BRIDGING THE FUNDING GAP IN CORRECTIONS: THE URGENT NEED FOR
INCREASED FINANCIAL VITAMINS IN AFRICAN CORRECTIONS SERVICES.
By
Osisioma B.C. Nwolise, Ph.D.
Department of Political Science,
University of Ibadan, Ibadan:
Visiting Professor,
Department of International Relations and Strategic Studies,
Igbinedion University, Okada.
Nigeria.
EMBARGOED UNTIL 13 SEPTEMBER 2010
Paper Presented At The Biennial Conference of the African Correctional Services Association,
held in Accra, Ghana, September 13-17, 2010.
I.
INTRODUCTION
Background Discourse
In the life of a person, or social entity, there comes a time when a watershed decision has
to be made to abandon the path of retrogression for that of catalysed progressive locomotion. For
the people of Africa, that time is now in the area of Corrections Administration. All over the
world, interned inmates (prisoners) “are generally regarded as criminals, yet the way a nation
treats her prisoners is a good measure of the humanity of its government and citizens”.1 African
societies, prior to the invasion of the continent by the slave driver (1440s) and colonial master
(1850s) had their respective and effective criminal justice systems, but no prisons.
There were laws, (unwritten constitution, traditions, customs, codes of morality,
conventions, covenants, and pronouncements of kings – in- Council); law enforcement
institutions (King’s messengers, the youths, age grades, female groups2, secret societies,
masquerades etc), courts3 (King’s court4, peoples Court, etc), and corrections processes aimed
not at punitive and retributive goals but at delivering justice, and restoring and promoting social
harmony through restoration/restitution and compensation.
George informs us that African communities prior to colonialism observed four major
principles in the maintenance of peace, and management of disputes which are:
(a)
Settlement of disputes by peaceful deliberation, not force.
(b)
Correction of wrong-doing through compensation and restitution, not retribution.
(c)
Adjudication and assessment by a body of impartial elders; and
(d)
Fairness, (equity and justice).5
2
The colonial administrators introduced the prison system in Africa, and with this came
punitive corrections methods that included jailing or imprisonment, and execution (capital
punishment). Imprisonment was seen as a way of punishing the offender for crimes against the
state or citizen. Within the prison walls, the incarcerated inmate was to be punished by harsh
and at times very inhuman conditions for his or her period of internment. Even though Europe
has generally reformed their prison systems which have moved to corrections philosophy; much
of Africa has remained stuck to the punitive philosophy of imprisonment, which is unAfrican.
Two major problems face correction/prisons administration today in the greater part of
the globe – inadequate funding, and over-crowding. In the USA, three main challenges face
corrections Departments: “over-crowded facilities, insufficient staffing, and reduced funding,” as
recently observed by One Touch Systems.6 The United States is not lacking in resources, or
funds. Nigeria is not lacking in resources or funds either, yet the prisons, prisons staff, and
inmates are suffering deprivation. In Uganda, government uses aid money to build new remand
homes and rehabilitation centres, but end up abandoning them to local councils to fund the daily
operations.
Namibia may not be said to be as endowed as the USA and Nigeria. Yet, Corrections
services are better funded, more humane, and more goal oriented. Prisons in Namibia carryout
practical correctional philosophy and practice. Inmates live comfortably; eat good food part of
which come from prison farms and industries. It means that something is wrong, and it is not
money. There is more to the story than money. There is need to examine the original purpose of
the corrections systems (did it have a noble purpose?), the philosophy of government and its
perception of prisons, the relationship between the post-colonial state and the citizen, political
leaders’ concept of national security, and citizens’ perception of corrections/prisons.
3
The poor funding of corrections institutions and the need to remedy the funding gap to
adequately empower these institutions to properly perform their expected roles in the national
security and development calculus constitute the motivation for this modest piece.
The Problem
The fundamental problematic is that corrections/prisons services are meant to keep
inmates, reform, reorientate, and rehabilitate them to avoid recidivism, and empower them to be
law abiding and productive members of society on release from prison. But the situation on
ground today in much of Africa is the opposite. In several African nations, not only is there no
rehabilitation and empowerment, several inmates go back to crime soon after discharge from
prison to terrorise the society, and return to prison to worsen the financial crisis of the prisons.
This discourse attempts to illuminate the paths for seeking answers to these questions:
What is the role of Corrections/Prisons service in the national security and development
calculus? What are the directions of expenditure of corrections services? What is the nature
(level) of funding of Corrections? What are the causes and consequences of the poor funding of
Corrections? What are the strategies for remedying the funding gap in Corrections?
Objectives
The overall goal of this modest piece is to contribute to the intellectual “noise” being
made especially in Africa for Prison reforms, and improved funding for corrections services, in
order to enhance the rehabilitation and empowerment of inmates to avoid recidivism, and
catalyse re-integration when discharged. These will serve additive values to national security
and development.
The specific objectives of this paper are to examine the issue of funding gap in
corrections administration, and formulate feasible strategies for bridging the gap so that
corrections services can deliver quality correctional services to the inmates, the nation, and
humanity.
4
Rationale Of The Study
The rationale of thinking aloud on this topic at this point of Africa’s developmental
history is not far fetched. First, it is now over five decades since colonialism was terminated in
Africa. As a result, there is no excuse for maintaining colonial concepts, philosophy, and
practice in Africa’s prison systems. If due to the vagaries of the post-colonial state, the continent
can not return to a prisonless society, then at least it should run the prisons on fundamental
African values and principles, including being our brothers keeper, sacredness of human life,
pursuit of social harmony and collective good, humaneness, etc.
Second, we need to acknowledge and appreciate the pains, sacrifices, and patriotic efforts
of Prisons Service personnel over the decades; and call the attention of government, the
academic community, private sector chieftains, and the wider society to their plight in running
supposedly corrections services on near empty hands. Third, in much of Africa, people learn of
Prisons affairs from the mass media when there are revolts, jail breaks or prison riots. There
have been very few academic discourses, researches and publications on Corrections/Prisons
services especially in Africa.
In other words, the prisons service is a neglected area for
researchers, and publishers. The situation needs to be changed.
Fourth, it is hoped that this modest piece will contribute to the formulation of new
policies on prison reforms, and engender better funding of corrections services. Fifth, the paper
seems to be coming up on a timely platform, as there are growing thoughts now to move away
from the concept, philosophy and practice of prisons qua prisons as a punitive establishment, to
those of corrections.
Sixth, as rightly noted by Haruna Haladu, “There is poor public perception of the prisons
and its role as a security outfit. The public is scarcely aware of what the prisons stands for and
its crucial role in the administration of justice.”7 This poor public perception and low level of
awareness need to be worked upon. There is great and urgent need to raise public awareness
5
about the role of the Prisons. Public support and opinion are relevant in budget allocations to
national sectors.
Eight, the Corrections/Prisons institution has no fixed bureaucratic locus in national
sector planning especially in Africa. In some states, it is located in the Ministry of Education
(probably because of the educational and training curriculum components). In some other states,
it is placed under the Ministry of Social Development (may be because of the human resource
development curriculum). In other states, it is located within the Ministry of Internal Affairs.
