" of sulfur, as they contain residual acid. If they
cannot be avoided, a small amount of a neutralizer such as calcium carbonate should be added if
acid is likely to present a problem.
Sulfur burns at 250 degrees, giving off choking fumes.
TITANIUM METAL [Ti] Fuel. MP 1800, BP >3000°C. Titanium, a metallic natural element that
resembles silicon and zirconium, burns when heated in air to produce a dense white smoke of
titanium dioxide (TiO2). Pure titanium has a hexagonal close-packed lattice and resembles other
transition metals such as iron and nickel in being hard, refractory (m.p. 1680°C, b.p. 3260°C), and a
good conductor of heat and electricity. It is, however, quite light in comparison to other metals of
similar mechanical and thermal properties, and unusually resistant to certain kinds of corrosion.
Flake titanium is often added to salutes. The coarse powder is safer than aluminum or magnesium
for producing sparks, and gives rise to beautiful, long, forked silver-blue/white sparks. Fantastic for
use in any spark composition, especially gerbs. Very fine powders are dangerous and sensitive!
Turnings are easily ignited. Use like iron.
Titanium metal is usually employed as spherical powder (40-200 mesh) or powdered sponge (18-30
or 40-80 mesh), which produce bright white sparks, and also works well in salutes, fountains, gerbs,
and comets.
A new aerospace alloy of 90% titanium, 6% vanadium, 4% aluminum is available in 10-60 mesh
flakes, and produces slightly brighter white sparks than the pure metal. This alloy also works well
in salutes, fountains, gerbs, and comets.
Also available as a granular, silvery metallic iron alloy powder that produces yellow-white sparks:
FerroTitanium [Fe/Ti], 60:40 iron to titanium ratio; 30-60 mesh (best for fountains or comets).
FerroTitanium [Fe/Ti], 60:40 iron to titanium ratio; -80 mesh (produces a thick spray of yellowwhite sparks).
FerroTitanium [Fe/Ti], 60:40 iron to titanium ratio; 40-325 mesh (an extremely fine, granular
powder; produces a rich, thick spray of fine sparks, perfect for stars).
ZINC [Zn] Fuel, smoke ingredient. MP 419°C, BP 907°C. Grayish-white, lustrous but tarnishable
metal powder used in fireworks to make spreader stars, which produce a very nice effect that looks
like a green glowing cloud. Also used in several smoke formulas, due to the thick clouds of zinc
oxide that can be produced. Compositions are somewhat sensitive, may self-ignite.
Of all the forms of zinc available, only the dust form is in any way suitable. As a dust, it has the
fineness of flour. Should be either of the technical or high purity grade. Avoid breathing the dust,
which can cause lung damage.
COMBUSTIBILITY PROPERTIES
Compound
Acetone
Asphalt (typ)
Benzene
Benzoic acid
Carbon disulfide
Cellosolve
Coal tar pitch
Cyanamide
Cyclohexane
Cyclohexanol
Cyclohexanone
Diethyl ether
Dimethyl ether
Ethyl acetate
Ethyl alcohol
Ethylene glycol
Glycerin
Methyl acetate
Methyl alcohol
Paraffin wax
Phosphorus, red
Phosphorus, white
Stearic acid
Sulfur
Toluene
Tung oil
Zirconium powder
Flash Point 1
0
400+
12
250
-22
104
405
285
1
154
147
-20
-42
24
55
232
320
15
54
390
500
86
385
405
40
552
550
Explosive Limits 2
Autoignition Temp 1
2.15-13.0
1.4-8.0
1118
905
1076
1.0-50
2.6-15.7
257
460
1.31-8.35
1.7-48.0
366
2.18-11.5
3.28-19.0
907
799
775
739
935
878
473
4.1-13.9
6.0-36.5
1.3-7.0
743
450
1026
855
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------1
2
Flash point for closed cup, autoignition: °F
Explosive limits, % vol in air
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Chapter 3
CHEMICAL MILLING AND MIXING
INTRODUCTION
There are a number of ways to mix compositions: ballmilling or tumbling, tumbler sifting, screening,
V-tube mixing, and diapering. These different techniques have different strengths and weaknesses. The
former are more likely to lead to a more intimate mixture than the latter but would certainly explode
sensitive mixtures.
Some mixes may most conveniently be made by placing the ingredients in a plastic bottle and rolling
around until the mixture is uniform. In all cases, point the open end of the container away from yourself.
Never hold your body or face over the container.
GRANULATION, GRINDING, AND SCREENING
GRINDING SAFETY
Grind with as little pressure as is needed to do the job. Keep away from flammable materials and
ignition sources. Wear leather (not plastic) gloves and eye protection. Hold container away from your face
and body.
Grind only very small batches 0.6cc (1/8 table spoon). A pinch of ground black powder is fairly
energetic if ignited. Igniting such small amounts of unconfined ground Pyrodex or match heads is about as
violent as setting off a full book of matches.
Never use a grinder that has been used for chlorates to grind sulfur or charcoal. You may need to buy
several sets of grinding tools if you plan to use chlorates and sulfur compounds. It is better to pay money for
extra tools, than to spend money on hospital bills.
Grinding black powder in a ball mill is one of the very rare instances where it is relatively safe to use the
same grinder for oxidizers and fuels. Even so, it is prudent to use remote on/off switches and treat the entire
process with great respect.
Clean the grinder very well between uses. As little as 2% of copper salts in a chlorate composition can
lead to spontaneous explosions.
MORTAR AND PESTLE
An old-fashioned porcelain mortar and pestle can be also used to grind black powder, but this process is
not nearly as satisfactory as using a ball mill. Note that the action is NOT a hammering action. Trap the
granules between the mortar and the pestle, and then grind them by rocking or sliding the pestle over them.
COFFEE GRINDERS
Small amounts of materials (up to fractional pounds) can be rapidly ground dust fine with a coffee
grinder. Make sure you clean the mill well between usage. Grinding a neutral compound, such as chalk,
fine sand or dextrin, between uses will remove most traces of reactive chemicals (make sure the chalk or
sand won't interfere with your next formulation).
One of the main hazards in using an electrical coffee grinder is that of electric sparks produced by the
motor. While this is not a danger if grinding potassium nitrate, charcoal, or sulfur separately, it is most
inadvisable to mix or grind black powder in any electric machine, regardless of how small the amount.
BALL MILLING
Ball milling (or ‘tumbling’) is one of the most thorough and roughest methods of mixing. All of the
components are placed in a ball mill, some grinding media is added, and the whole thing allowed to work for
minutes to hours to days. The balls (or bars, etc.) can reduce the contents to a very fine powder, and wet
milling can mix things very intimately. Yet this method depends on the ‘banging’ of the composition
between the balls or the balls and the side of the barrel. Obviously a friction or impact sensitive composition
will explode under such treatment. Thus, ball milling is used for mixing a very few compositions, such as
black powder. Even then ball mills have been known to explode.
This is also an excellent way to grind larger amounts of chemical ingredients. For example, a good ball
mill can turn out from 1 to 15 pounds (depending on size) of ground KNO3 or air float charcoal in a day or
two. You place the compound to be ground and some grinding media in the tub, close the lid, and turn it on.
However, you have to be careful that your grinding medium doesn't cause problems in later formulations.
For example, you could use glass balls for some chemicals, but you might not want to use glass if the
formulations to be made would be friction sensitive. Copper or brass balls or rods are commonly used, but
traces of copper are known to sensitize many compositions (chlorates, ammonium perchlorate, etc.). Lead
balls can be used, but the lead is soft and small amounts wear off into the ground material. If there is any
chance that you might breath the smoke you might want to avoid lead balls.
MIXING AND BLENDING
MANUAL MIXING
Pyrotechnic compositions are manufactured by blending together the finely divided ingredients into a
homogeneous mixture. The blending is done either by gently passing the ingredients together several times
through a copper wire-mesh sieve, or in some form of mechanical mixer, remotely controlled. The method
used and the quantity of composition mixed at any one time are largely determined by the sensitiveness of
the mixture.
Hand-sieving has been used for many years in mixing the less sensitive illuminating, signal, and smoke
compositions in quantities of up to 1½ or 2 kg (3 or 4 lb) in weight. It is also used for mixing small
quantities of more sensitive compositions. The mesh of the sieve is adjusted to the size of the particles and
the ease with which they flow, and the sieve is grounded to prevent the accumulation of static electricity.
All hand-sieving operations are carried out behind safety screens to protect the operator.
DIAPERING. The most sensitive mixtures are mixed by a method known as diapering: the
individual components are placed on a large sheet of paper, and alternate corners are lifted. The lifting rolls
the compound back and forth until it is all mixed. The first set of lifts creates a long "football" shaped pile
that points from (say) upper right to lower left. In this case, you then lift the upper right corner, followed by
the lower left corner. You now have a pointy football which points towards the upper left and lower right
corners... Keep rolling the mixture back and forth and back and forth until it is even in color. Then do it
some more. This is a labor-intensive method, but it doesn't generate static, has essentially no impact, and no
friction on opening and closing a filling port. This is the preferred method for mixing flash.
The best way to mix two dry chemicals to form an explosive is to use a technique perfected by smallscale fireworks manufacturers:
1) Take a large sheet of smooth paper (for example a page from a newspaper that does not use staples)
2) Measure out the appropriate amounts of the two chemicals, and pour them in two small heaps near
opposite corners of the sheet.
3) Pick up the sheet by the two corners near the piles, allowing the powders to roll towards the center of
the sheet.
4) By raising one corner and then the other, rock the powders back and forth in the middle of the open
sheet, taking care not to let the mixture spill from either of the loose ends.
5) Pour the powder off from the middle of the sheet, and use it immediately. Use airtight containers for
storage, It's best to use 35mm film canisters or other jars which do not have screw-on tops. If you
must keep the mixture for long periods, place a small packet of desiccant in the container, and never
store near heat or valuable items.
SCREENING. In this technique a copper or stainless steel screen is used to sift the components
together. Ordinary steel screen sieves are NOT suitable for pyrotechnic use since they are a spark hazard.
Even stainless steel units can cause sparks, as when hit with ceramic grinding media.
Keep in mind that very slight friction will sometimes initiate combustion of mixtures of finely divided
chemicals. Some compositions have been known to explode while being sifted by the scratching of the
brass wire sieve bottom with the fingernail.
Prescreening to ensure that each individual component will pass through the screen is not a bad idea.
Various meshes can be used for screening. A 20-mesh screen (approximately window screen) will work, but
the mixing is more through with a finer 40 or 80 mesh screen. Prescreening should be done with a screen of
the same or finer mesh. The screen is placed on a sheet of paper (newspaper works well), and the various
components of the mixture are placed on it. The screen is then shaken until the material falls through. It is
important not to scrape or grind the material through the screen. A brush may be used to try to encourage the
material to pass through the screen. The mixture may be rescreened several times to ensure complete
mixing. Screens are not recommended for static or friction sensitive mixes, such as flash or whistle mix.
