ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY
PMD PROGRAM
CONTENT OBJECTIVES
Section 1 – Introduction to the Organization of the Human Body
 Define:
-anatomy
-physiology
 Explain and give an example of the relationship between the anatomy (structure) of a part and
its physiology (function)
 List and describe the levels of structural organization of the human body and explain how they
are related
 Name each of the major organ systems and briefly state its major function(s)
Section 2 – Homeostasis
 Define:
-homeostasis
-homeostatic control mechanisms
 Briefly discuss the importance of homeostasis to the healthful functioning of the body
 List and describe the characteristics of the homeostatic mechanism
 Briefly discuss the concept of receptors (sensors), effectors, control centres, input, output,
feedback
 Discuss how positive and negative feedback mechanisms function and give an example of
how and where each is used in the body
Section 3 – Terminology Related to the Body as a Whole
 Describe and demonstrate the anatomical position
 Define and/or locate on a diagram the following orientation and directional terms: superior,
inferior, anterior (ventral), posterior (dorsal), medial, lateral, intermediate, proximal, distal,
superficial, deep, peripheral
 Define and locate on a diagram the following body landmarks:
Anterior – abdominal, antecubital, axillary, brachial, buccal, carpal, cervical, digital,
femoral, inguinal, nasal, oral, orbital, patellar, peroneal, pubic, sternal,
tarsal, thoracic, umbilical
Posterior – cephalic, deltoid, gluteal, lumbar, occipital, popliteal, scapular, sural (calf)
Vertebral
 Describe and/or locate on a diagram the following terms used to describe planes and sections:
-- sagittal, midsagittal, media, frontal (coronal), transverse, cross section
 Locate the major body cavities and list the chief organs in each:
Dorsal – cranial cavity, spinal cavity
Ventral – thoracic cavity, abdominopelvic cavity (abdominal & pelvic)
 Locate regions and quadrants of the abdomen on diagrams
Section 4 – Basic Chemistry
 Identify the main chemical elements in the body by name and symbol
 Define: -ions, molecules, free radicals, and compounds
 Define and discuss: -chemical bonds: ionic, covalent, and hydrogen bonds
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Discuss types of chemical reactions including anabolism, catabolism, exchange reactions and
reversible reactions
Identify and define inorganic compounds
Discuss the properties of water in detail
Discuss and define acids, bases, salts, pH
Identify organic compounds
Section 5 – The Cell
A: Stucture
 Discuss why the cell is the basic functional living unit
 Define:
-cell
-organelle
-inclusion
 Identify on a diagram the three major cell regions (plasma/cell membrane, cytoplasm,
nucleus), describe its structure, and briefly discuss its major function
 Label the following parts of a composite cell on a diagram and state the major function of
each part: cytosol, rough endoplasmic reticulum, smooth endoplasmic reticulum, ribosomes,
Golgi apparatus, mitochondria, lysosomes, peroxisome, centrioles, cytoskeleton (intermediate
filaments, microfilaments, microtubules), nuclear membrane, nucleolus, chromatin
 Label the parts of the nucleus on a diagram and state the major function of each
B: Movement of substances across the cell membrane
 Define the following terms as they relate to cell membrane transport:
- solution
- solvent
- solutes
- intracellular fluid
- interstitial fluid
- permeable
- selectively permeable
- passive transport processes (include examples)
- active transport processes (include examples)
 Define and describe how substances move across the cell membrane by:
- diffusion
- osmosis
- filtration
- active transport
- endocytosis (pinocytosis, phagocytosis)
 Briefly define: osmotic pressure
 Differentiate between isotonic, hypotonic and hypertonic solutions
C: Life cycle of a cell
 Define and briefly describe what occurs in mitosis
 Define meiosis
Section 6 – Tissues
A: Introduction
 Define:
-tissue
 Name the 4 major types of tissues and explain how they differ structurally and functionally.