This situation has been so because governments have not taken their primary responsibility to the
citizens seriously, which is the provision of security of life and property, in most, if not all
African nations. This neglect accounts for why there is hardly any Ministry of Domestic Security
in the continent, whereas every nation has a Ministry of Defence to cater for external security.
The truth of the matter is that Corrections/Prisons Services squarely belongs to the Ministry of
Domestic Security.
Nine, imprisonment as a method of justice administration in Africa is alien. The first
prison in Nigeria for example was established in 1872 at Broad Street, Lagos, just eleven (11)
years after the forceful annexation of Lagos as a British Colony in 1861. As emphatically
confirmed by Abraham8
and Milner9, restitution was the outstanding mode of justice
administration and dispute settlement in Africa before colonialism, because the primary purpose
was the restoration of peace and social harmony in the society. Thus, as Africans have decided to
inherit, and run the prisons, it has to be done along the path of African values, and principles.
This calls for the transformation of all prisons in the continent into truly correctional institutions
that house an offender only once, and positively change him/her for life. Infact, the goal should
be to work towards a Zero level of inmates with good governance and rediscovery and
inculcation of Africa’s social values and code of honour.
6
Ten, we must continue to uphold the fact that our ancestors were not foolish or wrong by
not establishing prisons.
They relied heavily on restitution and compensation.
There are
thousands of prisons scattered all over Africa and the world today; and new ones are being
constructed. But they have not stopped criminals from emerging. It means that something is
missing – the heavy application of the practice of restoration/restitution and compensation.
Several authorities on African penal systems such as Clifford who studied Zambia, Seidman who
studied Ghana, and Read who studied Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda10, all agree that Africans
relied more on restitution and compensation than retribution in the settlement of disputes and
punishment of offences because the ultimate goals were to investigate the truth, assuage the
offended party, and restore social harmony and peace. Gluckman confirms that even in
contemporary African societies, compensation is still the method of settling much of the offences
in rural areas.11 After their study of Uganda, Clinard and Abott concluded:
Restitution to the victim or compensation to the victim has particular merit as a
substitute for both fine and imprisonment in less developed countries. This was
the traditional method of settling offences in most countries and it still remains
so in rural areas especially in African societies.12
Juhod who carried out extensive study of the Bantu society ended up recommending
compensation as a must for all mankind if crimes shall be minimized. In his words:
Police work in arresting criminals, preventing detention, detention itself,
diversification of institutions, psychopathic prisons… all these have not stopped crime,
and we still go on building prisons and institutions, ignoring the fact that we have
flouted the intuitions of educators, and of the Bantu people that restitution is the
redemption of the criminal.13
Our emphasis on compensation and restitution is based on the fact that they will help a lot in
decongesting the prisons, and make available funds to do more work. It is high time African
values and principles not European, took over in the running of African Corrections Services. It
is high time Africans decided whether the prisons are for punishment or improvement of the
offender.
7
Finally, brutality still reign in some African states’ Correctional institutions, and this runs
counter to the principles, values and goals of corrections. For example in December 2009, a child
at Ihungu Remand Home in Uganda who was sent to work in a prison officer’s farm was beaten
to death with cane.14 Man’s inhumanity in correctional institutions has to be terminated, through
prison reforms, adequate funding, decongestion of prisons, and proper rehabilitation
empowerment and reintegration of inmates.
Methodology
Since 1988 when I did my first study on the (Nigerian) Prisons, corrections have
remained an area of interest. Each country I visit, I always ask questions about the Prisons and I
have personally visited some to observe things. I have also taken students on study tour of some
Nigerian Prisons, the latest being the Enugu Prisons (Nigeria) in November 2009. Data were
also gathered from internet, books, and journals.
Theoretical Underpinnings
The key task of this discourse is to examine the funding gap in corrections
administration, and espouse remedial measures to bridge the gap. This requires proper
intellectual diagnosis of the economic ailment (underfunding of corrections) before the proper
treatment can be recommended and applied.
Since wrong diagnosis will lead to wrong
prescriptions that can not bring about improved “health” condition of the “patient”, we must
proceed with a theoretical explanation of the phenomenon.
In this effort, we are not concerned with theories on criminality or causes of crime as
espoused by Durkheim, Ekpo, and others. Our concern is explaining why corrections generally
experience underfunding.
Our thesis here is that the underfunding of corrections (in Africa particularly) is not a
product of lack of resources or funds. Rather, it roots from the achaic and primitive belief and
8
perception of the prisons as a place of atonement by criminals; and imprisonment as a process of
punishing offenders. They have no room for the role of the state in the criminlisation of citizens
or Jean – Jacques Rousseaus’ view to the effect that “God makes all things good; man meddles
with them and makes them evil”.15 The philosophical basis of government which is pursuit of
“the common good” does not also receive favourable consideration, despite the fact that security,
promotion of the economic health of the state, and pursuit of the welfare of the state are the
critical values of any government worth its salt.16
The wrong belief and perception about the purpose of the prisons and imprisonment
colour the budget outlay for the corrections service. It also inhibits the demands for prison
reforms, and the need to authorize and support the establishment of Prison farms and industries.
The reason being that the farms and industries are capable of raising the financial standing of the
prisons, and improve the living and financial conditions of the inmates. This negative thinking
neglects the fact that Prison farms and industries where effectively and efficiently manned, are
capable of contributing to national (food) security, national productivity, national wealth, and
national development; as well as to the efforts to break the cycle of crime.
II
CONCEPTUAL DISCOURSE
We devote this section of the paper to discussing concepts fundamental to the discourse
in hand. These are: National Security, National Development, and Corrections.
Concept of National Security
It is a common saying that survival is the first law of nature. This fact is as true for the
individual as it is for the state. Zabadi informs us that “unless one can be assured of his physical
security or safety, everything else will be meaningless”.17 Hence, Adam Smith asserted in the
18th century that the provision of security from public funds is the “first duty of the sovereign”.18
National security, and security, are used interchangeably in the literature. The former took over
from the latter in the 20th century as a modern English terminology, haven been introduced in the
9
United States after the second World War (1939-1945), and became a guiding principle of USA
foreign policy from President Harry Truman’s 1947 National Security Act.
Throughout the cold war era, (1945-1989), national security was perceived in terms of
militarism – the amassment of awesome military weapons and personnel. Hence, scholars such
as Walter Lippman asserted that national security “rises and falls with the ability of a nation to
deter an attack or defeat it”.19 However, the collapse of the Soviet Union (a superpower) in 1991,
and the humiliation of the United States (a superpower) on September 11, 2001 by a handful of
angry unarmed Arab youths and other similar events changed the militaristic conception of
national security, opening the door for the accommodation of non-military variables.
The
mentioned experience of the defunct Soviet Union and the USA confirmed Nwolise’s 1985
intellectual prophecy to the effect that:
A country may have the best armed forces in terms of training and equipment,
the most efficient Police force, the most efficient Customs men, the most active
secret service agents, and the best quality Prisons, and yet be the most insecure
nation in the world, as a result of defense and security problems from withinbad government, alienated and suffering masses, ignorance, hunger,
unemployment, or even activities of foreign residents or companies.20
Thus, in the contemporary post-cold war era, national security is perceived in a more
comprehensive term.