There are instructions on how to make a set of screens that are relatively inexpensive and help hold down the
dust.
TUMBLER SIFTING. In tumbler sifting, the composition is placed in a zip-lock baggie, along with
a wooden frame that fits inside of the tumbler. The frame should not ‘rumble around’ in the tumbler, or the
problems with ball milling might arise.
The frame has a number of wooden fingers that project inwards. As the tumbler turns, the fingers sift
through and through the powders, much like a person using their fingers to mix salt into flour by lifting the
flour. This has been used to mix large quantities of whistle mix, among other compositions.
MECHANICAL MIXING
Two types of mechanical mixers are in general use. One consists of a drum fitted with internal baffles,
which is rotated to produce the maximum tumbling effect on the powders being mixed. The other consists
of a closed vessel fitted with rotating paddles, which stir and lift the contents so that they are thoroughly
blended. Great care has to be exercised in the design of the mixer so that no heat is generated by friction,
and no powder is trapped between the moving parts. Some delay compositions are mixed by grinding the
ingredients together under a liquid in a suitable mill, and then drying the mixture.
V-TUBE MIXING
This method is seldom employed by amateurs, but is common in some commercial applications where
screening may generate too much static. A tube is cut at an acute angle, and then glued back together to
make a sharp ‘V.’ The ends are capped, and a filling port is made on the apex of the ‘V.’ The tube is then
fixed onto an axle which is placed in a frame with a motorized drive. When the motor is turned on, the ‘V’
turns over several times a minute, and the dividing/reuniting action thoroughly mixes the compounds in a
few minutes. The action is fairly gentle and doesn't generate static, however, the device can suffer from the
friction of opening and closing the filling port.
WARNING! Never attempt to mix the above-listed chemical together in a blender or any kitchen
appliance designed for mixing or grinding food! Friction will generate heat, and a blender can rapidly (in
the vicinity of the bearing and blades) cause the mixing powders to reach the ignition temperature. Six
ounces of these chemicals in a blender can cause a flash fire large enough to set fire to an entire building.
Chapter 4
PYROTECHNIC COMPOSITIONS
AND FORMULATIONS
INTRODUCTION
In the experience and view of the author, solid rocket propellants are properly classified as pyrotechnic
compositions for the purpose of discussing safety and handling. As the topic of solid rocket propellants is
indeed huge, this handbook intends only to provide a concise overview of their safe handling. Further, since
the science and technology of liquid fuel rockets is too complex, costly, and dangerous for most amateur
scientists, our focus here will be on pyrotechnic formulations and solid propellant propellants.
All solid propellants are a severe fire hazard. They burn rapidly and under suitable conditions of
initiation some may detonate. Solid propellants that are sufficiently sensitive to initiation to detonation by
fire or explosion are included in hazard class 1.1, while those of lesser sensitivity to such stimuli are
included in class 1.3. Propellant dust and powder normally are sensitive to friction, flame, and sparks. The
stability of propellants can be adversely affected if they are stored for long periods in a damp atmosphere
and/or subjected to high temperatures; the eventual effect of such conditions may be the spontaneous
ignition of the propellant.
SOLID ROCKET PROPELLANTS
While black powder propelled almost every kind of rocket until less than 100 years ago, more advanced
propellants have virtually replaced the old potassium nitrate formula since the early 1950s. All of these
formulations and developments are clearly scions on the tree of the fireworks, explosives, and rocket
propellant industries. In practice, solid-fuel rocket propellants are handled as both pyrotechnic and low
explosives at the same time.
Solid rocket propellants are of three general types: black powder, double-base, and composite
formulations. Double-base propellants are formulated from gels of cellulose nitrate (guncotton) in
nitroglycerin or a similar solvent. All solid rocket propellants include an oxidizer and fuel, and may also
include additives to control performance. Commonly used solid propellant oxidizers include ammonium
perchlorate, potassium perchlorate, potassium nitrate, and glyceryl trinitrate (nitroglycerin). Solid propellant
fuels include hydrocarbons or hydrocarbon derivatives, such as synthetic rubbers, synthetic resins, cellulose,
and cellulose derivatives. Small amounts of additives are sometimes used as burning rate catalysts or
suppressors, ballistic modifiers, or stabilizers.
Composite propellants thus consist of an oxidizer (generally an inorganic salt, such as ammonium
perchlorate) in a matrix of organic fuels (such as a synthetic rubber). Aluminum powder or other substances
may also be added to provide additional energy.
The performance of rocket propellants is usually rated as the formulation's specific impulse (Isp), which
is specified in units of pound-seconds thrust per pound propellant weight (lb-sec/lb), or more simply as
seconds. Typically, solid rocket propellants have an Isp of from about 80 (black powder) to over 270
(advanced composite formulations, such as is used in the space shuttle boosters).
Solid propellant formulations are fabricated by either ramming (the usual method for black powder
propellants), extrusion (double-base propellants), or casting (composite propellants) into propellant "grains."
Thus propellant grains may be either case-bonded or cartridge-loaded.
Solid propellant grains may be configured for neutral, progressive, or regressive burning rates. Endburning ("cigarette burning") grains usually are of neutral configuration. Radial grains are customarily
either of neutral or progressive burning rates, depending upon the "web" design.
The greatest hazard in testing small rocket engines is from shrapnel in the event of engine explosion or
disintegration. Therefore, the test stand proper should be suitably barricaded to reduce shrapnel effect in all
directions.
IGNITABILITY AND REACTIVITY
The secret of making a good pyrotechnic mixture is homogeneity. The better the contact with the
oxidizer and the fuel is, the fiercer the composition. Finely ground fuels and oxidizers are essential for good
stars and propellants. The required intimacy also implies that mixing can never be thorough enough.
For consistent results, use the same sieves and same mixing methods. Wet mixing is sometimes more
efficient than stirring the dry composition; moreover, it is almost always safer. Star compositions and
granulated powders can almost always be mixed with water or some other solvent.
Good, homogenous compositions also ignite more easily. Large amounts of loose, fine powder of almost
any pyrotechnic composition represent a large fire and explosion hazard. But when such a powder is
kneaded and cut into stars or carefully pressed in a tube, it will take fire easily and burn smoothly.
This is the pyrotechnist's dilemma: the best compositions are often the most dangerous ones, too. But not
always. There are chemicals and compositions with much worse safety records than today's compositions
have. In the list of pyrotechnic chemicals below, the most notorious ones have been indicated.
During the manufacture of pyrotechnic compositions and the subsequent filling operations, the
powdered ingredients expose large surfaces to the atmosphere and there is ample opportunity for moisture to
be absorbed. The extent to which this occurs varies according to the nature of the ingredients, the humidity
of the atmosphere, and the time of exposure.
Ingredients vary widely in their hygroscopicity, depending on their physical and chemical make-up.
Metal powders and certain salts such as potassium perchlorate absorb little or no moisture, while naturally
occurring starches, gums, and resins absorb large quantities under the same conditions.
Moisture, in the presence of electrolytes such as the salts used as oxidizers, brings about the corrosion of
metallic constituents, particularly magnesium powder, and so leads to a deterioration in performance and to
eventual failure to burn. The corrosion of magnesium leads to the formation of magnesium hydroxide,
which does not burn, and to hydrogen gas which, in a sealed container, may exert dangerously high
pressures after long periods of storage. It is therefore essential to ensure that the ingredients used are the
least hygroscopic materials available to produce the desired pyrotechnic effect. For this reason many
naturally occurring materials are now replaced by plastic molding powders and synthetic resins. The
ingredients must be thoroughly dried before use, and all subsequent operations must be carried out in a dry
atmosphere with the minimum exposure to air.
RATE OF BURNING. The rate of burning of a consolidated pyrotechnic composition is influenced
by several factors besides the temperature and pressure of the ambient air. The following are the more
important:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
The chemical reactivity of the principal ingredients.
Their proportions.
The particle-size of the ingredients.
The energy released by the main reaction.
The presence of less reactive or inert substances.
The degree of consolidation.
The thermal conductivity of the mixture.
The thermal conductivity of the container.
The motion of the burning composition relative to the surrounding air.
Compositions containing reactive metal powders such as aluminum, magnesium, boron, or zirconium or
which contain oxidizers that decompose at relatively low temperatures tend to burn faster than those that do
not.
The rate of burning usually increases with increasing proportion of the fuel and stoichiometric mixtures
seldom burn the most rapidly. the rate of burning also increases with diminishing particle-size of the
ingredients since this increases the surface of interaction. In contrast, relatively inert materials in the
mixture tend to slow down combustion by reducing the area of interaction. They may also absorb heat
during their decomposition or form temporary physical barriers between the particles of the main reactants.
Compressed pyrotechnic mixtures are porous to a greater or lesser degree, depending on the physical
properties of the ingredients and the loads under which they are consolidated. The degree of porosity affects
the rate at which heat is transferred by hot gases travelling ahead of the burning layer. Heat is also
transferred by conduction by metal particles in the mixture and the rate of burning usually increases with
increasing proportions of metallic fuel. If the mixture is consolidated in thermally-conducting containers,
the rate of burning is faster that it is when burning in containers of insulating material.
This is the pyrotechnist's dilemma: the best compositions are often the most dangerous ones, too–but not
always. There are chemicals and compositions with much worse safety records than today's compositions
have.
GENERAL CHEMISTRY OF PYROTECHNIC FORMULATIONS
All pyrotechnic compositions contain an oxidizer and a fuel. (Some few substances, for instance
nitrocellulose, are combined oxidizer-fuel systems in themselves.) From a primary composition of an
oxidizer and a fuel, it is possible to develop colored fires, illuminating compositions, smokes, gas-producing
compositions, delay elements for fuses, firecrackers, sparklers, display fireworks, and rocket compositions.
Fuels and oxidizers are mixed in varying proportions to produce the desired effect. The formulae vary
according to the amount of oxygen in the selected oxidizer and the heat at which the selected reducer burns.
Titanium burns the hottest, and potassium chlorate produces the most oxygen. These two will burn the
fastest when mixed together. It is ordinarily the heat from the burning reducer that releases the oxygen from
the oxidizer. Also, in general, the hotter the oxidizer gets, the more oxygen it releases.
FUEL-OXIDIZER RELATIONSHIPS. The principle ingredients of pyrotechnics are fuels,
oxidizers, burning catalysts, special effects ingredients (for producing colored flame or smoke, sparks, and
the like), and binders.
