Chapter 6: Notes Summary – Human Development
Lesson One:
Developmental Theory
Big Idea
Supporting Facts
Nature vs. Nurture
Continuity vs.
Discontinuity
Stability vs. Change
In Class Questions:
1. What might a person that believes in stage theory of development have trouble explaining?
2. Why are longitudinal studies helpful in explaining the theory of stability vs. change?
Lesson Two:
Gender Terminologies:
Key Term:
Gender
Gender Roles Stereotypes
Gender Identity
Androgny
Definition:
Five Perspectives of Gender Roles:
Perspective:
Explanation:
Biological
Evolutionary
Psychoanalytic
Behavioral
Cognitive
In Class Question: Which of the above theories of Gender Roles do you agree with most?
Why?
Gender Roles and Gender Differences
In addition to the influence on gender behaviors of biological factors, there are four principle psychological
explanations of gender-linked behavior patterns: Freudian theory's process of identification, cognitive social
learning theory, gender-schema theory, and Kohlberg's cognitive developmental theory.
The process by which children acquire the values, motives, and behaviors viewed as appropriate for males and
females within a culture is called gender typing. Children develop gender-based beliefs, largely on the basis
of gender stereotypes; the latter are reflected in gender roles. Children adopt a gender identity early in
life and develop gender-role preferences as well.
GENDER-ROLE STANDARDS AND STEREOTYPES
Both within and across different cultures we find great consistency in standards of desirable gender-role
behavior. Males are expected to be independent, assertive, and competitive; females are expected to be more
passive, sensitive, and supportive. These beliefs have changed little over the past twenty years within the
United States and apparently around the world as well.
There is some variation in cultural gender-role standards both within the United States and across cultures,
however. Within the United States, standards vary depending on ethnicity, age, education, and occupation. For
example, African American families are less likely to adhere to strict gender-role distinctions when socializing
their children, whereas Mexican-American families are more likely to highlight gender differences.
Divergence between cultures is also clearly seen in Margaret Mead's study of differences between three
primitive tribes. In two tribes both men and women displayed what the Western world considers to be either
feminine or masculine characteristics. In a third tribe the genders reversed the traditional Western roles.
However, even within groups, individual differences in the strength of stereotypes often outweigh group
characteristics.
GENDER DIFFERENCES IN DEVELOPMENT
Of the many presumed differences between the behaviors of males and females, some are real, some are found
only inconsistently, and some are wholly mythical.
Girls are more physically and neurologically advanced at birth. Boys have more mature muscular development
but are more vulnerable to disease and hereditary anomalies. Girls excel early in verbal skills, but boys excel in
visual-spatial and math skills. Boys' superior mathematic abilities, however, reflect only a better grasp of
geometry, which depends on visual-spatial abilities. Boys are more aggressive, and girls more nurturant. Boys
have more reading, speech, and emotional problems than girls.
More equivocal are gender differences in activity level, dependency, timidity, exploratory activity, and
vulnerability to stress. There are no gender differences in sociability, conformity, achievement, self-esteem, or
verbal hostility.
Although differences exist, it is important to remember that the overlap between the distributions is always
greater than the differences between them. In addition, noting the existence of the differences does not tell us
why they exist. It is clear that girls and boys have many different experiences and opportunities as they
develop, which may lead to divergent outcomes or highlight existing differences.
Developmental Patterns of Gender Typing
Children develop gender-typed patterns of behavior and preferences as early as age 15 to 36 months. Girls
tend to conform less strictly to gender-role stereotypes than do boys, possibly because there is greater pressure
from parents and teachers for boys to adhere to the masculine role. Girls may also imitate the male role
because it has greater status and privilege in our culture. Although some boys and girls receive support for
cross-gender behavior, most are encouraged to behave according to traditional stereotypes.
Stability of Gender Typing
A longitudinal study found that adult heterosexual behavior could be predicted from gender-typed interests in
elementary school. Greater stability was found when a characteristic was related to culturally accepted
standards; culturally nontraditional childhood behaviors tended to emerge in divergent forms in adulthood. Thus
gender-typed interests tended to remain stable from childhood to maturity.
Research indicates that gender roles fluctuate across the life course as adults change to meet the demands of
new situations and circumstances, such as childrearing. Whatever their roles up to this point, women tend to
show more expressive characteristics in parenthood and men more instrumental characteristics.