Robert McNamara (a former United States Defence Secretary) for
example, insists that “security means development”. In his words:
Security is not military hardware, though it may include it. Security is not a
military force, though it may involve it. Security is not traditional military
activity, though it may encompass it. Security is development, and without
development there can be no security… Any society that seeks to achieve
adequate military security against the background of acute food shortages,
population explosion, low level of productivity and per capita income, low
technological development, inadequate and inefficient public utilities, and
chronic problem of unemployment, has a false sense of security.21
In the same vein, the former United Nations Secretary General, Kofi Annan asserted that there
can be no peace and security in the presence of hunger, poverty, and injustice. In his words:
10
Today, we know that security means far more than the absence of conflict. We
know that lasting peace requires a broader vision, encompassing areas such as
education, health, democracy, and human rights, protection against
environmental degradation, and the proliferation of deadly weapons. We know
that we cannot be secure amidst starvation, that we cannot build peace without
alleviating poverty, and that we cannot build freedom on the foundations of
injustice. These pillars of what we now understand as the people – centered
concept of human security are inter-related and mutually reinforcing.22
The dimensions of national security today have expanded from the mono militarism perception
to fifteen (15). Barry Buzan identified five dimensions: Military Security, Political Security,
Economic security, Societal Security, and Environmental Security.23
Osisioma Nwolise added 10 new dimensions to those of Buzan: Physical security, Psychological
security, Technological security, spiritual security, image security, Territorial security, legal
security, Treasury security, People’s Power security, and global security.24
We have given so much attention to the concept of national security here for three main
reasons. The first is to enable our readers easily locate Correctional/Prisons service where it
rightly belongs (the national security sector), and therefore be able to see its role in the
preservation and promotion of national security. The second is to emphasise the need for the
creation of a special Ministry of Domestic security in all African states, to which shall belong the
Corrections service. The third is to expose the hollow nature of national security conception and
practice in most African nations, where political leaders still operate security from the angle of
militarism. It is true that old habits die hard, but it is time for positive change if Africa shall
really know peace and security, which are crucial for meaningful development.
National Development
Time was, when national development was perceived in terms of the level of Gross
National Product (GNP), Per Capita Income (PCI), presence of high-tech bridges and
skyscrapers, numerous cars in the streets etc. With time however, it became clear that several
nations that had these indices in high levels had millions of their citizens suffering ignorance,
11
poor health, poverty, human rights abuses, etc and lacking access to clean water, balanced diet,
human security, participation in decision making, human freedom, etc. The United Nations
therefore redefined development to be human centered.
Hence the concept of Human
Development Index (HDI). The HDI therefore plays central role today in the assessment of a
nation’s level of development.
Mabogunje25 sets out two fundamental ideas that underlie development. The first is that
development is about wealth creation. In this sense, national development connotes national
wealth creation. In this sense, it becomes clear that Correctional/Prison Service can contribute
meaningfully to national development through the establishment and running of Prison farms and
industries. The second is that every society succeeds best in development when it adopts and
transforms its own institutions, mores and the general attitude of its own citizens towards the
pursuit and achievement of development. Again, Correctional Service is relevant here, thereby
making it a national development institution. This is more so when we look at development
from the angle of human resourcefulness26 being the best resources for development. In this
sense, any establishment involved in the education, and training of people contributes to national
development.
The Concept of Corrections
From daily life perspective and usage, the word “correction” means two things “a change
that makes something more accurate than it was before”; and “the act or process of correcting
something” (i.e. removing errors, or mistakes). In old fashioned usage, it stood for punishment,
as in the correction of young offenders27. In this old sense, the word “correctional” is “concerned
with improving the behaviour of criminals, usually by punishing them”.28 Thus, a correctional
centre, institution or facility was seem as prison.
The old fashioned usage of corrections has been abandoned.
The teacher in the
classroom corrects the work of his pupils or students in order to improve on its quality (remove
12
errors), and to add value to the knowledge and skills of his students. In the same vein, the
Correctional/Prisons Service personnel find out where interned inmates made mistakes
(committed crimes) that caused their incarceration, and assist them in expunging such attitudes
and actions in their lives. In this sense, deviants or criminals are seen (like school pupils who
failed some or made mistakes in their work) as citizens who failed society by making serious
mistakes. The sources of those failures or mistakes are removed in the corrections facilities. In
addition, the inmates are taught new ideas and skills to empower them get easily reintegrated into
the society on discharge and earn a legitimate living, so that they do not return to prison. The
identification of their mistakes (criminal actions) and the causes of the mistakes, the reformation
and reorientation of the inmates, as well as the rehabilitation and reintegration of the inmates pull
them out of criminal behaviour. This is the key goal of contemporary corrections.
The concept of corrections implies therefore that the Prisons be organized, administered
and perceived as a form of “social clinic” in which psychologists, medical doctors, social
workers, researchers, spiritual workers and others operate hand in hand with the correctional
personnel to achieve the best results of transforming the inmates away from being deviants to
being disciplined, productive, useful and patriotic citizens.
III.
LOCATING CORRECTIONS/PRISONS IN THE CRIMINAL JUSTICE SYSTEM
The correctional/Prisons Service is one of the key tripod agencies in the Criminal Justice
System.29 The other two are the Law Enforcement, and Adjudication agencies. The three
agencies are interrelated parts of a whole system, that aim at “controlling aberrant behaviour for
the collective protection of society”.30 In some countries, there are specialized auxiliary services
of the juvenile justice process, parol, and probation. Helen Osinowo informs us that:
The primary goal of criminal justice is to protect society, crime prevention,
apprehension of offenders, the adjudicatory determination of guilt or
innocence, disposition of those who transgress the existing legal codes; and
correction of inappropriate behaviour by socially approved means.31
13
The law enforcement wing of the Criminal Justice System is spearheaded by the Police, but also
involves the Immigrations, Customs etc. The Adjudication wing is spearheaded by the courts,
while the Corrections wing is spearheaded by the Prisons. The three agencies are guided by the
tenets of the rule of law and due process as tripartite members of a whole system. It is necessary
to examine each of the three agencies brief.Law Enforcement: The Police
The Law enforcement agency especially the Police is usually the first point of contact an
offender has with the Criminal Justice System. Once a citizen has offended, or is suspected to
have committed an offence, the Police is called in. The Police is charged with the task of
preventing crime; arresting, investigating and prosecuting offenders in court, keeping the peace,
maintaining law and order, protection of life and property, as well as regulating non-criminal
behaviour.32
Adjudication: The Courts
The functions of the courts include: Administration of justice, Protection of society,
settlement of disputes, determination of the guilt or innocence of an accused, protection of the
rights of an accused, proper disposition of convicted persons, and prevention and repression of
criminal behaviour.33 The courts which operate as a neutral third party in a dispute are
responsible for ensuring that justice is not delayed or denied, and for ensuring that justice is
done. In the process, the guilty and innocent are determined in the face of lawyers, judges and
litigants. The prosecutor (servant of the state in the case of criminal justice) explains to the court
the crime committed by the accused, and presents available evidence that incriminate him. A
Defence Attorney works for the freedom of the accused, presenting counter evidence in the effort
to convince the Court of the accused person’s innocence. In the process he could challenge or
cancel out the evidence provided by the Prosecutor. At the end of both sides’ addressing of the
court, the Judge (with or without the input of a Jury) deliberates on the case, weighing the
14
evidence presented, and argument made by both sides, and delivers his or her judgement which
may discharge, discharge and acquit, or convict the accused.