Without going into more chemistry than is needed, the interaction of basic explosive ingredients can be
illustrated with two chemicals found in black gunpowder. The oxidizing chemical in black powder is
potassium nitrate (KNO3) and one of the fuels is carbon (C). In the reaction process, the components of the
oxidizer are separated and recombined with the carbon. The chemical equation for this process is as follows:
2KNO3 + 3C  K2CO3 + CO2 + CO + N2
Because potassium nitrate supplies concentrated oxygen to the carbon, the temperature given off in
forming carbon dioxide (CO2) and carbon monoxide (CO) is much greater than ordinary combustion, where
the oxygen (O) is supplied by the air. Also, the rate at which the decomposition takes place is much faster
because of the concentrated oxygen, and thus usable pressures are produced.
If we were to add the third chemical found in black powder, sulfur (S), a different decomposition
process would take place. The components of the oxidizer are separated and recombined with the carbon and
the sulfur. This results in the formation of a small amount of solid residue called potassium sulfite (K2S,
large amounts of the gas nitrogen N2. Written in the language of chemists, the decomposition of gunpowder
would be as follows:
KNO3 + S + 3C
[black powder]

K2S
[solid]
+
3CO2
+
N2
[gases]
In this explosive reaction the sulfur acts as a fuel in relationship to the oxidizer, but it also is a sensitizer
because of its low ignition temperature (500°F). As a sensitizer the sulfur is the first element in the
explosive mixture to ignite, and it does so at a lower energy input than the potassium nitrate and carbon
mixture. This means that the sulfur facilitates ignition of the gunpowder, or makes it more sensitive.
One final thought in this fuel/oxidizer relationship is to point out that oxidation is not moving oxygen
atoms between elements. It is true that for most explosive chemical reactions with which the explosives
engineer will work, oxygen is the key element in oxidation. In a true chemical sense, however, an oxidizer is
something that gains electrons or lowers it oxidation number in a reaction, which means that it does have to
involve oxygen.
PYROTECHNIC OXIDIZERS
The following list of commonly used pyrotechnic oxidizers (in ascending order of decomposition
temperature):
Permanganates
Chlorates
Nitrates
Perchlorates
Dichromates
Peroxides of barium and strontium
Chromates
Common pyrotechnic oxidizers, listed in increasing level of power, are:
Sodium nitrate
Sodium chlorate
Ammonium nitrate
Potassium bichromate
Potassium nitrate
Potassium bichlorate
Potassium chlorate
Others generally to dangerous to handle
Despite their potential energy as oxidizers, the permanganates (dark purple crystalline salts of
permanganic acid, HMnO4) are seldom used (and not recommended) in pyrotechnic chemistry for several
reasons. Permanganate compositions tend to be unstable and decompose over time. Also, permanganate
formulations tend to be both highly sensitive and quite powerful. Furthermore, because of their great
potential as oxidizers, permanganates must not come into contact with sulfur or sulfuric acid, acetic acid, or
many other compounds. Great care must be taken when handling any mixture; consider the composition as
powerful and unstable than mercury fulminate, gram for gram. Never handle roughly, strike, or drop any
mixture containing permanganates. Permanganate mixes should not be stored under any circumstances.
Experimental permanganate compositions for salutes and flash effects are well known, but remain far too
dangerous for commercial use.
Marginally more stable than the permanganate oxidizers are the chlorate salts (ClO3), especially those
of potassium and sodium. The chlorates offer high energy oxidization, but also produce compositions that
are powerful, highly sensitive, and notoriously unstable. While for reasons of safety chlorates are carefully
avoided in modern pyrotechny, many traditional formulations exist for chlorate compositions–especially in
salutes and noisemakers.
While the crystalline nitrate salts (NO3) generally provide less oxidizer energy than the permanganates
or chlorates, they are unquestionably more stable and safe to handle. Nitrates of practically all metallic
elements are known. They are frequently hydrated and most are soluble in water. Some are mildly toxic,
while others are routinely used as meat preservatives. All are deliquescent, readily absorbing moisture from
the atmosphere–strong disadvantages in terms of storage and handling.
The nitrates are also abundant and cheap, with potassium and sodium nitrates forming the basis for black
powder, blasting powder, and meal powder. In fact, potassium nitrate might well be thought of as the most
commonly used oxidizer in both traditional and modern fireworks, but several potent perchlorates have
supplanted them for some applications. To all compositions containing both nitrates and aluminum an
additional +1% boric acid must be added.
The perchlorates (ClO4) are the backbone of both modern pyrotechny and modern solid propellant
rocketry. Perchlorates of practically all electropositive metals are known. Potassium perchlorate is widely
used in a variety of fireworks formulations, and is, along with ammonium perchlorate, the solid oxidizer of
choice for rocket propulsion. While more expensive than the chlorates or nitrates, the perchlorates offer a
much safer and effective alternative in many formulas. The stability of chlorates and perchlorates decreases
with the increasing atomic weight of the metal. Thus, from less to more unstable: lithium, sodium,
potassium, strontium, barium.
Perchlorates are powerful oxidizers, having the monovalent -Cl04 radical. All perchlorates are unstable
materials, irritating to the skin and mucus membranes of the body wherever they come in contact with it.
When mixed with carbonaceous material or finely divided metals, they form explosive mixtures. When
heated, they emit highly toxic fumes of chlorides.
charcoal, olefins, ethanol, SrH2, and sulfuric acid.
Perchlorates react violently with benzene, CaH2,
The choice of oxidizer and fuel depends upon the effect required.
For instance, colored fire
compositions can be readily prepared from lower energy oxidizers such as potassium or sodium nitrate,
while flash powders and salute formulation often require the more energetic chlorates and permanganate.
The dichromates, the peroxides of barium and strontium, and the chromates are only occasionally seen
in fireworks formulas, mainly because the nitrates and perchlorates offer better results.
It is also interesting to note that sodium salts have lower decomposition temperatures than the
corresponding potassium salts, and that the ammonium salts, being fuel and oxidizer systems in themselves,
often have very low decomposition temperatures. Such list serves only as a guide, however, since the fuel
used often modifies the behavior of an oxidizer, and "inert" additives may actually produce a catalytic effect.
PYROTECHNIC FUELS
The most-used pyrotechnic fuels include:
Sulfur
Charcoal
Aluminum (and aluminum alloys)
Magnesium (and magnesium alloys)
Titanium (and titanium alloys)
Resins, plastics, and rubbers
Almost anything else that burns
Fuels may be classified in three groups:
Group 1. Ignition temperature 200-300°C (390-570°F). Red phosphorus (white or yellow phosphorus
is spontaneously flammable in air); sulfur; charcoal; zirconium and titanium (in micron size
particles); paraffin wax; fuel oils; thorium and tantalum.
Group 2. Ignition temperature 300-500°C (570- °F). Natural gums and resins; sugars and starch;
glycerol; sulfides of antimony and arsenic; calcium silicide; zinc; manganese; and asphalt.
Group 3. Ignition temperature 500°C (°F) and above. Carbon (550°C); magnesium (520-540°C);
aluminum (700°C).
Another way to categorize fuels is according to their chemical basis:
Organic
Inorganic non-metals
Metals
The main organic fuels used in pyrotechnics are charcoal and the natural gum and resins. The principal
inorganic non-metal fuels include sulfur, phosphorus, carbon, and antimony and arsenic trisulfides.
METALLIC FUELS. The main metallic fuels include iron, magnesium, aluminum, titanium,
zirconium, and zinc. Manganese, thorium, and tantalum have also been used, but to a much more minor
degree.
METALLIC FUEL TREATMENTS. The use of certain metal powders in pyrotechnic compositions
has often been accompanied by problems associated with undesirable premature reactions of the metals.
Iron oxidizes very rapidly, and magnesium-based compositions are now often treated with linseed oil or
potassium dichromate to prevent this kind of problem.
The problem dates back several hundred years at least to early Chinese pyrotechny, with the oxidation of
iron used in black-powder type gerb compositions. Early European pyrotechnists puzzled over how the
Chinese produced iron-based "Chinese fire" compositions that used t'ung oil, commonly used then and now
in furniture polishes. Also known as China wood oil, t'ung oil is derived from the seeds of Aleurites fordii, a
tree that grows in Asia.
In many respects t'ung oil behaves similarly to linseed oil. It reacts with atmospheric oxygen to form a
polymerized film that has a high luster, making it useful for polishing wood, and, as the Chinese found, for
treating the iron filings used in the famous Chinese fire mixtures. T'ung oil has one property in particular
that favors it over linseed oil: t'ung oil cures faster than linseed oil.
Many illuminating compositions contain drying oils, waxes or resins, which are first incorporated with
the magnesium powder, the waxes being applied in a molten state and the resins in alcoholic solution. The
coated magnesium powder is then blended with the other ingredients on a fairly coarse sieve, since the
mixture may be tacky and may not flow readily. These mixtures are usually fairly insensitive to friction, and
the chances of ignition during mixing are more remote.
PARTICLE SIZE
The particle shape and size of the fuel or oxidizer has a great effect on the rate of burning of various
mixtures. A difference of as much as 100-150°C in ignition temperature is found between mixtures using
flakes or granular aluminum of the same mesh size. Similarly, regular crystals of potassium perchlorate
react less readily than irregularly ground material, even though the average particle size is the same. The
finer the particles of fuel, the easier they are to ignite and the greater area of contact with the oxidizer also
leads to a faster rate of reaction.
COMPOSITION SENSITIVITY
Pyrotechnic compositions are highly varied in their formulations, and their sensitiveness to ignition by
shock, friction, or electrostatic sparks is equally varied. Some mixtures of metal powders and oxides are as
sensitive to shock as high explosive initiator mixtures. Other compositions are so insensitive as to require
special methods of ignition. Sensitiveness to friction is equally varied, and in this respect pyrotechnic
compositions often present far greater hazards than high explosives.
Sensitiveness to friction is largely determined by the physical and chemical nature of the ingredients and
their proportions, and it can vary considerably in the same type of mixture. Thus, the variations in
proportions that occur during the mixing of a composition sometimes lead to isolated pockets of sensitive
mixture. The hazards involved are then far greater than those inferred form the nature of the finished
composition.
A number of compositions, particularly those containing boron or zirconium powders, are very sensitive
to electrostatic sparks, and great care must be taken to ensure than both operator and equipment are
adequately grounded when handling them.
COUNTERACTING ACIDS IN FORMULATIONS
We can neutralize an acid by adding a base (a hydroxide), but bases tend to absorb atmospheric moisture
and alter up the burning of a mixture. Carbonates, a group of compounds that act much like bases also can
counteract small traces of acids.