BIOLOGICAL FACTORS IN GENDER DIFFERENCES
Hormones, Social Behavior, and Cognitive Skills
Biological factors that are thought to shape gender differences include hormones and lateralization of brain
function. Hormones may organize a biological predisposition to be masculine or feminine during the prenatal
period, and the increase in hormones during puberty may activate that predisposition. In addition, social
experiences may alter the levels of hormones, such as testosterone.
Brain Lateralization and Gender Differences
Gender differences in the organization of the brain may be reflected in the greater lateralization of brain
functioning in males, which may help explain male success at spatial and math skills. It may also explain female
tendencies to be more flexible than males and to withstand injury to the brain more effectively.
Biology and Cultural Expectations
Androgenized female fetuses may become girls who behave more like boys and have more traditionally male
interests. Such girls are also better at visual-spatial tasks than other girls. However, environmental factors are
also influential in boys and girls developing nontraditional gender-based abilities and interests.
COGNITIVE FACTORS IN GENDER DIFFERENCES
Kohlberg's Cognitive Developmental Theory
Cognitive factors in children's understanding of gender and gender stereotypes may contribute to their
acquisition of gender roles. Two cognitive approaches to gender typing have looked at when children acquire
different types of gender information and how such information modifies their gender-role activities and
behaviors. Kohlberg's three-stage cognitive developmental theory of gender typing suggests that children
begin by categorizing themselves as male or females, and then feel rewarded by behaving in gender-consistent
ways. To do this, they must develop gender identity, gender stability, and gender constancy.
Gender-Schema Theory: An Information-Processing Approach
Gender schema theory suggests that children develop naive mental schemas that help them organize their
experiences in such a way that they will know what to attend to and how to interpret new information.
According to this theory, we should expect individual differences in how gender-schematic children will be.
A Comparison of Cognitive Development and Gender-Schema Theories
According to the cognitive developmental theory, we should not see gender-typed behavior until after gender
constancy is reached (around age 6). However, gender-typed toy and activity preferences are seen much earlier
and show a preference for same-sex playmates later. These findings suggest that the link between the
acquisition of gender concepts and behavior varies depending on gender understanding and kind of behavior.
INFLUENCE OF THE FAMILY ON GENDER TYPING
Parents' Influence on Children's Gender-Typed Choices
Families actively play a role in gender-role socialization by the ways in which they organize the environment for
the child. Boys and girls are dressed differently, receive different toys to play with, and sleep in bedrooms that
are furnished differently.
Parental Behavior toward Girls and Boys
In addition, girls and boys are viewed and treated differently by their parents, particularly their fathers. Boys
are thought to be stronger and are treated more roughly and played with more actively than girls as early as
birth. As children get older, girls are protected more and allowed less autonomy than boys, and girls are not
expected to achieve as much in the areas of mathematics and careers as are boys.
Modeling Parents' Characteristics
As predicted by cognitive social learning theory, parental characteristics influence gender typing in terms of the
role models that are available for the child to imitate. Parental power has a great impact on sex typing in boys,
but not in girls; femininity in girls is related to the father's masculinity, his approval of the mother as a role
model, and his reinforcement of participation in feminine activities.
Parental Absence or Unavailability
Because the father plays such a critical role in the development of children's gender roles, his absence has been
related to disruptions in gender typing in preadolescent boys and to problems in relationships with peers of the
opposite sex for adolescent females. Studies show that the effects of a father's absence on his daughter's
interactions with men are long-lasting, extending to marital choices.
Gender Roles in Children of Gay and Lesbian Parents
There is no evidence of differences in the gender roles of boys and girls raised in gay or lesbian families. Most
children of such families grow up to have heterosexual sexual orientations.
EXTRAFAMILIAL INFLUENCES ON GENDER ROLES
Books and Television
Many extrafamilial influences affect gender-role typing. Male and female roles are portrayed in genderstereotypic ways in television and many children's books. Males are more likely than females to be portrayed as
aggressive, competent, rational, and powerful in the workforce. Females are more often portrayed as involved
primarily in housework or caring for children.
Females are less likely to be leading characters on TV, and male characters are over represented in children's
books-although some change toward more equal treatment has occurred in recent years. Children who are
heavy TV viewers hold more stereotyped views; however, this may be due to their interpretations of what they
see based on previously held stereotypes. A few attempts to use television to change gender stereotypes have
been successful, but the effects typically have been modest and short-lived.