Corrections: The Prisons
Accused persons tried and found guilty, are sentenced according to the laws of the land
vis-à-vis the offences. The Criminal Justice System is organized in such a way that a convicted
criminal must be given a form of punishment to serve as deterrence to others, to make him know
that crime does not pay, and make him realize that society does not allow crimes. The penalty
varies with the law, the crime, and the nation concerned at any given time.
In those days, convicted hard core criminals were executed or exiled in some countries.
The United Kingdom for example exiled such criminals to Australia. In several African societies,
such criminals were sold into slavery, or subjected to shame punishment. In modern times,
popular penalties range from monetary fines (paid to the state or victim), suspended sentence,
probation, Parole, House-arrest, Public or community service, to jail or execution.
Offenders found guilty and sentenced to imprisonment are handed over to the Police who
in turn hand them over to the Corrections/Prisons authorities. Imprisonment remove convicted
criminals from the general population, and deny them luxuries, as well as certain rights,
freedoms, and privileges available to free and law abiding citizens outside the prison walls. It
also forecloses their capacity to carryout further criminal acts against persons, property and the
state. In the olden times, the purpose of imprisonment was punishment, and no one cared about
the living conditions of the prisoners inside the four walls of the prison. People did not also care
about the relationship between the prison conditions of inmates and their post-jail life and
behaviours.
Things began to change especially after the Quaker Movement in USA which canvassed
the idea of Prisons being used to reform and rehabilitate criminals, so that when discharged, they
don’t become greater threats to peace, life, and property, thereby returning to the prison. New
15
thinking has therefore arisen across the globe on the concept and purpose of imprisonment and
functions of Prisons service. The new thinking about the role of prisons departs from punishment
qua punishment, and concentrates on reform, reorientation, rehabilitation, reintegration and
empowerment of inmates so that they can reject criminal life, acquire new and relevant
knowledge and skills, earn some money while in prison working in its farms and industries.
Within this context of new thinking, psychologists, medical doctors, social workers, researchers,
religious institutions (teaching ethics, morality, and Godly ways to inmates) teachers, and
spiritual workers, work with Correctional/Prisons officials to turn the criminal into a better, law
abiding, patriotic, productive and useful citizen who readily reintegrates into the free society on
discharge.
The functions of Corrections institution thus include: Keeping away in safe custody of
convicted offenders to prevent them from perpetrating further crimes thereby protecting life and
property of law abiding citizens; Maintenance of incarceration institutions; identification of the
causes of deviant behaviour in criminals; Training of offenders and preparing them towards their
eventual discharge. Deterrence of criminality by motivating inmates and potential offenders to
live lawful lives; Treating, reforming, and rehabilitating offenders through the provision of
services (education, spiritual, social, economic) that will empower them to become productive
members of society on discharge; and to generate funds for government through prison farms
and industries.
IV.
ROLE OF CORRECTIONS IN NATIONAL SECURITY AND ECONOMIC
DEVELOPMENT
Role In National Security
As hinted briefly in Section II of this paper, Corrections/Prisons Services run and maintain the
jails in which are safely kept convicted criminals who constitute serious threats to life and
property, to the peace of the land, and to the state at large. These include murderers, kidnappers,
16
rapists, frauds, assassins, car snatchers, armed robbers, terrorists, cross-border criminals, looters
of the commonwealth etc.
The safe keeping of these dangerous elements away from the
population by Correctional Service is a serious contribution to national security, as this safe
custodial or protective role increases human security.
The incarceration process itself, though a form of punishment, as it denies the inmates
certain freedoms, rights, and privileges, is seen as deterrence to potential offenders who are
within the societal population. This further adds value to national security. In addition, as noted
by Haladu:
Really, the deprivation of those in incarceration is in itself a punishment that
actualizes the objectives of national security. It does not only serve as a warning
against potential offenders, but also a sense of equity and fairness is derived by the
victims of crimes in the society as the offender is punished.34
Correctional institutions impart knowledge and skills in the inmates while serving their
sentences in jail. This is human resource development function which enables the inmates
secure jobs when discharged. There is no doubt that unemployment and lack of skills in a
massive scale constitute serious dangers to the internal security of a nation. Haruna Haladu
concludes by asserting:
Thus, the Prison contributes to the internal security of the nation by protecting the
individual, the society, and ensures that a prisoner upon discharge is able to live a selfsustaining life through integration and rehabilitation efforts of the prisons service.35
Also as Senator Victor Ndoma – Egba observed:
Basically, the major aims of imprisonment as part of a Criminal Justice System are the
execution of Court judgements, protection of society from criminals, reform and
rehabilitation of prisoners with the aim of reintegrating them into the society36
Correctional officials study and understand offenders’ behaviour, and assist them to
achieve effective self-functioning. This role when effective, ensures that when the prisoners are
discharged, they do not return to crime, and to the prison. Corrections rehabilitate inmates to
prevent them turning into hardened criminals that return to society on discharge to torment the
17
population. In nations operating Prison farms and industries, inmates involved in the production
processes earn some money while in Prison. Such money quicken their reintegration process on
discharge.
The Prisons Service (can) also provide “information of security value”37 which personnel
easily collect from inmates when they (inmates) mellow down in the course of their
incarceration. Such information includes those the inmates could not give to the Police and even
their lawyers during their arrest and prosecution. From such information, criminal gangs still
operating outside can be arrested.
Role In Socio-Economic Development
The education and training given to inmates which impart knowledge, acceptable social
values, and skills in them are part of the process of national social development, and human
resources development. Nelson Mandela is reputed to have obtained a law degree while in jail.
The knowledge and skills so acquired no doubt put him in good stead to lead South Africa aright
in the immediate post-apartheid era.
In nations that operate Prison farms and industries, the products of the inmates contribute
to national wealth, growth, and development. This is more so when such products are exported.
The food from the farms contribute immensely to the nation’s food security quest. The safekeeping away of security threat elements (criminals) from the society contribute to more
peaceful, orderly and secure environment which attract foreign investors and tourists, who inject
foreign capital into the country.
V.
DIRECTIONS OF EXPENDITURES IN CORRECTIONS
The following represent the key directions of expenditures in Correctional/Prison
Service. They no doubt create yawning “mouths” for funds outlay:
(i)
Administration: The prisons runs its various Departments which include Personnel
Administration, Personnel training, Finance, Supply, Inspectorate, Medical and Welfare,
18
Inmate Training, Farms, Industrial, Works, and Logistics. In some countries, some of
these Departments are merged.
(ii)
Salaries and Allowances: The Salaries and allowances of prisons staff, and Probation
officers are paid.
(iii)
Maintenance of Existing Structures: Personnel accommodation and offices, prison cells,
etc.
(iv)
Maintenance of Equipment: Vehicles, Communication, Weapons, Computers.
(v)
(vi)
Running of Inmate Welfare needs: Feeding, Health Care, Uniforms, recreational facilities
etc.
Construction of new structures.