Make sure that all glues, adhesives, and binders contain carbonates to counteract the effect of any acids
that may form. It is also a good idea to add some type of carbonate to a firework mixture. This will
counteract any acid, but unfortunately adds nothing at all to the performance of the formula. Furthermore,
carbonates can change the color that the composition burns. For example strontium salts give a red color, so
adding strontium carbonate to a mixture will produce a red or reddish hue. Barium carbonate can give a
green color. Sodium carbonate absorbs atmospheric moisture and will generally adversely affect any
formulation.
The use of carbonates is particularly important if a mixture contains both a chlorate and sulfur (which is
a treacherous combination, in any case). Sulfur can form both traces of sulfur dioxide and hydrogen sulfide,
and both of these become acidic in water.
PARTICULARLY DANGEROUS FORMULATIONS
The following are a few of the numerous especially dangerous formulations, each of which requires
special care in handling (or are best avoided entirely):
Barium chlorate is unstable and prone to spontaneous decomposition. Flash mixtures made with
barium chlorate should not be stored under any circumstances, and extreme caution must be
exercised when handling such compositions.
Barium peroxide is unstable and prone to spontaneous decomposition. Flash mixtures made with
barium peroxide should not be stored under any circumstances, and extreme caution must be
exercised when handling such compositions.
Calcium metal and calcium hydride react with water exothermically to evolve hydrogen gas.
Compositions containing calcium metal or calcium hydride should be sealed against moisture
and not be stored.
Chlorate flash mixtures decompose faster than perchlorate flash mixtures and are more sensitive to
shock, flame, spark and friction.
Chlorate and sulfur/sulfide mixes are known to be very sensitive to shock, flame, spark and friction.
Chlorate and red phosphorus/realgar mixes are extremely sensitive and highly dangerous, and can
explode with little provocation. Even experienced individuals are encouraged to avoid such
compositions.
Flash, concussion, report, and salute compositions are highly explosive. Extreme care must be
exercised when preparing, handling, or using any such composition.
Magnesium-based flash powders are more sensitive and violent than those made with aluminum.
Individuals inexperienced with flash are encouraged to avoid such compositions.
Magnesium/Teflon mixtures have been known to ignite spontaneously, however the circumstances
surrounding such incidents are not well known. Individuals intending on making such a
composition are urged to exercise extreme caution.
Potassium permanganate mixes are regarded as sensitive and unstable. They should not be stored
under any circumstances.
APPENDICES
Appendix A: Comprehensive List of Explosive Substances
The following is a partial list of chemical compounds and mixtures that are known to have explosive
properties. All should be considered shock-sensitive:
1-Diazo-2-naphthol-4-sulfonyl chloride
2-Diazo-1-naphthol-4-sulfonyl chloride
5-Mercaptotetrazol-1-acetic acid
5-Nitrobenzotriazole
Acetylides of all heavy metals
Alkali metal dinitrophenolates (dry or containing less than 15 percent water, by mass)
Aluminum ophorite explosive
Amatol explosive (sodium amatol)
Ammonal
Ammonium nitrate
Ammonium nitrate mixtures (containing more than 0.2 percent combustible substances)
Ammonium nitrate-fuel oil mixture
Ammonium perchlorate
Ammonium picrate (dry or containing less than 10 percent water, by mass)
Ammonium salt lattice
Azo-bis-isobutyronitrile (AIBN)
Barium azide (dry or containing less than 50 percent water, by mass)
Barium styphnate
Butyl tetryl
Calcium nitrate
Copper acetylide
Cyanuric triazide
Cyclotetramethylenetetranitramine
Cyclotrimethylenetrinitramine
Deflagrating metal salts of aromatic nitro derivatives
Diazodinitrophenol (containing less than 40 percent water or a mixture of alcohol and water, by mass)
Diethylene glycol dinitrate
Dinitroethyleneurea
Dinitroglycerine
Dinitroglycoluril (Dingu)
Dinitrophenol (dry or containing less than 15 percent water, by mass)
Dinitrophenolates
Dinitrophenyl hydrazine
Dinitroresorcinol (dry or containing less than 15 percent water, by mass)
Dinitrosobenzene
Dinitrotoluene
Dintroglycerine
Dipicryl sulfide (dry or containing less than 10 percent water, by mass)
Dipicryl sulfone
Dipicrylamine
Erythritol tetranitrate
Fulminate of mercury
Fulminate of silver
Fulminate of platinum
Gelatinized nitrocellulose
Guanyl nitrosaminoguanylidene hydrazine (containing less than 30 percent water, by mass)
Guanyl nitrosaminoguanyltetrazene (containing less than 30 percent water or a mixture of alcohol and
water, by mass)
Guanyl nitrosoamino
Guanyl tetrazene
Guanylidene hydrazine
Heavy metal azides
Hexanite
Hexanitrodiphenylamine (Dipicrylamine; Hexyl)
Hexanitrostilbene
Hexatonal
Hexogen (Cylclotrimethylenetrinitramine)
Hexolite (dry or containing less than 15 percent water, by mass)
Hydrazinium Nitrate
Hydrazoic acid
Lead azide (containing less than 20 percent water or a mixture of alcohol and water, by mass)
Lead mannite
Lead mononitroresorcinate
Lead picrate
Lead styphnate (lead trinitroresorcinate) (containing less than 20 percent water or a mixture of alcohol
and water, by mass)
Magnesium ophorite
Mannitol hexanitrate (Nitromannite) (containing less than 40 percent water or mixture of alcohol and
water, by mass)
Mercury fulminate (containing less than 20 percent water or mixture of alcohol and water, by mass)
Mercury oxalate
Mercury tartrate
Mononitrotoluene
N,N'-Dinitroso-N,N'-dimethylterephthalamide
N,N'-Dinitrosopentamethylenetetraamine
Nitrated carbohydrate
Nitrated glucoside
Nitrated polyhydric alcohol
Nitrocellulose (dry or containing less than 25 percent water or alcohol, by mass or plasticized with less
than 18 percent plasticizing substance, by mass)
Nitrogen trichloride
Nitrogen triiodide
Nitroglycerin (containing less than 40 percent of a non-volatile water insoluble desensitizer, by mass or
containing less than 90 percent alcohol, by mass)
Nitroglycide
Nitroglycol
Nitroguanidine (Picrite) (dry or containing less than 20 percent water, by mass)
Nitromethane
Nitronium perchlorate
Nitroparaffins
Nitrosoguanidine
Nitrostarch (dry or containing less than 20 percent water, by mass)
Nitrotriazolone (NTO)
Nitrourea
Octolite (Octol) (dry or containing less than 15 percent water, by mass)
Organic amine nitrates
Organic nitramines
Organic peroxides
Pentaerythritol tetranitrate (pentaerythrite tetranitrate, PETN) (containing less than 25 percent water, by
mass or containing less than 7 percent wax, by mass or containing less than 15 percent of a suitable
desensitizer, by mass)
Pentolite (dry or containing less than 15 percent water, by mass)
Picramic acid
Picramide
Picratol explosive (ammonium picrate)
Picric acid
Picryl chloride
Picryl fluoride
Polynitro aliphatic compounds
Potassium nitroaminotetrazole
Potassium salts of aromatic nitro-derivatives, explosive.
RDX and HMX mixtures (containing less than 15 percent water, by mass or containing less than 10
percent of a suitable desensitizer, by mass)
Silver acetylide
Silver azide
Silver styphnate
Silver tetrazene
Sodatol
Sodium amatol
Sodium dinitro-ortho-cresolate (dry or containing less than 15 percent water, by mass)
Sodium nitrate-potassium nitrate explosive mixtures
Sodium picramate (dry or containing less than 20 percent water, by mass)
Sodium salts of aromatic nitro-derivatives
Syphnic Acid
Tetranitroaniline
Tetranitrocarbazole
Tetrazene (guanyl nitrosamino guanyl tetrazene)
Tetrazol-1-acetic acid
Tetrytol
Trimethylolethane
Trimonite
Trinitro-meta-cresol
Trinitroaniline (picramide)
Trinitroanisole
Trinitrobenzene (dry or containing less than 30 percent water, by mass)
Trinitrobenzenesulfonic acid
Acid
Trinitrobenzoic acid (dry or containing less than 30 percent water, by mass)
Trinitrochlorobenzene (picryl chloride)
Trinitrocresol
Trinitrofluorenone
Trinitronaphthalene
Trinitrophenetol
Trinitrophenol (picric acid) (dry or containing less than 30 percent water, by mass)
Trinitrophenylmethylnitramine (tetryl)
Trinitrophloroglucinol
Trinitroresorcinol (styphnic acid) (dry or containing less than 20 percent water, or mixture of alcohol
and water, by mass)
Trinitrotoluene (TNT) (dry or containing less than 30 percent water, by mass)
Tritonal
Urea nitrate (dry or containing less than 20 percent water, by mass)
Zirconium picramate (dry or containing less than 20 percent water, by mass)
Appendix B: Prohibited Chemicals Lists
The following is a recent list of the chemicals that are prohibited in Consumer Fireworks that meet the
requirements of the U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission (CPSC) for sale and use in the U.S. Note
that this list is subject to revision at any time.
Arsenic, arsenic disulfide, arsenic trisulfide, arsenates, or arsenites
Boron
Chlorates (exceptions: colored smoke mixtures in which an equal or greater weight of sodium
bicarbonate is included to stabilize the chlorates party poppers [it is the friction from the pull string
that activates the popper]; small items (such as ground spinners) wherein the total powder content
does not exceed 4 g (0.14 oz) of which not greater than 15 percent or 600 mg (9.3 grains) is
potassium, sodium, or barium chlorate firecrackers toy caps (It is the shock of the hammer in toy cap
pistols or canes that activates the cap)
Gallates or gallic acid
Magnesium (exception: magnalium [magnesium-aluminum alloy])
Mercury salts
Phosphorus (red or white; exception: red phosphorus in toy caps and party poppers)
Picrates or picric acid
Thiocyanates
Titanium (except if particle size is greater than 100-mesh)
Zirconium
Appendix C: NASA Safety Manual
The materials that follow in this appendix are informative excerpts from the NASA/LEWIS RESEARCH
CENTER SAFETY MANUAL (Office of Safety, Environmental, and Mission Assurance, used by
permission).
Chapter 18. EXPLOSIVES, PROPELLANTS, AND PYROTECHNICS
Revision Date: 12/97
This chapter sets forth the minimum requirements, both for Government and contractor personnel, for
the safe use, handling, and control of explosives at NASA Lewis Research Center (Cleveland and Plum
Brook Station).
It provides directives for protecting personnel and property involved in explosive operations at all levels
from the hazards of explosives and explosive materials. Such materials include all types of explosives,
propellants (liquid and solid), oxidizers, pyrotechnic devices, and electroexplosive devices.