 Identify the general characteristics of the following tissues:
- epithelial
- connective
- muscle
- nerve
B: Epithelium
 For the following types of epithelium, define, describe structure and identify location:
- simple squamous
- simple cuboidal
- simple columnar
- pseudostratified columnar
- stratified squamous
- stratified columnar
- transitional
- glandular (endocrine and exocrine)
 Define:
- secretion
- endocrine gland
- exocrine gland
C: Connective Tissue
 Define:
- extracellular matrix
- collagen (white) fibers
- elastic (yellow) fibers
 For the following types of connective tissue, define, describe structure and identify location: loose fibrous: areolar, adipose, reticular
- dense fibrous: regular, irregular
- cartilage
- bone
- blood
 Differentiate between skeletal, smooth and cardiac muscle tissue and identify organs in which
each of the above is located.
 Briefly discuss the structure, location and function of nerve tissue.
Section 7 - The Integumentary and Body Membrane Systems
A: Body Membrane System
 Define:
membrane
 Differentiate between the following types of membranes:
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cutaneous
mucous (mucosa)
serous (serosa)
synovial
State the functions of each type of body membrane.
Name and describe the serous membranes located in the thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities.
B: Integumentary System
 Define:
integumentary system
 List the functions of the skin (cutaneous membrane).
 Name and locate the following on a diagram:
The epidermis,
 Dermis
 Define:
melanin
Melanocytes
 Discuss the location, structure and function of the following accessory organs of the skin:
hair and hair follicles
nails
oil glands (sebaceous glands)
sweat glands (sudoriferous glands)
Differentiate between the location and function of apocrine and eccrine glands.
Section 8 – Fundamentals of the Nervous System
A. Examine the structure and function of the nervous system
 Briefly discuss the general function of the nervous system, and describe the role of
the nervous system in maintaining homeostasis
 Explain the structural and functional divisions of the nervous system
 Classify the organs of the nervous system into central and peripheral divisions
 Differentiate between neurons and neuroglial cells
 Identify the following parts of a neuron on a diagram
-cell body
-cytoplasm
-nucleus
-axonal terminals
-neurotransmitters
-synaptic cleft
-dendrites
-axon
-synapse
-Schwann cell
-myelin
-myelin sheath
-nodes of Ranvier
 Define: nuclei, ganglia, tracts, nerve
 Define reflex arc and list its elements
 Define and explain the formation of each of the following:
-resting membrane potential
-action potential
-graded potential
 Define and explain the significance of the following properties of action potentials:
threshold potential; all-or-none phenomenon; refractory period
Section 9 – Musculo-Skeletal System
A: The Skeletal System
 List the major functions of the skeletal system.
 List 4 principle types of bones in the skeleton and give an example of each.
 Identify the subdivisions of the skeleton as axial or appendicular and list the bones included in
each.
 Label the following parts of a long bone on a diagram:
- epiphysis
- diaphysis
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B:
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- medullary cavity (yellow marrow cavity)
- periosteum
- endosteum
- articular cartilage
- epiphyseal line
- epiphyseal plate
- spongy bone
- compact bone
Identify and locate the bones and suture lines of the skull and face.
Idendify and locate the bones, suture lines and fontanelles of the neonatal skull and face.
Identify and locate the sinuses (maxillary, ethmoidal, sphenoidal and frontal).
Identify the bones of the skeleton on a diagram. Include the bones of the:
- vertebral column
- thoracic cage
- pectoral girdle
- upper limb
- pelvic girdle
- lower limb
The Joints
Differentiate between fibrous (immovable), cartilaginous (slightly movable) and synovial
(freely movable) joints.
Describe the general structure of fibrous joints.
Describe the general structure of cartilaginous joints.