Peers, Gender Roles, and Self-Esteem
Peers also serve as an important source of gender-role standards. Children who have masculine or androgynous
characteristics are likely to have higher self-esteem than those who have traditionally feminine characteristics.
Children are likely to react when other children violate gender-typical behaviors, and boys' cross-gender
behaviors are more likely to meet with negative reactions from peers. Reactions from peers typically result in
changes in behavior, particularly if the feedback is from a child of the same sex. This pattern of responsiveness
may lead to gender segregation, which, in turn, provides opportunities to learn gender-typical roles. In selfsocialization, children often spontaneously adopt gender-appropriate behavior.
Schools and Teachers
Teachers also treat girls and boys differently. Due to the emphasis in school on typically feminine characteristics
such as quietness, obedience, and passivity, girls tend to like school better and perform better than boys in the
early grades. Even in preschool, boys receive more criticism from teachers, who often react to children in
gender-stereotypic ways. The implication of young boys' perceptions of school as gender-inappropriate may be
lowered motivation and interest in school activities, leading to the higher rate of learning problems found in
boys during the early grades.
The kinds of conforming and dependent behaviors encouraged in girls may be detrimental for their later
academic success. The lack of public awareness of research findings, such as that in most areas of math girls do
as well as boys, may prevent parents and others from encouraging girls to excel in these areas.
ANDROGYNY
Most people are not strictly feminine or masculine but androgynous, that is, they possess both masculine and
feminine characteristics. Children who are more androgynousmake less stereotyped play and activity choices.
Research interventions and the experience of nontraditional preschools indicate that children's gender
stereotypes can be reduced. Similarly, children of nonconventional parents who place a high value on gender
egalitarianism are less gender typed in their beliefs about possible occupations for males and females, although
they are no different from other children on play preferences and knowledge of cultural sex typing. In other
words, they are multischematic, holding more than one gender schema for responding to the world.
Homework Assignment: After reading the above article, write a three paragraph summary,
highlighting key points from what you’ve read. Be sure to include a paragraph discussing your
opinions / viewpoints on the article as well.
Lesson Three:
Developmental Research Designs:
Research Design:
Description:
Key Terms:
Longitudinal Studies
Cross-Sectional Studies
Cohort -
Cohort-Sequential Studies
Cohort Effect -
Retrospective Studies
Questions on “A Class Divided” – If you missed it search PBS Frontline – A Class Divided
and watch the first two segments.
1. What are you overall reactions to this study?
2. From a developmental perspective, do you think that older/younger children/adults would
act differently?
3. From an ethical standpoint, could this study have been done the same way today?
Lesson Four:
Prenatal Development
Zygote
Fetus
Neonates
Habituation
Reflexes
What is Fetal Alcohol Syndrome and what do Teratogens have to do with it?
Lesson Five:
Puberty
Primary Sex Characteristics
Secondary Sex Characteristics
Homework Question: Using the handout provided, describe the five stages of death and dying
as researched by Kubler-Ross.
The stages of mourning and grief are universal and are experienced by people from all walks of life. Mourning
occurs in response to an individual’s own terminal illness, the loss of a close relationship, or to the death of a
valued being, human or animal. There are five stages of normal grief that were first proposed by Elisabeth
Kübler-Ross in her 1969 book “On Death and Dying.”
In our bereavement, we spend different lengths of time working through each step and express each stage
with different levels of intensity. The five stages do not necessarily occur in any specific order. We often move
between stages before achieving a more peaceful acceptance of death. Many of us are not afforded the
luxury of time required to achieve this final stage of grief.
The death of your loved one might inspire you to evaluate your own feelings of mortality. Throughout each
stage, a common thread of hope emerges: As long as there is life, there is hope. As long as there is hope,
there is life.
Many people do not experience the stages in the order listed below, which is okay. The key to understanding
the stages is not to feel like you must go through every one of them, in precise order. Instead, it’s more
helpful to look at them as guides in the grieving process — it helps you understand and put into context where
you are.
All, keep in mind — all people grieve differently. Some people will wear their emotions on their sleeve and be
outwardly emotional. Others will experience their grief more internally, and may not cry. You should try and
not judge how a person experiences their grief, as each person will experience it differently.