DEFINITIONS AND TERMINOLOGY
EXPLOSIVE. Any chemical compound, mixture, or device, the primary or common purpose of which is
to function by explosion (i.e., with substantially instantaneous release of gas and heat).
The following table shows, briefly, the type of potential hazard and some examples of explosives in each
of the DOT classes.
CLASS/DIVISION
TYPE OF HAZARD
1.1 (class A).
Explosives that have a mass explosion hazard.
1.2 (class A or B).
Explosives that have a projection hazard, but are not a mass
explosion hazard.
1.3 (class B).
Explosives that are a fire hazard, minor blast or fragment hazard,
but not mass explosion.
1.4 (class C).
Explosives present only a minor fire or explosion hazard. Fire must
not cause a mass explosion. Explosives consists of insensitive
explosives.
1.5 (Blasting agents)
Items with very little chance for initiaion under normal operating
conditions. The probability is greater when transported in large
quantities. Explosives that consist of extremely insensitive.
1.6 (No Previous class)
Articles that do not have a mass explosion hazard. The risk is
limited explosion of the one article.
INHABITED BUILDING DISTANCE. Minimum allowable unbarricaded distance between an inhabited
building and an explosive facility.
INTRALINE DISTANCE. Distance to be maintained between any two operating buildings or sites within
an operating line, of which at least one building contains, or is designed to contain explosives, except
that the distance from a service magazine for the line to the nearest operating building may be not less
than the intraline distance required for the quantity of explosives contained in the service magazine.
Note: The intraline distance is determined by the explosive hazard classification and quantity and is
specified in the QD tables in this chapter.
LABORATORY SCALE OPERATIONS. Any operation in a laboratory where the total quantity of
explosives (equivalent explosive weight ) does not exceed 500 grams.
MAGAZINE. A structure designed or specifically designated for the storage of explosives. There are two
types of magazines 1.) Aboveground and 2. ) Earth Covered Igloo (located at Plum Brook Station)
MAGAZINE DISTANCE. Minimum distance permitted between any two storage magazines. The distance
is determined by the amount and classification of explosives stored therein.
QUANTITY-DISTANCE (QD). Explosive quantity and distance separation relationships based on levels of
risk considered acceptable for the stipulated exposures for explosive operations. These values are shown
in the 8 series QD tables contained at the end of this chapter and in NSS 1740.12.
PYROTECHNICS. Any combustible or explosive combinations or manufactured articles designed and
prepared for the purpose of producing audible or visible effects. These are commonly referred to as
fireworks.
EMPLOYEES. Only essential personnel (those necessary to perform operations) shall be present in areas
where explosives are handled, stored, or placed. The two-person buddy system (see Chapter 22) shall be
used where explosives are handled so that one person may give assistance to the other if an emergency
occurs. The two-person system is not required when the only use of ammunition is for small arms or
tools.
PURCHASE REQUEST. Every (PR) for explosives shall include this instruction:
"Package shall be boldly marked as follows: CAUTION UPON RECEIPT CALL CHEMICALS
MANAGEMENT TEAM AND REQUESTOR (DO NOT OPEN)"
In addition, every PR for explosives shall require an Explosives Description Clause, except when
ammunition for small arms or tools is involved. The Explosives Description Clause shall state that the
explosives vendor shall provide the following: a sectioned assembly drawing of the device, showing all
electrical circuitry and general dimensions; a list of the explosive chemicals involved and the location where
they are used; the total weight of the explosives in the individual loads, such as the primer mix and the main
charge mix; and a current Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS).
SYSTEM SAFETY
In general, explosives, when properly controlled and handled, are safe. However, electrical and magnetic
circuits or physical abuse can cause premature firing. To minimize such hazards, a system safety approach to
design is essential. The rules listed here are to be followed during design and operation of systems using
explosives:
Special electrical bridge test equipment for EED's shall be limited to 10 milliamps.
Initiating circuits shall be electrically isolated from all other circuits and ground systems, shall be
physically isolated as far as possible from power lines and electrical equipment, shall be shielded from
electrostatic and electromagnetic interference, and shall have fail-safe logic. Circuit design shall include
provisions for isolating and grounding the firing leads at a remote location prior to installing or removing
EED's.
Two or more functions or devices shall be required to initiate EED's.
Personnel who operate with or handle explosives should note the following:
a. Smoking is not permitted in areas where explosives are handled or used.
b. The materials being used and the result intended must be understood prior to beginning work.
c. Explosives operations are to be conducted only with proper use of approved safety equipment and
clothing.
d. Appropriate warning devices shall be used to alert other persons prior to the start of potentially hazardous
operations.
e. Operations involving EED explosives shall be suspended whenever an electrical storm (thunderstorm) is
in the near vicinity.
f. Static discharge between personnel, devices, materials, and supporting equipment shall be prevented by
bringing all to the same potential.
g. Radio transmission shall not be permitted in or near EED explosives storage and operation sites. Limiting
distances shall be determined for the individual EED's and conditions involved.
h. Blasting galvanometers and Alinco circuit testers (101-58F6), or other appropriate test devices with
output limited to 10 milliamps, shall be used for resistance tests of EED's. Resistance tests shall be made
only at an approved location (not in a magazine), and results are to be recorded.
i. A "NO-VOLTAGE TEST" (10.0 millivolts maximum allowable) shall be made at the connector on each
EED firing circuit just prior to hookup to an EED. The measurements shall be made between
conductors, and between each conductor and the equipment ground.
j. EEDs, on removal from standard packing, will be placed in and remain in metal or metal-clad containers
(for RF shielding) until actual installation. The container shall be prominently marked "EXPLOSIVES"
while it contains explosives; the marking shall be removed or covered when the explosives are removed.
LABORATORY SCALE OPERATIONS
Facilities involved in experimental or laboratory type operations involving explosive quantities of 500
grams or less are exempt from general explosive site plan requirements, however, adequate distance must be
provided between the laboratory and other buildings containing explosives. Facilities utilizing 10 grams or
less of explosives are exempt from any Q-D criteria. In all cases, consideration must be given to safe
laboratory practice standards for compatible storage, handling, personal protective equipment and must be
conducted under approved Standard Operating Procedures and Standard Test Procedures.
FACILITY SITING REQUIREMENTS FOR EXPLOSIVES
Any facility, which plans to engage in storage, handling or testing of explosives in excess of laboratory
scale operations (500 grams) must prepare and submit explosive safety site plans and general construction
details for facilities containing explosives, pyrotechnics, and propellants. The facility site plan shall show
protection provided against explosion propagation between adjacent bays or buildings as well as protection
of personnel against death or serious injury from incidents in adjacent bays or buildings. Scaled drawings
showing quantity and type of explosive being stored must demonstrate compliance with minimum separation
distance in the QD tables of this chapter or the rationale on operational barriers, substantial dividing walls or
shields that justify reduction in distance. The Site Plan must also show the relationship of the explosive
facility to other facilities containing flammable, oxidizers, cryogenic or toxic materials.
FACILITY PLANNING
Explosive Facilities, except storage magazines, containing explosives shall be constructed based on the
following principles:
Explosive facility building roofs and walls shall be designed for protection of personnel and equipment
via fire walls, fire protection systems, operational shields, substantial dividing walls, blast resistant roofs,
containment structures, and earth covered magazines. However, if an ordinary building is utilized and not
specifically designed for explosive use, bays containing explosives must be separated by substantial dividing
walls with each bay designed and constructed so that it will vent an internal explosion with the formation of
a minimum number of fragments.
Facilities having exposed bulk explosives or low energy initiators or electroexplosive devices must be
equipped with electrostatic discharge (ESD) controls. ESD controls may consist of conductive floor tile and
legstats or conductive work shoes. Alternately, ESD wriststats and grounded workbench can be used.
Legstats, wriststats and conductive footwear must have a resistance to ground of 25,000 ohms to 1 megohm
minimum.
Buildings containing exposed explosives must have lightning protection. Resistance of 25 ohms or less
to ground for lightning protection is the desired optimum using a copper ground rod and cable. Metallic
surfaces containing explosives must also be bonded and grounded. The resistance of any metallic object
bonded to the static grounding system shall not exceed 1 ohm. Ground faults are not permitted. Static
grounds shall not be made to gas, steam, or air lines, dry pipe sprinkler systems, or air terminals for lightning
systems. Static grounds can be made to water pipes that are continuous, buried copper plates, driven ground
rods, or to down conductors of lightning protection systems as close to the ground rod as possible.
Building or magazines used to store explosives must be placarded with the appropriate fire symbol for
the explosives being used. Fire symbols shall reflect the highest rating for which the building is sited. The
fire symbol for each of the classifications is as follows:
Class 1.1 (Mass Explosion Material)- 24 inches wide X 24 inches high, Octagon shape, Bright orange
background, with a 10 inch high X 3inch wide , Black numeral "1" in the center.
Class 1.2 (Fragment Producing Material)- 24 inch high X 24 inch wide X 8 inch cross member ,"X" shaped
sign, Bright orange background with a 10" high X 3" wide, black numeral "2" in the center.
Class 1.3 (Mass Fire Material)- 24 inch, Equilateral Triangle with point oriented downward. Bright orange
background with a 10" high X 3" wide, Black numeral "3" in the center.
Class 1.4 (Moderate Fire, No Blast Material)- 24 inch high X 24 inch wide, Diamond shaped sign. Bright
orange background with a 10" high X 3" wide, Black numeral "4" in the center.
TRANSPORTATION
Before transporting explosives, the operator must ensure that the exhaust, electrical, and braking systems
are in first-class condition and that required extinguishers are on board and charged. The operator must also
turn off the engine of the vehicle while loading and unloading explosives and while the magazine is open.
Unless a vehicle has been specifically approved for the explosives operation, explosives shall be transported
by personnel on foot.
STORAGE
There are limitations on where explosives may be stored and on the quantity that may be stored in a
given location. All explosive materials will be stored in magazines, buildings, or areas designated and cited
as explosives storage. Quantity-distance standards applicable to storage of explosives are contained in DOD
6055.9.
Three general types of explosives storage may be considered by the requester:
The dedicated Explosives Locker Magazine. This magazine was established as limited quantity storage
for mixed groups of compatible explosives classified as DOD Class 1, Division 3 and Division 4. Total net
explosive weight (NEW) of all items in the magazine may not exceed 100 pounds, and because of the
limited quantity, class-division rules on quantity-distance may be disregarded.
Specifically approved magazines. These magazines may be established and approved for limited
quantities of a single type of explosive in each magazine. Examples of such magazines are those for security
ammunition and those for tool ammunition. Such magazines shall be locked and under cognizance of a
designated individual who will be responsible for control of access and for keeping continuous records of
accountability for the explosives.