Describe the general characteristics shared by all synovial joints and label the following parts
of a synovial joint on a diagram:
- articular cartilage
- synovial membrane
- fibrous articular joint capsule
- reinforcing ligaments
- articulating bone
- joint cavity (filled with synovial
- bursae
fluid)
Name the six types of synovial joints (ball and socket, condyloid, hinge, pivot, saddle and
plane), describe the actions of each and give an example of where each type of joint is located
in the body.
Briefly describe where synovial fluid comes from. Describe weeping lubrication.
Define and give an example of a(n) uniaxial joint, biaxial joint and multiaxial joint.
Describe the following types of joint movements:
- flexion
- extension
- hyperextension
- dorsiflexion
- plantar flexion
- abduction
- adduction
- circumduction
- rotation
- supination
- pronation
- eversion
- inversion
- protraction
- retraction
- elevation
- depression
- opposition
C: The Muscular System
 List the 4 characteristics of muscle tissue.
 List the functions of muscle tissue.
 Briefly describe similarities and differences in the structure and function of the three types of
muscle tissue and note where they are found in the body.
 Define muscular system.
 Describe the relationship between bones and skeletal muscles in producing body movements.
 Differentiate between the origin and the insertion of a muscle.
 Define the role of the following in producing body movements as they relate to muscles:
prime mover (agonist), antagonist, synergist, fixator
 Define:
- muscle tone
 Locate on a diagram and generally describe the actions of the following skeletal muscles:
- frontalis
- orbicularis oculi
- orbicularis oris
- buccinator
- zygomaticus
- masseter
- temporalis
- sternocleidomastoid
- pectoralis major
- intercostal muscles
- rectus abdominus
- transversus abdominus
- internal oblique
- external oblique
- trapezius
- latissimus dorsi
- erector spinae
- deltoid
- biceps brachii
- triceps brachii
- iliopsoas
- gluteus maximus
- gluteus medius
- gluteus minimus
- adductor magnus
- adductor longus
- adductor brevis
- sartorius
- hamstring group (3)
- quadriceps group (4)
- tibialis anterior
- peroneal muscles
- gastrocnemius
 Describe the physiological dynamics of a muscle contraction and relaxation.
 Identify the chemical mediators (neurotransmitter substances) which are liberated at the
motor end plate
 Explain the role of Ca++ ions and the Na+ and K+ pumps in the transmission of a nerve
impulse and contraction and relaxation of a muscle.
 Explain the physiological mechanism of a muscle spasm and associated pain.
 Describe the relationship of oxygen debt to the development of muscle pain.
Section 10 – The Cardiovascular System
 State the functions of the heart.
 Identify the location of the heart in the mediastinum.
 Name the 3 layers of the heart.
 Name and locate on a diagram and model:
- four chambers of the heart
- heart valves
- great vessels that enter and leave the heart
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Trace the pathway of blood through the heart and pulmonary circulation.
Describe the structures that constitute the skeleton of the heart.
Name and identify the major coronary vessels and the coronary sinus that supply blood to the
heart on a diagram and model.
 Name the components of the conduction system of the heart and explain the significance of
the different firing (depolarization) rates for the following components:
- SA node
- AV node
- Purkinje fibers
 Correlate the events occurring in the heart during the cardiac cycle with normal deflections of
the EKG.
 Explain how the following features of cardiac muscle tissue are necessary for effective heart
action:
- automaticity/autorhythmicity
- rhythmicity unit
- functional syncytium
- fibroskeleton of the heart
 State the events of a cardiac cycle and explain how myocardial contraction and valvular
changes regulate blood flow through the heart during a cardiac cycle and how valvular
changes bring about heart sounds.
 Define the terms cardiac output, stroke volume and heart rate and explain the relationship that
exists between them.
 Explain how the nervous system and endocrine system affect heart action.
 Describe the function of collateral arteries in the myocardium
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Describe the process of depolarization and repolarization of the myocardium
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Explain the electrolyte shift and the role of calcium during the phases of depolarization
and repolarization of the myocardium
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Explain the significance of each configuration or complex in an electrocardiogram in
relation to the process of depolarization and repolarization.