1. Denial and Isolation
The first reaction to learning of terminal illness or death of a cherished loved one is to deny the reality of the
situation. It is a normal reaction to rationalize overwhelming emotions. It is a defense mechanism that buffers
the immediate shock. We block out the words and hide from the facts. This is a temporary response that
carries us through the first wave of pain.
2. Anger
As the masking effects of denial and isolation begin to wear, reality and its pain re-emerge. We are not ready.
The intense emotion is deflected from our vulnerable core, redirected and expressed instead as anger. The
anger may be aimed at inanimate objects, complete strangers, friends or family. Anger may be directed at our
dying or deceased loved one. Rationally, we know the person is not to be blamed. Emotionally, however, we
may resent the person for causing us pain or for leaving us. We feel guilty for being angry, and this makes us
more angry.
Remember, grieving is a personal process that has no time limit, nor one “right” way to do it.
The doctor who diagnosed the illness and was unable to cure the disease might become a convenient target.
Health professionals deal with death and dying every day. That does not make them immune to the suffering
of their patients or to those who grieve for them.
Do not hesitate to ask your doctor to give you extra time or to explain just once more the details of your loved
one’s illness. Arrange a special appointment or ask that he telephone you at the end of his day. Ask for clear
answers to your questions regarding medical diagnosis and treatment. Understand the options available to
you. Take your time.
3. Bargaining
The normal reaction to feelings of helplessness and vulnerability is often a need to regain control–
Secretly, we may make a deal with God or our higher power in an attempt to postpone the inevitable. This is a
weaker line of defense to protect us from the painful reality.
4. Depression
Two types of depression are associated with mourning. The first one is a reaction to practical implications
relating to the loss. Sadness and regret predominate this type of depression. We worry about the costs and
burial. We worry that, in our grief, we have spent less time with others that depend on us. This phase may be
eased by simple clarification and reassurance. We may need a bit of helpful cooperation and a few kind
words. The second type of depression is more subtle and, in a sense, perhaps more private. It is our quiet
preparation to separate and to bid our loved one farewell. Sometimes all we really need is a hug.
5. Acceptance
Reaching this stage of mourning is a gift not afforded to everyone. Death may be sudden and unexpected or
we may never see beyond our anger or denial. It is not necessarily a mark of bravery to resist the inevitable
and to deny ourselves the opportunity to make our peace. This phase is marked by withdrawal and calm. This
is not a period of happiness and must be distinguished from depression.
Loved ones that are terminally ill or aging appear to go through a final period of withdrawal. This is by no
means a suggestion that they are aware of their own impending death or such, only that physical decline may
be sufficient to produce a similar response. Their behavior implies that it is natural to reach a stage at which
social interaction is limited. The dignity and grace shown by our dying loved ones may well be their last gift to
us.
Coping with loss is a ultimately a deeply personal and singular experience — nobody can help you go through
it more easily or understand all the emotions that you’re going through. But others can be there for you and
help comfort you through this process. The best thing you can do is to allow yourself to feel the grief as it
comes over you. Resisting it only will prolong the natural process of healing.
Death and Dying Stage:
Denial:
Anger:
Bargaining:
Depression:
Acceptance:
Supporting Information:
Lesson Six: Erik Erikson’s Stages of Development:
Stage
Trust vs. Mistrust
Autonomy vs. Shame
and Doubt
Initiative vs. Guilt
Industry vs. Inferiority
Identity vs. Role
Confusion
Intimacy vs. Isolation
Generativity vs.
Stagnation
Integrity vs. Despair
Big Idea
Age Range
Strength
Lesson Seven: Parenting Styles
Authoritarian
Authoritative
Permissive
Uninvolved/Neglecting
Parenting Styles Concept Check and Discussion
Concept Check – Part 1:
Directions (1-4) – Match the descriptions with the appropriate parenting styles.
_______1. Parents allow children to do as they please most of the time.
_______2. Parents discipline children for bad behavior but always give the reason why.
_______3. Parents pay little to no attention to what their children do or say.
_______4. Parents expect obedience and enforce rules with little explanation why.
A. Authoritative
B. Permissive
C. Neglecting
D. Authoritarian
Concept Check – Part 2:
For the following four questions, describe how a child may act while growing up in a home with
just the listed parenting style.