Plum Brook igloo magazines. These magazines classify as Army igloo magazines meeting the
requirements of Chapter 5, DOD 6055.9, when they have been properly prepared for explosives use and
when quantity-distance requirements are met.
EXPLOSIVES STORAGE COMPATIBILITY GROUPS
STORAGE PRINCIPLES. All explosives and explosive items are assigned to storage compatibility
groups (SCGs) for storage, maintenance, and transportation at and between NASA facilities.
Different types of explosives may be mixed in storage if they are compatible by item and division.
Explosives are assigned to an SCG when they can be stored together without significantly increasing either
the probability of an accident or, for a given quantity, the magnitude of the effects of such an accident.
As used in these standards, the phrase "with its own means or initiation" indicates that the explosive
item has its normal initiating device assembled to it that presents a significant risk during storage. The
phrase does not apply, however, when the initiating device is packaged to eliminate the risk of detonating
the explosive in the event of accidental functioning of the initiating device, or when fuzed end items are so
configured and packaged as to prevent inadvertent arming of the fuzed end items. The initiating device may
even be assembled to the explosive item provided its safety features preclude initiation or detonation of the
explosive filler of the end item in the event of an accidental functioning of the initiating device.
COMPATIBLE EXPLOSIVES AND EXPLOSIVE ITEMS. Listed below are items which may be stored
together within their groups:
1. Various kinds of initiating explosives
2. Various kinds of propellants, regardless of hazard classification.
3. Various kinds of high explosives.
4. All types of initiating devices.
5. All pyrotechnics and explosives containing pyrotechnic items except:
a. Water activated pyrotechnics.
b. Explosives containing flammable liquids or gels.
6. Explosive items in any one of the above groups are not generally compatible with items in any other
groups.
7. Explosives and explosive items in substandard or damaged packaging, in a suspect condition, or with
characteristics which increase the risk in storage are not compatible with other explosives and shall
be stored separately.
STORAGE COMPATIBILITY GROUPS
Following explosives storage principles and considerations for mixed storage, explosives are
assigned to one of the following 12 SCGs.
GROUP A. INITIATING EXPLOSIVES - Bulk initiating explosives which have the necessary
sensitivity to heat, friction, or percussion to make them suitable for use as initiating elements in an
explosive train. Examples are wet lead azide, wet lead styphnate, wet mercury fulminate, wet
tetracene, and dry PETN.
GROUP B. DETONATORS AND SIMILAR INITIATING DEVICES - Items containing initiating
explosives that are designed to initiate or continue the functioning of an explosive train. Examples
are detonators, blasting caps, small arms primers, and safe/arm without two or more safety features.
GROUP C. BULK PROPELLANTS, PROPELLING CHARGES, AND DEVICES CONTAINING
PROPELLANT WITH OR WITHOUT THEIR OWN MEANS OF IGNITION. Items that upon
initiation will deflagrate, explode or detonate. Examples are single, double, triple-base, and
composite propellants, rocket motors (solid propellant).
GROUP D. BLACK POWDER, HIGH EXPLOSIVES (HE), OR A DEVICE CONTAINING AN
INITIATING EXPLOSIVE AND CONTAINING TWO OR MORE INDEPENDENT SAFETY
FEATURES. Explosives that can be expected to explode or detonate when any given
item/component thereof is initiated.
GROUP E. NOT NORMALLY FOUND IN NASA INSTALLATIONS.
GROUP F. DEVICES (FUZED) WITH OR WITHOUT PROPELLING CHARGES. Examples are
sounding devices and similar items having an in-line explosive train in the initiator.
GROUP G. FIREWORKS, ILLUMINATING, INCENDIARY, AND SMOKE (INCLUDING HC), OR
TEAR-PRODUCING DEVICES OTHER THAN THOSE WHICH ARE WATER ACTIVATED
OR WHICH CONTAIN WHITE PHOSPHORUS (WP) OR FLAMMABLE LIQUID OR GEL.
Functioning of these devices results in an incendiary, illumination, lachrymatory, smoke, or sound
effect. Examples are flares, signals, incendiary or illumination devices, igniters, and other smoke
producing devices.
GROUP H. NOT NORMALLY FOUND IN NASA INSTALLATIONS.
GROUP J. NOT NORMALLY FOUND IN NASA INSTALLATIONS.
GROUP K. NOT NORMALLY FOUND IN NASA INSTALLATIONS.
GROUP L. DEVICES NOT INCLUDED IN OTHER COMPATIBILITY GROUPS. Devices having
characteristics that do not permit storage with other types of material. Examples are water activated
devices, prepackaged hypergolic liquid fueled rocket engines, fuel-air explosive devices (FAE),
TPA (thickened TEA), and damaged or suspect items of any group. Types preventing similar
hazards (i.e., oxidizers with oxidizers, fuels with fuels, etc.) may be stored together but not mixed
with other groups.
GROUP S. ITEMS PRESENTING NO SIGNIFICANT HAZARD. Devices so designed or packed that
when in storage all hazardous explosive effects are confined and self contained within the item or
package. An incident may destroy all items in a single pack but must not be communicated to other
packs so all are destroyed. Examples are thermal batteries, explosive switches or valves, Safe and
Arming (S&A) devices, and other items packaged to meet the criteria of this group.
MIXED STORAGE
Mixing of SCGs is permitted as indicated in Figure 6-1 and Table 6-1. Items from SCGs C, D, F, G, and
S may be combined in storage provided the net quantity of explosives in the items or in bulk does not exceed
1000 pounds per storage site. These items must be packaged in accordance with approved drawings.
Fiqure 6-1. Storage Compatibility Mixing Chart
Groups
A B C D E F G L S
A
x z
z
B
z x
x
C
x z z
D
z x x
x
E
z x x
x
z
x
F
G
x
z
x
x
x
L
S
x
z x x x x x x
x
NOTES: An "x" in a block of the above chart indicates that these groups may be combined in storage;
otherwise, mixing is either prohibited or restricted according to the following paragraphs.
A "z" in a block of the above chart indicates that when warranted by operational considerations or
magazine unavailability, and when safety is not sacrificed, these groups may be combined in storage.
No mark in a block indicates that combined storage is not permitted.
Table 6-1. Storage Compatibility Groups for Explosives and Explosives Containing Devices
_______________________________________________________________
Group A - Initiating Explosives
Black powder
CP (5-Cyanotetrazolpentaamine Cobalt III Perchlorate) (pellets)
Lead azide
Lead styphnate
Mercury fulminate
Nitrocellulose (dry)
Tetracene
TATNB (Triazidotrinitrobenzene)
Group B - Detonators and similar initiating devices
Blasting caps
Booster pellets (when packaged in non-propagating arrays)
Detonators including EBWs and slappers
Explosive bolts
Fragmenting actuators
Igniters MDF (mild detonating fuse) detonator assemblies)
Pressure cartridges
Primers
Squibs
Group C - Bulk propellant, propellant charges, and devices containing propellants with or without their
own means of initiation
Smokeless powder
Pistol and rifle powder
Rocket motor solid propellants
Group D - High explosives (HE and devices containing explosives without their own means of initiation)
Ammonium Picrate
Baratol
Boracitol
Compositions A, B, and C (all types)
Cyclotols (not to exceed a maximum of 85X RDX)
DATB (diaminotrinitrobenzene)
Detonating cord (primacord or mild detonating fuse)
Appendix D: The Legend of Santa Barbara
The Patron Saint of Cannoneers and Ordnancemen
Saint Barbara was born in the year 218 A.D., in Nicomedia, a city of northern Asia Minor. Her father,
Dioscorus, was a tyrannical Roman. During his absence from home, the girl embraced the teaching of
Origen, the great Christian doctor. Dioscorus on his return ordered a new house built for Barbara, who was
very beautiful, where she might entertain her suitors. To symbolize her faith, the maiden induced the builder
to put three windows in her bedroom to typify the Trinity, instead of the two windows her father had
ordered.
When Dioscorus discovered the third, most significant window and questioned her, Barbara admitted she
had become a Christian. Not only did she insist upon clinging to the new religion, but also she rejected the
suitor whom her father had selected as her husband. She was tried on her father's indictment, found guilty
and sentenced to death. Dioscorus called the prefect, "Give me the sword; she shall die at my own hands."
And so did Barbara die at the hands of her own father. Even as the sword fell, lightening fell upon this cruel
father and consumed him as he stood.
Because lightening appeared to revenge the death of Barbara, she became the protectress against lightening
and thunder. Ordnancemen, regardless of the flags under which they served through the centuries, have
claimed Barbara as their patron saint.
(from the Association of Aviation Ordnancemen, used by permission.)
Appendix E: References for Further Studies about Safety
A WARNING FROM THE AUTHOR. Caveat emptor. There is more than a little "fatally wrong"
misinformation available from an abundant variety of purveyors. As a scientist and engineer, I cannot
overemphasize the deadly dangers associated with what might be called "fringe" literature recipes and
formulae. In the highly specialized and hazardous industries of fireworks and explosives, one is well
advised to seek out and study several of the classic texts in each field.
Some of the most helpful books about the safe handling of pyrotechnics, explosives, and rocket
propellants are listed below. All ‘in-print’ are available directly from the author of this book. Most of the
out-of-print titles are also available, often at favorable prices. Please inquire by writing to:
E-mail
rocket.science@usa.net
U.S. Mail P.O. Box 10455, Zephyr Cove, NV 89448 USA
Atlas Powder Co. Manual of Rock Blasting. Out of print.
Bollinger, Loren E., ed. Liquid Rockets & Propellants, Part 2. 1970. (682 pgs: ISBN 0-317-36836-2).
Out of print.
Clark, John D. Ignition: An Informal History of Liquid Rocket Propellants. Rutgers University Press,
1972. (ISBN 0-8135-0725-1). Out of print.
Dick, R.A. et al. Explosives and Blasting Procedures Manual. U.S. Bureau of Mines IC8925, 1983.
Display Fireworks Shooter Certification Study Guide.
(Softcover, 73 pgs; $19.95)
Pyrotechnics Guild International (PGI).
Donner, John. Professional's Guide to Pyrotechnics: Understanding and Making Exploding Fireworks.
1977. (Paperback, 136 pgs, illus.; $15.00).
DuPont Co., E.I. DuPont de Nemours. Blaster's Handbook. Wilmington: E.I. DuPont de Nemours and
Co., 1977. Out of print.
Frank, Robert G. Materials for Rockets & Missiles. Macmillan, 1959. (ISBN 0-02-339400-5). Out of
print.
Holzmann, Richard T. Chemical Rockets & Flame & Explosives Technology. Dekker, 1969. (ISBN 08247-1315-X). Out of print.
Holzmann, Richard T., ed. Advanced Propellant Chemistry. Advances In Chemistry Series, Nº 54.