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Explain the hemodynamic relationship to each configuration of the ECG
 Blood
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List functions of blood
Identify the major components of blood
Describe the composition of plasma
Describe the structure and function of red blood cells in transporting oxygen and
carbon dioxide; state the normal value of haemoglobin for the adult male ad female,
child and infant
List five types of white blood cells and explain how they differ from one another
Briefly discuss the structure and function of platelets and their role in blood clotting
Describe the ABO and Rh blood groups
State the influence erthropoietin has on RBCs
Define hematocrit and state the normal value
Section 11 – Peripheral Vascular System
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State the functions of the blood vessels.
Compare and contrast the structure and function of:
- arteries
- arterioles
- capillaries
- venules
- veins
Describe briefly how the structure of the above-listed vessels relates to their function.
Explain how the elasticity of arteries enables blood flow to be continuous rather than
intermittent.
Identify the major arteries and veins of the body listed below and locate them on a diagram.
Arteries: aorta (ascending, aortic arch, thoracic and abdominal), common carotid, internal
carotid, external carotid, vertebral, brachiocephalic, subclavian, axillary, brachial, radial,
ulnar, superficial and deep palmar arches, coronary, common hepatic, splenic, gastric,
superior mesenteric, renal, inferior mesenteric, common iliac, external iliac, internal iliac,
femoral, deep femoral, popliteal, anterior tibial, posterior tibial, dorsalis pedis.
Veins: superior vena cava, inferior vena cava, brachiocephalic, subclavian, internal
jugular, external jugular, vetebral, axillary, brachial, cephalic, basilic, medial cubital,
radial, ulnar, great cardiac, hepatic, hepatic portal, splenic, superior mesenteric, inferior
mesenteric, renal, common iliac, external iliac, internal iliac, femoral, greater saphenous,
popliteal, anterior tibial, posterior tibial, peroneal
Describe pulse and state sites where it is easily palpated.
Define blood flow, blood pressure and peripheral resistance.
Explain the relationship that exists between blood pressure, cardiac output and peripheral
resistance.
State the effect of a change in blood viscosity and/or arteriolar diameter on peripheral
resistance.
Explain how the baroreceptor (pressure) mechanism helps maintain normal blood pressure.
Name the circumstances under which the renin-angiotensin mechanism would be activated
and explain how this mechanism maintains blood pressure.
In chart form, summarize the various factors that contribute to the maintenance of blood
pressure.
Section 12– The Genitourinary System
A: The Urinary System
 List the functions of the urinary system.
 On a diagram, identify and locate the organs of the urinary system:
- kidneys
- urinary bladder
- ureters
- urethra
 Compare the course and length of the male urethra to the female urethra.
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Identify and locate on a diagram the following macroscopic structures of the kidney:
- hilus
- renal cortex
- renal medulla
- renal pelvis
- medullary (renal) pyramids
- renal columns
- major and minor calyces
Recognize that the nephron is the structural and functional unit of the kidney and identify the
following structures of the nephron:
- glomerulus
- renal tubule
- glomerular (Bowman’s) capsule
- proximal and distal convoluted tubule
- loop of Henle
- collecting ducts
- afferent and efferent arteriole
- peritubular capillary system
Define each of the following pressures and explain how they contribute to effective filtration: glomerular filtration pressure
- capsular hydrostatic pressure
- blood osmotic pressure
State the amount and composition of normal glomerular filtrate.
State the amount of glomerular filtrate that is reabsorbed, where the reabsorption takes place,
the major substances reabsorbed and the processes responsible for reabsorption.
Under the following headings, describe how ADH (antidiuretic hormone) acts with the kidney
to regulate fluid volume:
- stimulus for ADH release
- site and mode of action of ADH
State the normal physical properties and chemical composition of urine.
Identify the normal urinary output per hour and per adult, child, and infant
Explain the physiological mechanism of micturition.