1. Authoritative 2. Permissive 3. Neglecting 4. Authoritarian –
Discussion Questions: Agree or Disagree and WHY
1. Parents should become more permissive as their children get older.
Agree

Disagree
Why:
2. Parents should use different parenting styles with boys and with girls.
Agree

Disagree
Why:
3. I agree with the parenting style(s) that my parents have used to raise me.
Agree

Disagree
Why:
Lesson Eight: Lawrence Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development
Stage
Obedience and
Punishment
Individualism
and Exchange
Interpersonal
Relationships
Maintaining
Social Order
Social Contracts
and Individual
Rights
Universal
Principles
Level
Big Idea
Supporting Information
KOHLBERG'S SIX STAGES
Level 1. Preconventional Morality
Stage 1. Obedience and Punishment Orientation. Kohlberg's stage 1 is similar to Piaget's
first stage of moral thought. The child assumes that powerful authorities hand down a fixed
set of rules which he or she must unquestioningly obey. To the Heinz dilemma, the child
typically says that Heinz was wrong to steal the drug because "It's against the law," or "It's
bad to steal," as if this were all there were to it. When asked to elaborate, the child usually
responds in terms of the consequences involved, explaining that stealing is bad "because you'll
get punished" (Kohlberg, 1958b).
Although the vast majority of children at stage 1 oppose Heinz’s theft, it is still possible for a
child to support the action and still employ stage 1 reasoning. For example, a child might say,
"Heinz can steal it because he asked first and it's not like he stole something big; he won't get
punished" (see Rest, 1973). Even though the child agrees with Heinz’s action, the reasoning is
still stage 1; the concern is with what authorities permit and punish.
Kohlberg calls stage 1 thinking "preconventional" because children do not yet speak as
members of society. Instead, they see morality as something external to themselves, as that
which the big people say they must do.
Stage 2. Individualism and Exchange. At this stage children recognize that there is not just
one right view that is handed down by the authorities. Different individuals have different
viewpoints. "Heinz," they might point out, "might think it's right to take the drug, the druggist
would not." Since everything is relative, each person is free to pursue his or
her individual interests. One boy said that Heinz might steal the drug if he wanted his wife to
live, but that he doesn't have to if he wants to marry someone younger and better-looking
(Kohlberg, 1963, p. 24). Another boy said Heinz might steal it because
maybe they had children and he might need someone at home to look after them. But maybe
he shouldn't steal it because they might put him in prison for more years than he could stand.
(Colby and Kauffman. 1983, p. 300)
What is right for Heinz, then, is what meets his own self-interests.
You might have noticed that children at both stages 1 and 2 talk about punishment. However,
they perceive it differently. At stage 1 punishment is tied up in the child's mind with
wrongness; punishment "proves" that disobedience is wrong. At stage 2, in contrast,
punishment is simply a risk that one naturally wants to avoid.
Although stage 2 respondents sometimes sound amoral, they do have some sense of right
action. This is a notion of fair exchange or fair deals. The philosophy is one of returning
favors--"If you scratch my back, I'll scratch yours." To the Heinz story, subjects often say that
Heinz was right to steal the drug because the druggist was unwilling to make a fair deal; he
was "trying to rip Heinz off," Or they might say that he should steal for his wife "because she
might return the favor some day" (Gibbs et al., 1983, p. 19).
Respondents at stage 2 are still said to reason at the preconventional level because they speak
as isolated individuals rather than as members of society. They see individuals exchanging
favors, but there is still no identification with the values of the family or community.
Level II. Conventional Morality
Stage 3. Good Interpersonal Relationships. At this stage children--who are by now usually
entering their teens--see morality as more than simple deals. They believe that people should
live up to the expectations of the family and community and behave in "good" ways. Good
behavior means having good motives and interpersonal feelings such as love, empathy, trust,
and concern for others. Heinz, they typically argue, was right to steal the drug because "He
was a good man for wanting to save her," and "His intentions were good, that of saving the
life of someone he loves." Even if Heinz doesn't love his wife, these subjects often say, he
should steal the drug because "I don't think any husband should sit back and watch his wife
die" (Gibbs et al., 1983, pp. 36-42; Kohlberg, 1958b).
If Heinz’s motives were good, the druggist's were bad. The druggist, stage 3 subjects
emphasize, was "selfish," "greedy," and "only interested in himself, not another life."
Sometimes the respondents become so angry with the druggist that they say that he ought to
be put in jail (Gibbs et al., 1983, pp. 26-29, 40-42). A typical stage 3 response is that of Don,
age 13:
It was really the druggist's fault, he was unfair, trying to overcharge and letting someone die.