American Chemical Society, 1966) (ISBN 0-8412-0055-6). Out of print.
Malone, Hugh E. The Analysis of Rocket Propellants. Analysis of Organic Materials Series. Acad-Pr,
1977. (ISBN 0-12-466750-3). Out of print.
Marshall, Arthur. Explosives: Their History, Manufacture, Properties and Tests. Gordon Publications,
1980 (3 vols; $900). Published by P. Blakiston's Son & Co. in 2 volumes. Volume I covers
production, and Volume Two covers properties and tests. Both are illustrated, "very comprehensive
and well written. Author was Chemical Inspector, Ordnance Deptarment of England."
Ofca, Bill. Technique In Fire, Vol 10. Working Safely With Chlorate. (48 pgs, $16.95) History of the
use of chlorates in fireworks, who should and should not use them, chemistry of chlorates, review
and discussion of the literature; chemicals that are compatible and incompatible with chlorates. Safe
procedures to use in screening, mixing, and handling chlorate star compositions; several proven
chlorate colored-star formulas."
Ofca, Bill. Technique In Fire, Vol 4: Condensed Fireworks Chemicals Reference Manual. (39 pgs,
$16.95). "88 chemicals with data and descriptions, compatibility notes, cautions, fireworks uses."
Sarner, Stanley R. Propellant Chemistry. Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1966. (ISBN 0-442-15065-2). Out
of print.
Sax, N. Irving and R.J. Lewis, Sr. Hazardous Chemical Desk Reference. Reinhold Press. (1096 pp.).
"Quick reference guide to 4,700 of the most commonly used hazardous chemicals and compounds;
includes incompatibilities and hazards. Perhaps the most comprehensive reference in print, in any
language."
Shimizu, Takeo. Fireworks from a Physical Standpoint, Part IV. Austin TX: Pyrotechnica Publications,
1989 ($18.00) Appendixes: 1 - The Properties of Fuels, 2 - Equations and Tables for Designing the
Shape of Items with Constant Innerburning Surfaces, 3 - Equations and Tables for Designing Rocket
Motors, 4 - Ballistic Functions for the Chrystantemum, 5 - Sensitivity Ratings of Various Chemical
Compositions from the Results of Sensitivity Tests, 6 - The Reaction Tendencies of Two Substances
When Exposed to Moisture, 7 - The Burning Velocity of Black Powder in Air, Addendum - Musical
Symbol Notation, Literature, Index.
Shimizu, Takeo. Selected Pyrotechnic Publications, Part 1. "Hypothesis on the Cause of Serious
Accidents Related to Salute Charges"; "A Concept and the Use of Negative Explosives"; "Ballistics
of Firework Shells"; "An Example of Negative Explosives: Magnesium Sulfate/Magnesium
Mixture"; The Effect of Hot Spots on Burning Surface and Its Application to Strobe Light
Formation with Mixtures Which Contain No Ammonium Perchlorate"; "The Surface Explosion of
Pyrotechnic Mixtures"; "Stabilizing Firework Compositions: I. Minimum Solubility Law to Foresee
the Degeneration; II. A New Chemical Method of Magnesium Coating"; "Burning Rate and Grain
Size of Component Materials of Pyrotechnic Mixtures." Journal of Pyrotechnics. Softcover, 86 pps.
Eight technical articles previously presented at past convocations of the International Pyrotechnic
Seminar.
Sponenburgh, Lloyd. Ball Milling Theory and Practice for the Amateur Pyrotechnician. (66 pgs, illus;
$19.95).
Sutton, George P. Rocket Propulsion Elements: An Introduction to the Engineering of Rockets. WileyInterscience, 6th Ed., April 1992. (656 pgs; ISBN 0-471-8389). "Clearly the most useful text of its
kind; every rocket scientist starts with Sutton."
OTHER SAFETY REFERENCES
INSTITUTE OF THE MANUFACTURERS OF EXPLOSIVES
1120 Nineteenth Street NW, Suite 310,
Washington, DC 20036
TEL (202) 429-9280
FAX (202) 293-2420
WWW ime.org
(The safety association of the commercial explosives industry; founded 1913)
ROCKETRY ONLINE
Rocketry Online is a comprehensive web site, maintained by Darrell Mobley.
http://www.rocketryonline.com
NAR: THE NATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF ROCKETRY
http://www.nar.org
TRA - TRIPOLI ROCKETRY ASSOCIATION
http://www.tripoli.org
CAR - CANADIAN ASSOCIATION OF ROCKETRY
http://www.promotek.com/car/index.htm
AUSTRALIAN ROCKETRY ASSOCIATION
Email: dasakko@cs.adelaide.edu.au (David Sakko, Vice President)
NEW ZEALAND HIGH POWER ROCKETRY
http://www.creative.co.nz/index/lyle/hpr.htm
SAMROC: SOUTH AFRICA MODEL ROCKET CLUB
http://samroc.lonnet.co.za/
ROCKETRY CLUB HOME PAGES BY STATE
ALABAMA
HARA: Huntsville Area Rocketry Association, NAR Section 403
http://fly.hiwaay.net/~bday/hara/hara.htm
ARIZONA
Arizona High Power Rocketry Association
http://www.goodnet.com/~roktdan/ahpra/
SARA: Southern Arizona Rocket Association, NAR Section 545
http://www.primenet.com/~tmorgan/sara.html
SSS: Superstition Spacemodeling Society, NAR Section
http://www.netcom.com/~tabarr/sss.html
CALIFORNIA
AEROPAC
http://www.aeropac.org/aeropac/
BAYNAR: NAR Section 359
http://www.airaffair.com/Clubs/baynar.html
DART: Diego Area Rocket Team, NAR Section 317
http://users.aol.com/DART317/
LUNAR: Livermore Unit of the NAR, NAR Section 534
http://www.lunar.org/
ROC: Rocketry Organization of California, NAR Section 538
http://www.adradio.com/~jds/roc.html
SCRA: Southern California Rocket Assoc., NAR Section 430
http://home.earthlink.net/~mebowitz/
COLORADO
COSROCS: Colorado Rocket Society, NAR Section 515
http://www.colomar.com/cosrocs/
FLORIDA
Jerry Garcia Rocketry Club
http://rio.atlantic.net/~elric/jerry.html
Spaceport Rocketry Association, NAR Section 342
http://www.metrolink.net/~riley/
ILLINOIS
CIA: Central Illinois Aerospace, NAR Section 527
http://www.prairienet.org/rec/cia/
NIRA: Northern Illinois Rocketry Assocation, NAR Section 117
http://ourworld.compuserve.com/homepages/Mark_Bundick/
INDIANA
SCAM: Summit City Aerospace Modelers, NAR Section 282
http://www.mixi.net/~bobhart/scam/scam.html
KANSAS
K.L.O.U.D.Busters Inc., TRA Prefect
http://www.sound.net/~petek
KENTUCKY
Kentuckiana Rocketry Association
http://www.louisville.edu/~atjewe01/kra.html
MARYLAND
NAR Headquarters AeroModelers Society, NAR Section 139
http://chemgod.slip.umd.edu/~narhams
Tripoli Maryland
http://www.geocities.com/CapeCanaveral/Hangar/3707/TRAMD.html
MASSACHUSETTS
CMASS: Central Massachusetts Spacemodeling Society, NAR Section 464
http://www.cmass.org:8000/
NEW JERSEY
Garden State Spacemodeling Society
http://www.princeton.com/GSSS
Garden State Tripoli
http://www.cyberenet.net/~drusso
NEW YORK
ASTRE: Albany-Schenectady-Troy Rocket Enthusiasts of New York,
Section 471 of the NAR
http://www.netheaven.com/~wolf/astre.html
MARS: Monroe Astronautical Rocketry Society
Section 136 of the NAR
http://web.syr.edu/~rmpitzer/mars/index.html
LIARS: Long Island Advanced Rocketry Society, TRA Prefecture 29,
and the North Shore Section 142 of the NAR
http://qa.pica.army.mil/~dkatz/liars.html
Tripoli Western New York
http://members.gnn.com/RocketWeb/RocketWeb.htm
OHIO
Northern Ohio's Tri City Sky Busters, NAR Section 535
http://www.beacon.com/%7Efrazer/nar535/
OKLAHOMA
Oklahoma Tripoli
http://www.flash.net/~jbolene/okc-trip.htm
PENNSYLVANIA
Pittsburgh Space Command, NAR Section 473
http://news.third-wave.com/mikea/psc.html
Southern Pennsylvania Area Association of Rocketry
Tripoli Susquehanna
http://www.cyberia.com/pages/feveryear/
TEXAS
DARS: Dallas Area Rocket Society, NAR Section 308
http://www.dars.org/
Hill Country Tripoli, Austin
http://www.ddg.com/HCT/
NHRC: NASA/Houston Rocket Club, NAR Section 365, TRA 002
http://www.phoenix.net/~rocket/club.html
UTAH
UROC: Utah Rocketry Club
http://www.lgcy.com/users/n/nbaker/uroc.htm
VIRGINIA
NOVAAR: Northern Virginia Area Association of Rocketry
http://www.geocities.com/CapeCanaveral/8561
WEB SITES OF GENERAL INTEREST TO ROCKETRY
BATF
http://www.atf.treas.gov/
BATF "Orange Book"
A scanned copy of the BATF non-copyrighted book titled "ATF - Explosives Law and
Regulation," generously provided by Tom Perigrin and Doug Caskey.
http://mercury.aichem.arizona.edu/~tip/legal/Orange.html
http://members.aol.com/RocketWeb/atf/orange.htm
Certified Motor Listings
(NAR Standards and Testing Committee)
http://www.nar.org/
(Tripoli Motor Testing)
http://sunsite.unc.edu/rockets
FAA Form 7711-2 Application for Certificate of Waiver (downloadable/printable copy of Form
711-2)
http://www.faa.gov/avr/afs/Waiver.htm
National Fire Protection Association
http://www.nfpa.org
FEDERAL REGULATORY AGENCIES DIRECTLY AFFECTING
PYROTECHNICS AND ROCKETRY
The U.S. Code is the federal law of the land. The parts applicable to pyrotechnics and rocketry are Title
18, Chapters 39 and 40.
The Department of Transportation controls interstate shipments of pyrotechnics and hazardous
materials.
Bureau of Alcohol Tobacco and Firearms regulations are published in the “Orange Book.” You can try
to get a copy from the BATF (they are frequently out of stock), or you can purchase it from SkyLighter. The
BATF also publishes annually the List of Explosive Materials, which defines their usage of the term
“explosive.”
The Consumer Product Safety Commission regulates class C fireworks.
If you fall under OSHA's purview, you will need to know about their “Fireworks Manufacturer:
Compliance Policy.” A web site called Safety OnLine has the complete OSHA regulations available. Search
on "Fireworks" to get the ones that are relevant.