(vii)
Procurement of new equipment.
(viii) Operation of Rehabilitation Educational and Training Centres and facilities: Provision of
inmate educational and training programmes and facilities, hiring of external Instructors,
publications, procurement of teaching and learning materials, etc.
(ix)
Funding of Staff Training: Pursuit of Professional development progammes of
Corrections officers and administrators at home and aboard to ensure that they have upto-date knowledge, skills and experience in Corrections administration. This involves
leadership training, nation-wide communication programmes, as well as comparative
study of best standards and best practices in Corrections. These directions of expenditure
call for huge budget outlays for Corrections. Unfortunately, the opposite has been the
case especially in most African states.
VI.
THE FUNDING OF CORRECTIONS/PRISONS SECTOR: THE YAWNING GAP
The primacy of security in the values of individuals and nations has already been
highlighted. Apart from the assertions of scholars and writers like Zabadi and Adam Smith
mentioned earlier in this discourse, the constitutions of nations often recognize this primacy. For
example, Section 14 (b) of the 1999 Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria recognizes
this primacy by stating that “the security and welfare of the people shall be the primary purpose
of government”. “The implication or message here is that any government that can not guarantee
its citizens the security of their lives and properties has failed in the discharge of its primary
obligation, and is not worth its salt. In short, such government is not worth defending”.38
19
One important index of perceiving how serious a state or government is about the issue of
security is the level of budget outlay or funding that goes into the security sector.
The
Corrections/Prisons Service constitutes part of the security sector, and since security is the
primary obligation of government it is expected that this sector enjoys adequate funding.
Unfortunately, the situation on ground in several nations especially in Africa spells the opposite.
Poor funding has remained the most outstanding problem facing the Corrections sector, followed
by over-crowding, and then inadequate staffing. Less than one percent (1.0%) of the annual
budget of African nations is being devoted to Corrections. Whereas in some Western nations
such as USA, France, and Canada, huge amounts of funds go to corrections annually, at times up
to 6.0% and above.
This is because in these countries, the political leaders know that
Corrections is a strategic contributor to national security. In much of Africa, our leaders’ do not
see Corrections in that way. The result is that the society pays dearly for this lapse and myopic
perception.
Each year in African countries, Corrections Services present their budgets, but what is
thrown to them hardly meets the payment of salaries and cover maintenance of existing facilities,
and meeting the welfare needs of inmates.
This has created a situation of permanent
underfunding which has left a yawning gap in the funding of Corrections.
In Uganda for example which has about 28,000 inmates, much of the Prison houses were
built in the 1960s. The Prisons now accommodate four times the recommended population.
Conditions and services have deteriorated greatly, as a result of inadequate funding. As reported
by Editor, Isaac Khisa:
Lack of sufficient funding is being blamed for the deterioration of services in Ugandan
Prisons, as the number of inmates continues to rise. Speaking during an advocacy and
policy dialogue meeting held in Kampala recently, the Commissioner-General of
Prisons, Dr. Johnson Byabashaija blamed lack of finances for the deteriorating
infrastructure, health, and staffing services in Ugandan Prisons.39
20
Byabashaijha spoke of serious decline in health care services which suffered because
given the lean purse they had to pursue, other tasks that were given priority attention as they
directly constituted “our primary mandate”.
Ugandan Prisons require a consolidated fund of UD$420,513 (Ushs 820 million), but get
far less. Of the amount gotten each year, greater proportion goes to staff salaries, and lesser to
non-wage activities. For example, of the amount mentioned here, US$241,026 (57%), go to
salaries, while 43% go to non-wages. The Director of Prisons Health Services, Dr. Michael
Kyomya stated that most of the prisons in Uganda are over-crowded, and access to safe water is
very limited. There is poor ventilation, while lighting and waste disposal are problematic. The
inmates still use the bucket system in many prisons. As a result of poor health care services,
infectious diseases such as HIV/Aids, Syphilis, and Tuberculosis devastate the inmates. United
Nations Drugs and Crime Office statistics show that HIV/Aids prevalence among male prison
inmates in Uganda is 13% and 11% for females. These are higher than the national figure of
6.5%.
The fundamental problem is that nothing is being done to reverse these adverse situations
in the prisons of Uganda due to inadequate funds. Even Juvenile Prisons in Uganda also suffer
shortage of fund, as “Police and Probation officers often lack resources and training.”40
In Nigeria, there has been improved funding of the internal security sector since the
return to democracy in 1999; and this has rubbed-off on the Corrections sector. The aggressive
revenue drive, prudent and managerial abilities and penchant for reforms and development of the
Controller-General of Prisons, Dr. Ogundipe has also helped improve things. However, the fact
remains that Nigeria allocates less than 1% of its annual budget to Corrections. Helen Osinowo
who has worked extensively on the Nigerian prisons asserts that: “Lack of or poor funding of the
judicial and extrajudicial administrative institutions for the administration of justice is a problem
21
militating against effective and efficient criminal justice system.” She went further to add that:
“The Prisons for example remains what they were 30 years ago”.41
Haruna Haladu who is a Controller of Prisons in Nigeria concurs, but solicits for more
funding in these words
There is no individual or institution that is not confronted with the problem of
management in the course of rendering service. The challenges are even more
daunting in the face of the present economic reality. However, the level of professional
efficiency achieved by the prisons is due to an increased allocation of funds and the
managerial ability of the Controller-General of Prisons. The threat to security by the
armed robbers, kidnappers, rapists, drug barons and addicts, oil bunkering, cyber
induced crimes and others, are manifestations of the need for an enhanced allocation
of funds to Prisons. As of now, there exists a poor working environment, lack of basic
security and monitoring equipment such as Close Circuit Television (CCTV), and
lethal detectors. For example, there is lack of adequate logistics, communication
gadgets, and other essentials.42
The poor state of the prisons, as well as the need to inject more funds into it to close the funding
gap made Senator Victor Ndoma-Egba (SAN, PDP Cross River State) to sponsor a bill in April
2010. The bill which has gone through the second reading in the Nigerian Senate seeks to
emplace a legal framework for comprehensive reform of the Nigerian prison system, and
increased funding for the sector from government, and establishment of prison farms and
industries. The Bill also seeks the establishment of a Prisons Board which would be responsible
for researching into the causes of anti-social behaviours of convicted inmates, providing medical,
psychological, and counseling services for prisoners, and generating revenue to support the
prisons through various ways including Prison farms and industries.
The Bill exposed a
fundamental lapse in the existing Prisons Act, which “makes no provisions for reformation and
rehabilitation of prisoners during incarceration”.43
In South Africa, inadequate funding is also a key problem.
The Department of
Correctional Services identified two fundamental problems facing the corrections sector as
funding and over-crowding. As stated by a Monograph:
22
The Prison system in South Africa faces challenges, several of which are associated
with a lack of available resources to meet the increasing demand for correctional
services. The key challenges identified by the Department of Correctional Services
(DCS) are over-crowding and funding44
Due to the perennial problem of underfunding which refused to go away, they turned to the
private sector for assistance. Contracts were signed for the raising, financing, and management
of two prisons by a Consortium of private companies; and Africa’s first private prison has
opened at Bloemfontein.