Heinz loved his wife and wanted to save her. I think anyone would. I don't think they would
put him in jail. The judge would look at all sides, and see that the druggist was charging too
much. (Kohlberg, 1963, p. 25)
We see that Don defines the issue in terms of the actors' character traits and motives. He talks
about the loving husband, the unfair druggist, and the understanding judge. His answer
deserves the label "conventional "morality" because it assumes that the attitude expressed
would be shared by the entire community—"anyone" would be right to do what Heinz did
(Kohlberg, 1963, p. 25).
As mentioned earlier, there are similarities between Kohlberg's first three stages and Piaget's
two stages. In both sequences there is a shift from unquestioning obedience to a relativistic
outlook and to a concern for good motives. For Kohlberg, however, these shifts occur in three
stages rather than two.
Stage 4. Maintaining the Social Order. Stage 3 reasoning works best in two-person
relationships with family members or close friends, where one can make a real effort to get to
know the other's feelings and needs and try to help. At stage 4, in contrast, the respondent
becomes more broadly concerned with society as a whole. Now the emphasis is on obeying
laws, respecting authority, and performing one's duties so that the social order is maintained.
In response to the Heinz story, many subjects say they understand that Heinz's motives were
good, but they cannot condone the theft. What would happen if we all started breaking the
laws whenever we felt we had a good reason? The result would be chaos; society couldn't
function. As one subject explained,
I don't want to sound like Spiro Agnew, law and order and wave the flag, but if everybody did
as he wanted to do, set up his own beliefs as to right and wrong, then I think you would have
chaos. The only thing I think we have in civilization nowadays is some sort of legal structure
which people are sort of bound to follow. [Society needs] a centralizing framework. (Gibbs et
al., 1983, pp. 140-41)
Because stage 4, subjects make moral decisions from the perspective of society as a whole,
they think from a full-fledged member-of-society perspective (Colby and Kohlberg, 1983, p.
27).
You will recall that stage 1 children also generally oppose stealing because it breaks the law.
Superficially, stage 1 and stage 4 subjects are giving the same response, so we see here why
Kohlberg insists that we must probe into the reasoning behind the overt response. Stage 1
children say, "It's wrong to steal" and "It's against the law," but they cannot elaborate any
further, except to say that stealing can get a person jailed. Stage 4 respondents, in contrast,
have a conception of the function of laws for society as a whole--a conception which far
exceeds the grasp of the younger child.
Level III. Postconventional Morality
Stage 5. Social Contract and Individual Rights. At stage 4, people want to keep society
functioning. However, a smoothly functioning society is not necessarily a good one. A
totalitarian society might be well-organized, but it is hardly the moral ideal. At stage 5, people
begin to ask, "What makes for a good society?" They begin to think about society in a very
theoretical way, stepping back from their own society and considering the rights and values
that a society ought to uphold. They then evaluate existing societies in terms of these prior
considerations. They are said to take a "prior-to-society" perspective (Colby and Kohlberg,
1983, p. 22).
Stage 5 respondents basically believe that a good society is best conceived as a social contract
into which people freely enter to work toward the benefit of all They recognize that different
social groups within a society will have different values, but they believe that all rational
people would agree on two points. First they would all want certain basic rights, such as
liberty and life, to be protected Second, they would want some democratic procedures for
changing unfair law and for improving society.
In response to the Heinz dilemma, stage 5 respondents make it clear that they do not generally
favor breaking laws; laws are social contracts that we agree to uphold until we can change
them by democratic means. Nevertheless, the wife’s right to live is a moral right that must be
protected. Thus, stage 5 respondent sometimes defend Heinz’s theft in strong language:
It is the husband's duty to save his wife. The fact that her life is in danger transcends every
other standard you might use to judge his action. Life is more important than property.
This young man went on to say that "from a moral standpoint" Heinz should save the life of
even a stranger, since to be consistent, the value of a life means any life. When asked if the
judge should punish Heinz, he replied:
Usually the moral and legal standpoints coincide. Here they conflict. The judge should weight
the moral standpoint more heavily but preserve the legal law in punishing Heinz lightly.