FOREIGN, STATE AND LOCAL LEGAL INFORMATION
Canada has an organization called the Canadian Explosives Research Laboratory which does very
useful research in the area of display pyro.
Great Britain has outlawed most fireworks.
National Council on Fireworks Safety has a web site dedicated to fireworks safety.
Alaska Statutes, Title 18, Chapter 72, contains the Alaska fireworks laws, along with the Administrative
Code, Title 13, Chapter 51.
Arizona Statutes, Title 35, Chapters 1601, 1602, 1603, 1604, 1605, 1606, 1607, and 1608 contain the
Arizona fireworks laws.
California State Fireworks Laws are on line, along with the Fire Marshall's Regulations, and an index to
the code and penalties. The California Fire Marshall's office has a Fireworks Safety Page
Colorado State Fireworks Laws are on line. They also have a page of Questions and Answers.
Florida fireworks laws are on-line, along with an amendment from 1996.
Hawai'i: A Study of Fireworks in identifies some of the problems inherent in trying to control
fireworks use.
Indiana Code, Title 22, Article 11, Chapter 14, contains that state’s fireworks laws.
Michigan Fireworks Laws can be found on one of Commonwealth Display's pages.
Minnesota requires Fireworks Operator Certification.
New Jersey fireworks laws are in Title 21.
Ohio Revised Code, Chapter 3743, contains the Ohio state fireworks laws.
Rhode Island fireworks laws are in Chapter 23-28.11.
Texas Administrative Code, Title 37, Part XIII, Chapter 591, contains the Texas fireworks laws.
Washington Revised Code, Title 70, Chapter 77, contains the Washington State Fireworks laws.
Jonesboro, Arkansas has their municipal code on-line. The fireworks laws are chapter 7.36.
Celeste, Texas Volunteer Fire Department has a Fireworks Safety page.
Epilogue
The preceding material has been excerpted from the 3d Edition of the Handbook of Fireworks
and Explosives. This new book, now in publication, will be released this summer.
Since some of the recipients and readers of this free Safety Manual may also be interested in the
Handbook, the author provides the following ‘promotional’ material, and invites pre-publication
(discounted) orders.
Again, thank you for requesting the Safety Manual. I hope it helps promote our research and
development in a safe and sane way. Please send a note of acknowledgement if you have any
comments, positive or otherwise.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Announcing Publication of the Third Edition
HANDBOOK OF FIREWORKS AND EXPLOSIVES
by L. Edw. Jones, BS (Chem), MS (Chem Engr), PhD (Rocket Science)
An all-new, up-to-date laboratory reference handbook, with detailed organic and inorganic
chemistries, and processing technologies of both traditional and modern pyrotechnics and
explosives

More than 1000 tested classic and contemporary formulas

More than 100 tables, charts, illustrations

Plus 28 high-resolution, full-color technical illustrations

In easy-to-use, easy-to-read format
 Opens fully flat for quick and easy lab references
 11-point Times-Roman highly-readable text font, with 110-percent line interspacing
 Accords with Chicago Manual of Style and leading scientific reference resources

14 extensive, detailed appendices

Up-to-date lists of all major suppliers of chemicals, tools, supplies, and books for
pyrotechnic and explosives research and development

Up-to-date lists of all major Internet URLs

Extensive glossary and bibliographic references

Meticulous data rechecking and proofreading

Completely indexed
Approximately 411 Pages, Laboratory Flex-Bound, Acid & Solvent-Resistant Cover
Publication Date: 1 June 1999, at $90.00
Pre-publication Price: $49.95
Save $40.00 -- order today.
Please add $4.95 shipping and handling to your order.
Comments from readers of the proofs:
"Continues in the classic traditions of Davis, Weingart, Lancaster, Shimizu, and Sutton, bringing
these arcane sciences well into the 21st Century."
-- A.L.L., Riverside, California
“Much more comprehensive and encyclopedic than any other fireworks book I have seen.”
-- N.W., San Antonio, Texas
“An entirely suitable text for getting started in rocket design and construction. The propellant
chemistry section is both detailed and easy for a non-chemist to understand.”
-- S.F., Toronto, Canada
“This book has a wealth of information about the details of explosives chemistry and formulations,
together with instructions on their specific hazards and safe handling.”
-- R.L.G., Perth, Australia
“… a volume that belongs in the laboratory of everyone who works with sensitive materials.”
-- B.V., Cordoba, Spain
“Now that I have read Dr. Jones’ huge book, I know how much I have yet to learn about
pyrotechnics!”
-- A.T., Tampa, Florida
“I will keep this easy-to-use reference book on my lab bench.”
-- N.W., Los Alamos, New Mexico
28 CHAPTERS, INCLUDES DETAILED INFORMATION ON:
HAZARDS AND SAFETY
Prevention
Containment
Isolation & Magazines
Safe Working Conditions & Work Areas
Fire Protection
Storage Conditions
Air Contamination, Toxic Chemicals & Noise
Static Electricity
Tools
Methods of Handling, Weighing, Scooping & Mixing
Handling Black Powder & Flash Powder
Handling Low Energy Initiators
Safety Incompatible Materials
Pyrophorics and Hypergolics
About Chlorates
Other Incompatible Materials
Classification of Hazardous Materials
Labeling and Identification
WORKING AREAS
Safe Working Conditions
Pyrotechnics Working Areas
Explosives Working Areas
TOOLS
Tools, Scales and Balances, Grinders & Mixers
Ball Mills and Tumblers
V-Tube Mixers
Sieves and Drying Screens
Charcoal Kilns
Pyrotechnic Manufacturing Tools, including
Case-Rolling Tools
Presses
Charging & Ramming Tools
Star Pumps & Star Plates
Explosives Manufacturing Tools
Pyrotechnic Testing & Display Tools
Explosives Testing & Blasting Tools
MATERIALS AND SUPPLIES
Tubes and Cases
Solvents
Inert Materials & Supplies
Strength of Tubing and Cases
Glues and Adhesives
Clays & Other Refractories
Wooden Bases and Stabilizing Sticks
Desiccants
Protective Treatments for Metals
Star Rolling Cores (Molecular Sieves)
Chemicals, including
Pyrotechnic Oxidizers
Pyrotechnic Fuels
Combustion Modifiers
Flame and Smoke Coloring Agents
Binders
Solvents
Reagents
Catalysts and Other Additives
Suppliers and Vendors
FABRICATION AND PROCESSING
Fabrication and Processing Methods
Machinery, Equipment, and Facilities
Drying Of Materials
Assembly Operations
Transportation
Fabrication of Pyrotechnics Devices, including Tube and Case Rolling Tools & Techniques
Plugs and Closures
Nozzle Forming
Hand and Machine Charging, Ramming, Pressing, Extruding, & Pelleting
Machining Of Pyrotechnic Materials
Fabrication of Explosives Devices
CHEMICAL MILLING AND MIXING
Granulation, Grinding, and Screening
Ball Milling
Screening, Mixing and Blending Processes & Procedures
Cleaning Of Pyrotechnic Processing Equipment
Collection of Pyrotechnic Wastes
PYROTECHNIC COMPOSITIONS AND FORMULATIONS
Pyrotechnic Chemistry
Ignitability and Reactivity
Metal Coating & Treatment
Choice of Solvents
MATCHES, FUSES, AND IGNITERS
Stick Matches
Black Match, Slow Match & Quick Match
Visco Pyrotechnic Fuses
CHEMISTRY & PHYSICS OF COLORED-FLAME FIREWORKS
STARS
Star Formulations, including
All Types of Colored Stars
Metallic- and Magnesium-Fuelled Stars
Metallic Fire Dust Stars
Charcoal Fire Dust Stars
Black Powder/Metal Fire Dust Stars
Comet Compositions
Crackling Microstars
Strobe Stars, Gold Stars
Zinc Spreader & Granite Stars
Flare Stars
Star Primes & Smoke Stars
COLORED FIRES, BENGALS, LANCES, PORTFIRES, FLARES, TORCHES, AND
INCENDARIES
GERBS, FOUNTAINS, SQUIBS, CONES
FIRE DUST, RAINS, AND WATERFALLS
PINWHEELS, DRIVERS, SAXONS, TOURBILLIONS
ROMAN CANDLES, COMETS, MINES
PYROTECHNIC SHELLS
Shell Casings
Arranging Of the Burst Charge and Stars
Shell Burst Charges
Shell Time Fuses
Shell Mortars & Tubes
Mortar Racks & Troughs
Launching Shells
Mortar Ignition Methods
Reloading Mortars
Washing, Maintaining, and Storing Mortars
WHISTLES
NOISEMAKERS
White and Colored Flash Powders
Salutes
Cherry Bombs
Silver Torpedoes
Firecrackers
PYROTECHNIC SMOKES
White, Grey, Black & Colored Smokes
SPARKLERS
TRACERS
INDOOR FIREWORKS
Including Touch & Flash Papers, Fire Pellets, Serpents, Pharaoh Snakes & Bullet-Hit Squibs
MISCELLANEOUS AND OTHER PYROTECHNIC DEVICES
ROCKET DESIGN AND FABRICATION
Rocket Design & Fabrication
Rocket Propellant Chemistry
Solid propellant Rocket Propellants
Black Powder-Type Propellants
Composite Propellants
Other Solid Propellants
FUSES AND DELAY TRAINS
PRIMERS, INITIATORS, DETONATORS, AND FUZES
Impact Ignition Primers
Blasting Caps & Squibs
Detonating Cord
Fuzes
LOW EXPLOSIVES
Black Powder
Pyrodex
Smokeless Powder
Other Low Explosives
HIGH EXPLOSIVES
Chemistry of High Explosives
Inorganic High Explosives
Organic High Explosives, including:
Aliphatic Hydrocarbons and Their Derivatives
Aromatic Hydrocarbons and Their Derivatives
Properties and Laboratory Syntheses of High Explosives
High Explosives Manufacturing Techniques
Explosive Gas Mixtures
Sprengel Explosives
Chemically-Ignited Explosives
Esoteric Explosives
Miscellaneous Explosive Devices
14 APPENDICES, INCLUDING:
Reference Tables and Charts
Comprehensive List of Explosive Substances
Prohibited Chemicals Lists
State Pyrotechnics Codes
Suggested Laboratory Equipment Lists
Department of Defense Explosives Safety Board
Munitions List
Ammunition Color Coding
NASA Safety Manual
Fireworks, Pyrotechnics, and Explosives Organizations
Manufacturers and Suppliers
Bibliography and Reference Materials
GLOSSARY
INDEX
AND, OF COURSE, MUCH, MUCH, MORE...