No doubt, South Africa is modeling its prisons along the United Kingdom fashion, as the
latter had incorporated the Private sector in its prisons service for long now.
VII.
CONSEQUENCES OF THE FUNDING GAP
It has been established that there is gross-underfunding of the corrections sector in Africa.
The cases of Nigeria, South Africa, and Uganda typify the situation in the continent. At least,
Nigeria and South Africa, are two leading countries in the continent, and heavily endowed in
terms of natural resources.
The underfuning of the Corrections sector has serious consequences. African states pay
dearly for the underrfunding generally in blood and cash losses, prevalence of disorder and fear
of insecurity, as well as poor image of African states specifically and the continent in general.
Ex-convicts that become more hardened in prison perpetrate more havoc in society when
discharged – killing, raping, robbing, assassinating and maiming innocent and law abiding
citizens. They cause pandemonium when they rob banks, and make people lose confidence in the
ability of government to protect them. Their criminal actions heighten the level of insecurity in
the states which negatively impinge on the national image. The observation of Senator Wilson
Ake (PDP Rivers West) is very instructive here. While supporting the Prisons reforms Bill in the
23
Nigerian Senate in April 2010, he asserted: “In most cases, when our prisoners come out, instead
of being reformed, they become more hardened criminals”45
Increased level of insecurity frighten away foreign investors, and tourists; and by
implication, foreign capital greatly needed for national development is denied the nation.
Poor reform and rehabilitation works on the inmates while in prison discharge them at the end of
their sentence into the society as hungry lions and wounded lions; and they soon return to the
prison cells. Thus recidivism is a by-product of underfunding. There are three major causes of
recidivism: Hardening of first offenders or the learning of more sophisticated crime ways while
in prison; difficulties in reintegrating into the society after discharge from prison; and poor
reformation and rehabilitation services provided by the Prisons.
These spell failure in
corrections service, and the main root of this failure is underfunding.
Other serious consequences of underfunding Correctional institutions are inhuman
treatment or services to inmates including poor feeding; poor health conditions (leading to health
deterioration, epidemics, and avoidable deaths); over-crowding; Jail breaks and prison riots; and
lack of job satisfaction on the part of corrections officials and administrators.
VIII.
WHY THE FUNDING GAP?
It is natural to think that the underfunding of Corrections especially in the continent is
just a result of scarce resources or inadequate revenue in the hands of government which has
many competing national sectors. But there is more to it. After all, political leaders and public
servants in several African states have enough to loot from the commonwealth of the people.
The major reason for the underfunding of Corrections especially in Africa is ideological.
Political leaders wrongly hold the belief that imprisonment is punishment qua punishment (i.e.
punishment in totality). As a result, the prison conditions must be harsh if not totally inhuman in
order to met out adequate dose of punishment to the criminals. Thus, poor health conditions,
poor feeding., overcrowded cells, limited access to safe water, stinking prison environment,
24
leaking roofs and others are part of the total punishment. In other words, the Prison, just like the
Police, and military in African states, in their colonial origins were not established with or for a
noble purpose, and post independence leaders have not changed the situation tangibly. Hence,
our Police and military operate at times like forces of occupation, raping their nationals as in
Guinea recently, or destroying towns as in the case of Nigeria’s Odi. The Police exploit and
oppress citizens all over the continent. As Wakin rightly observed, to ascertain the nobility of a
nation’s military (or Police), access the nation’s basis of establishing it. In his words:
If the nation’s posture in the international context is responsible, if its
constitution and government structures are aimed at providing a dignified
lifestyle for each of its citizens, then the institutions charged with defending that
life style must have noble purpose, a moral purpose47
My thesis here as explained elsewhere48 is that the Prisons System in most African States, just as
the other defence and security forces were not aimed from the beginning in the colonial era to
date at providing a dignified lifestyle for Africans, and this affects their funding adversely.
Second, following this belief about the purpose of imprisonment, the Laws establishing
the Correctional institutions in most African states emphasise penal and punitive role of prisons,
neglecting the critical reformative, rehabilitative, and reintegrative roles. No provisions are
therefore made for prison farms and industries that can generate funds for government in support
of the Prisons.
Then following the foot-steps of the “dry” laws establishing the Prisons, subsequent
governments allocate funds for the skeletal role (punishment) set out by the law for the Prisons.
For example as rightly pointed out by Senator Victor Ndoma-Egba of Nigeria: “… the Nigerian
Prisons Act as it is today, only emphasizes the penal and punitive role of imprisonment and
makes no provision for reformation and rehabilitation of prisoners during incarceration”.46
Third, the Prisons in all African states except South Africa are purely public owned
institutions, and depend solely on publicly allocated budgetary funds. The Private sector plays
25
no effective role in their funding, and there are no effective prison farms and industries clearly
set out to generate supportive revenue for the Prisons sector. Only in a few countries like
Namibia are prisons farms and industries playing this financial supportive role in addition to
improving the feeding and by extension the health and financial conditions of inmates.
Fourth, Political leaders in the continents’, states as in many other states of the world do
not realize and or address the fundamental causes of criminality such as unemployment,
inequality, lack of education, injustices in the society, moral decline, corruption in high places
etc. As a result, many citizens get involved in crime and overpopulate the Prisons to reduce the
meager resources that would have been meant for a few persons. Fifth, and as a corollary, there
are hundreds of people who are within the four walls of the Prisons that should not be there,
especially those awaiting trial, children born in the prison by jailed mothers, people whose files
can not be traced, and people who have been framed up and dumped in the Prison due to family
squables over property, prisoners of conscience and others. All these lead to overpopulation and
over-stretching of prison’s facilities and funds. Sixth, political leaders have not fully grasped the
strategic role of the Prisons/Correctional institutions in the national security, and national
development calculus.
Seventh, Correctional Institutions/Prisons are rated low in the psychological scale of
political leaders compared to other military and para-military agencies in the defence and
security family. The low rating stems from the ideological underpinning mentioned earlier, as
well as the improper grasping of the strategic role of the Corrections sector in the national
security and development equation, by leaders.
Eight, it also looks to me as if government looks at the number of convicts or even
approved population in prisons rather than the actual figure which includes the awaiting trials.
IX.
REMEDIAL STRATEGIES FOR THE GAP IN CORRECTIONS FUNDING
26
There is no gain saying that correctional institutions require increased massive doses of
(adequate) funding especially in the African continent. This is necessary to enable them not only
to meet their routine duties, but more importantly to ensure that the corrections institutions
employ and train qualified manpower, operate with high quality, morale (from excellent salaries
and conditions of service), and have the right programmes, equipment, and environment to
commence proper reformation and rehabilitation treatment of inmates to avoid the prevalence
recidivism, the generation and recyclining of hardened criminals in the society, and enhance the
reintegration of inmates in the society as disciplined, productive, and patriotic and humane
citizens on discharge. In pursuit of this goal, the following measures are put forward:
(i)
The concept and practice of national security have to be revisited in Africa to bring them
to the post-cold war level. Several African leaders are still fixated with the cold war era
conception and practice. This will enable the leaders to clearly see the rightful place and
strategic role of the Prisons sector in national security and development and treat it
accordingly.