(Kohlberg, 1976, p. 38)
Stage 5 subjects,- then, talk about "morality" and "rights" that take some priority over
particular laws. Kohlberg insists, however, that we do not judge people to be at stage 5 merely
from their verbal labels. We need to look at their social perspective and mode of reasoning. At
stage 4, too, subjects frequently talk about the "right to life," but for them this right is
legitimized by the authority of their social or religious group (e.g., by the Bible). Presumably,
if their group valued property over life, they would too. At stage 5, in contrast, people are
making more of an independent effort to think out what any society ought to value. They often
reason, for example, that property has little meaning without life. They are trying to determine
logically what a society ought to be like (Kohlberg, 1981, pp. 21-22; Gibbs et al., 1983, p. 83).
Stage 6: Universal Principles. Stage 5 respondents are working toward a conception of the
good society. They suggest that we need to (a) protect certain individual rights and (b) settle
disputes through democratic processes. However, democratic processes alone do not always
result in outcomes that we intuitively sense are just. A majority, for example, may vote for a
law that hinders a minority. Thus, Kohlberg believes that there must be a higher stage--stage
6--which defines the principles by which we achieve justice.
Kohlberg's conception of justice follows that of the philosophers Kant and Rawls, as well as
great moral leaders such as Gandhi and Martin Luther King. According to these people, the
principles of justice require us to treat the claims of all parties in an impartial manner,
respecting the basic dignity, of all people as individuals. The principles of justice are therefore
universal; they apply to all. Thus, for example, we would not vote for a law that aids some
people but hurts others. The principles of justice guide us toward decisions based on an equal
respect for all.
In actual practice, Kohlberg says, we can reach just decisions by looking at a situation through
one another's eyes. In the Heinz dilemma, this would mean that all parties--the druggist,
Heinz, and his wife--take the roles of the others. To do this in an impartial manner, people can
assume a "veil of ignorance" (Rawls, 1971), acting as if they do not know which role they will
eventually occupy. If the druggist did this, even he would recognize that life must take priority
over property; for he wouldn't want to risk finding himself in the wife's shoes with property
valued over life. Thus, they would all agree that the wife must be saved--this would be the fair
solution. Such a solution, we must note, requires not only impartiality, but the principle that
everyone is given full and equal respect. If the wife were considered of less value than the
others, a just solution could not be reached.
Until recently, Kohlberg had been scoring some of his subjects at stage 6, but he has
temporarily stopped doing so, For one thing, he and other researchers had not been finding
subjects who consistently reasoned at this stage. Also, Kohlberg has concluded that his
interview dilemmas are not useful for distinguishing between stage 5 and stage 6 thinking. He
believes that stage 6 has a clearer and broader conception of universal principles (which
include justice as well as individual rights), but feels that his interview fails to draw out this
broader understanding. Consequently, he has temporarily dropped stage 6 from his scoring
manual, calling it a "theoretical stage" and scoring all postconventional responses as stage 5
(Colby and Kohlberg, 1983, p. 28).
Theoretically, one issue that distinguishes stage 5 from stage 6 is civil disobedience. Stage 5
would be more hesitant to endorse civil disobedience because of its commitment to the social
contract and to changing laws through democratic agreements. Only when an individual right
is clearly at stake does violating the law seem justified. At stage 6, in contrast, a commitment
to justice makes the rationale for civil disobedience stronger and broader. Martin Luther King,
for example, argued that laws are only valid insofar as they are grounded in justice, and that a
commitment to justice carries with it an obligation to disobey unjust laws. King also
recognized, of course, the general need for laws and democratic processes (stages 4 and 5),
and he was therefore willing to accept the penalities for his actions. Nevertheless, he believed
that the higher principle of justice required civil disobedience (Kohlberg, 198 1, p. 43).
Lesson Nine: Attachment
Define Attachment –
Secure Base
What did Harlow think about attachment?
Summarize Mary Ainsworth’s “Strange Situation” experiment:
Safe Haven
What is the difference between:

Secure attachment –

Insecure attachment –
Summarize Konrad Lorenz’s theory of imprinting:
Lee Vygotsky Terminologies:
Internalization:
Lesson Ten: Piaget
Zone of Proximal Development:
What’s the difference between:

Fluid intelligence –

Crystallized Intelligence –
Lesson Ten: Piaget’s Stages of Development:
Developmental Stage
Age
Description
Sensorimotor
Pre-operational
Concrete Operational
Formal Operational
Piaget’s BIG Concepts:
BIG Concept:
Object Permanence
Conservation
Centration
Description:
Example:
Irreversibility
Egocentrism
Animism
Abstract Logic