(ii)
Each African country has to establish a new special Ministry of Domestic Security. This
Ministry will be charged among others with drying up the pool of millions of
unemployed, angry and hungry youths in the land, carryout research continuously on how
to improve on the internal security of the state, and work in tandem with and as the footsoldier of other necessary ministries to meet the various dimensions of national security.
This will reduce criminality and the pressure on correctional institutions
(iii)
There has to be ideological redirection of political leaders about the real purpose of
correctional institutions, away from punishment qua punishment, to reformation,
reorientation, rehabilitation, empowerment and reintegration of inmates. Without this
ideological redirection, nothing much will be achieved in the quest for increased funding
for Correctional institutions.
(iv)
The laws establishing Prisons/Correctional Services have to be revisited and revised to
imbue them with noble purpose, and moral purpose, gear them towards real correctional
treatments, empower them to have farms and industries, and liaise with communities and
the private sector in revenue generation, and giving the best to the inmates in terms of
standards and practices.
(v)
Correctional/Prisons Service should be relocated out of the Ministries of Internal affairs,
Social Development, or Education, and placed where it properly belongs – the Ministry
of Domestic Security recommended earlier. Since security is the primary duty of the
state, this new ministry shall enjoy better funding, and this will greatly enhance the
funding of correctional institutions.
27
(vi)
All Prisons Services should be empowered legally, administratively, and financially, to
establish and run effective, efficient, and gainful prison farms and industries. These will
definitely generate huge funds to support the tasks of the Corrections Services. Money
from these business ventures and some other sources can be invested in shares,
transportation, hotels, house projects etc to ensure continuous inflow of revenue.
(vii)
The state on its own in the interim should step-up the annual budgetary allocation to
correctional institutions. The poor security situation in most African states today require
budgetary allocations of between 6% and 15% to correctional institutions annually. This
requires the education, enlightenment, and lobbing of Parliamentarians as well as the
Executive on the strategic contributions of Correctional institutions to national security
and national economic development. Such education and enlightenment requires well
packaged briefs.
(viii) Political leaders need to accord Correctional institutions their due respect and recognition
as strategic contributors to national security and national development.
(ix)
Authorities of corrections institutions should mobilize States, Regional, and or local
governments as well as Communities, Community Based Organizations (NBOs), and the
Private Sector, and Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) to partner with them in the
discharge of their onerous patriotic duties. The Police, and military have been enjoying
donations of vehicles, helicopters, communication gadgets, and even cash from state
governments in Nigeria. Such can be extended to the Prisons Service in Nigeria and
other African states, if efforts and right contacts are made. The Private Sector can donate
funds, equipment, food items, medicals etc, and can also run privatized prisons as done in
Israel, S. Africa, and the Untied Kingdom. NGOs and CBOs can also serve as
Independent Prison Visitors whose reports can encourage financial assistance in addition
to ensuring best standards and practices.
(x)
The Correctional/Prisons Service should sell itself to its various publics – domestic and
external. Its really high time the Service blows its trumpet, realizing that in todays
resource competitive world, nobody would want to blow any other person’s trumpet.
Instead, some would even want to break the trumpet of others, to enhance their own share
of the national cake.
(xi)
Supporting funds can be raised from foreign aid: For example, British prisoners from
H.M. Prison Kingston in Portsmonth donated money to the African Prisons Project
(Uganda) in July 2010, after listening to talks about prisons in Africa organized by
Alexander Mclean, Abi Harper, and Maria Cotera of Africa Prisons Project.50
(xii)
Frantic efforts should be made to reduce Prison population, and ensure that only people
who should be in prison are there. Law reform is inevitable in this direction. Many
offences should be removed from the jailable offences list. For example non-custodial
sentences should be applied as alternatives such as suspended sentences, community
service, fines, parole, probation, compensation, restitution/restoration, binding over,
Home service and plea bargaining. The aim, as emphasized by Professor Oluyemisi
Bamgbose who has worked extensively on the subject of sentencing is to ensure that
more offenders are not diverted to the prisons.51 There should also be war on recidivism.
The over-all goal of this strategy is to ensure that whatever funds are available to the
28
Prisons authorities, are used for few inmates who are those supposed to be in prison
custody. As Prof. Bamgbose noted:
“Prisons in a reformed state must continue to exist for more serious
offences and for offenders who need to be kept in prison to protect the
public”.52
(xiii) Half-way Houses should be established for those who have completed their sentence, and
probably also those who have about three months to go, but who have demonstrated
enough remorse, patriotism, humaneness, discipline and good behaviour. In the Halfway houses, the inmates’ families, friends, and relatives can visit them. They can get
jobs from there, and save funds to commence life when finally discharged. These will
enhance their self-worth, reacceptance, as well as full and speedy reintegration in the
society.
(xiv)
To enhance the reintegration of ex-prisoners, governments have to lift the ban on the
employment of ex-convicts in public service. This ban still exist in Nigeria and several
other African nations, whereas in Namibia government frowns at establishments that
reject ex-convicts as employees.
(xv)
Prisons authorities can also make efforts to raise funds through various legitimate
strategies.
(xvi)
Political leaders should take necessary and urgent steps to address the causes of
criminality – unemployment, hunger, injustices in the land, inequality, poverty and
others. Micro-credit schemes should be established, and plans made for employment
generation.
(xvii) Instead of locking up children in adult prisons, new techniques such as apologies, family
mediation, community service, etc should be applied, as informal tools for addressing
minor crimes by children.53
(xviii) To reduce costs, and save available scarce funds, in Prisons, there should be transparency
and accountability in spending especially over contracts. Also, the outsourcing of
ancillary services should be considered.
X.
CONCLUSION
There is no doubt that Correctional/Prisons Service play strategic role and make
significant contributions to the national security, and national development of nations. Despite
this, there is also no doubt that the Corrections sector is grossly underfunded especially in
African nations, even to the point of neglect. This situation needs to be remedied urgently so
that this very vital sector can play its strategic role effectively and efficiently to enhance human
security and national security.
29
Our efforts and goals in this modest piece have been geared towards explaining
especially why the gap in corrections funding, and strategizing how the problematic can be
remedied.
We plead and pray that stakeholders benefit from our modest and humble
presentation here for the collective good of humanity.
There is need to appeal to governments to recognize and appreciate the role and
contributions of all security agencies. There is no point in funding some highly and others lowly.
They are all workers in the security vineyard of individual nations. Finally, there is need for
Corrections/Prisons institutions in every nation to establish academic journals (not magazines),
to promote serious researches on Corrections matters which can help educate the public on its
strategic roles and challenges.
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1.
O.B.C. Nwolise, Dynamics of Prison Congestion In Nigeria”, in A.A. Ujoh (ed)
Three Decades of Public Administration in Nigeria, Jos, Nigeria Political Science
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2.
Such as Umu-ada (association of first born females in a town or kindred) among the
Igbo people of Nigeria. It is a very powerful body.
3.
For excellent discourse on the courts that operated in the Bantu states see B. Bohanna
et al, Tiv Economy, London, Longman, 1968.
4.
For example Courts in palaces of the Oba (Yoruba) Omanhene (Fante), Asanbtehene
(Asante), Eze (Igbo), Emir (Fulani/Hausa), Badwa (Akan) etc.
5.
Ayittey George, Indigenous African Institutions, New York, Transnational. Also see
OBC Nwolise, “Traditional Approaches To Conflict Resolution Among the Igbo
People of Nigeria: Reinforcing The Need For Africa to Rediscover Its Roots”, in
Amani Journal of African Peace, Vol. 1, No. 1, Feb. 2004, pp. 59-80.
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One Touch Systems is a leading world provider of live, interactive distance
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California, 95110. www.onetouch.com.
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Haruna Haladu, “National Security and The State of the Nation: A Preliminary
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South-South of Nigeria”, Igbinedion Journal of Diplomacy And Strategy, ((Ibadan)
Vol. 1, No. 1, November 2009, p. 70.
30
8.
W. Abraham, The Mind of Africa, Chicago, Chicago Press, 1962.
9.
A. Milner (ed), African Penal Systems, Routledge and Kegan, 1969.
10.
For the works of these authors, see A Milner (ed.) Ibid.
11.
See M. Gluckman (ed), Idea and Procedures In African Customary Law, Oxford
University Press, 1969. Also see P. Ridby, On Punishment: An African View, Paper
No. 32, Social Sciences Conference, Makerere, December 1971.
12.
M. Clinard and D. Abott, Crime In Developing Countries, John Wiley, 1973, p. 269.
13.
H. Junod, “Reform of Penal Systems In Africa”, East African Law Journal, Vol. 2,
No. 1, March, 1966, p. 31.
14.
See Gemma, Ware, “Ways Out From Youth Prisons”, Aug. 2010. File://F:/3294729Ways-Out-From-Youths prisons. html.
15.
Jean – Jacques Rousseau, cited in Michael Banton, Race Relations, London,
Tavistock Publications, 1969, p. 22..
16.
For details on the values of a state worth its salt, see D. Wit, Comparative Political
Institutions: A Study of Modern Democratic And Dictatorial Systems, New York,
Holt Rinehart and Winston, 1953.
17.
I. Zabadi, “Fundamentals of Strategy”, Lecture delivered to Participants of the
National Defence College, Abuja, September 2001, p. 1.
18.
Adam Smith, quoted in David Whynes, The Economics of Thirdworld Military
Expenditures, London, Macmillan Press, 1979, p. 1.
19.
Walter Lippman, cited in T. Imobighe, The Management of National Security,
Inaugural Lecture, Edo state University , Ekpoma, 1998, p. 14.
20.
OBC Nwolise, “Nigeria’s Defence And Security System Today”, in Uma Eleazu (ed),
Nigeria: The First 25 years, Ibadan, Heinemann, 1985, p. 68.
21.
Robert McNamara, The Essence of Security: Reflections In Office, New York,
Harper and Row, 1968, p. 49.
22.
Kofi Annan, quoted in Ethan Mijah, “Security And Development In Nigeria: A
Human Security Perspective”, Arts and Social Sciences Research, Vol. 4, September
2008, p. 3.
23.
Barry Buzan, “The Case for a Comprehensive Definition of Security and the
Institutional Consequences of Accepting It”, Working papers, Centre For Peace and
Conflict Resolution, Copenhagen, 1990, p. 7.
24.
Osisioma Nwolise, “Peace And Security”, in Isaac Albert (ed), Praxis of Political
Concepts and Cliches In Nigeria’s Fourth Republic, Ibadan, Bookcraft, 2009, pp.
244-278.
31
25.
For detrails, see Akin Mabogunjue, A Concept of Development, Ibadan,
Development Policy Cente, 2002, p. 27.
26.
For details, see Nayudamma, paraphrased in Femi Kayode,”Refocusing Economic
Development: The Holy Grail of Economics and Economists”, University Lectures,
University of Ibadan, 2007. Also see Walter Rodney, How Europe Underdeveloped
Africa, New York, University of Washington DC, 1982.
27.
See A.S. Hornby, Oxford Advanced Learners Dictionary of Current English, Oxford,
Oxford Unversity Press, 2005, p. 328.
28.
Ibid.
29.
For detailed discourse on the Criminal Justice System, see John Fuller, Criminal
Justice: Mainstream And Cross-Currents, Prentice Hall, New Jersey, 2005; Samuel
Walter. “Origins of The Contemporary Criminal Justice Paradigm: The American Bar
Foundation Society 1953-1969”, Justice Quarterly, Vol. 1, No. 1, 1992; and
Wikipedia: The Free Encyclopedia. File://F:/Criminal Justice.htm accessed 20
August, 2010.
30.
Helen Osinowo, “Correctional Psychology”, in Bola Udegbe, Helden O. Osinow, Shingle
Balogun, and Gbenga Sunmola (eds.), Psychology: Perspectives In human Behaviour,
Ibadan, Dept. of Psychology, University of Ibadan, 2005, p. 266.
31.
Helen Osinowo, Ibid. p. 266.
32.
Kunbi – Smith, cited in Helen Osinowo, p266.
33.
Ibid.
34.
Haruna Haladu,. Op. cit., p. 69.
35.
Haruna Haladu, Ibid.
36.
Senator Victor Ndoma-Egba, quoted in Sufuyan Ojeifo, “Nigeria: Senate Considers Bill
On Rehabilitation of Prisoners, Prisons Funding”, Thisday (Lagos), April 23, 2010.
37.
Haruna Haladu, op. cit, p. 71.
38.
Osisioma Nwolise (2009), op. cit., p. 257.
39.
Isaac Khisa, “Funding Blamed For Deteriorating Of Uganda’s Prisons”, published
October 5, 2009.
40.
For details see Gemma Ware, op. cit.,
41.
Helen Osinowo, op. cit., p. 285.
32
42.
Haruna Haladu, op. cit., p. 69-70.
43.
See Sufuyan OIjeifo, op. cit.,
44.
Monograph No.64.
45.
Senator Wilson Ake, quoted in Sufuyan Ojeifo, op. cit.,
46.
Senator Victor Ndoma-Egba, quoted in Sufuyan Ojeifo, op. cit.,
47.
M. Wakin, “Introduction To Part I”, in M, Wakin (ed), War, Morality And The Military
Profession, Boulder, West View Press, 1979, p. 4.
48.
See O.B.C. Nwolise, “Military Assistance To Civil Authority As Constitutional Duty Of
The Nigerian Armed Forces: Sources Of Public Agonies, And Outcries, Bad Military
Image And their Challenges For Political Leadership, Military Command And
Professionalism”, in General Alexander Ogomudia (ed), Peace Support Operations,
Command And Professionalism: Challenges For the Nigerian Armed Forces In The 21st
Century And Beyond, Ibadan, Gold Press Ltd., 2007, pp. 381-415.
49.
For details, see,Oluyemisi Bamgbose, “The Sentence, the Sentencer, and the Sentenced:
Towards Prison Reform In Nigeria”, University of Ibadan Bulletin, No. 2501, August 18,
2010, p. 4.
50.
Africa Prisons Project News, July 27, 2010. The APP teaches skills in prisons (such as
knitting to women), and establishes libraries in prisons, as it has done in Sierra Leone.
51.
Oluyemisi Bamgbose, Op. Cit.,
52.
For details, see Gemma Ware, op. cit.,
33